TORT LAW. Third Edition. Lewis N. Klar, Q.C. B.A., B.C.L., LL.M. Professor of Law University of Alberta THOMSON - ^ CARSWELL

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1 TORT LAW Third Edition Lewis N. Klar, Q.C. B.A., B.C.L., LL.M. Professor of Law University of Alberta THOMSON - ^ CARSWELL

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface Table ofcases v xix Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO TORT LÄW 1 1. WHATISATORT? 1 2. SOURCES OFTORTLAW 2 3. THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT 4 4. TORT LAW AND THE CHARTER 7 5. PURPOSES OF FAULT-BASED COMPENSATION 9 (a) Introduction 9 (b) Compensation 1 ] (c) Justice 12 (d) Deterrence 15 (e) Education 16 (f) Ombudsman 17 (g) Other Purposes THE FAULT/NO-FAULT DEBATE CONCLUSION 23 Chapter 2 TRESPASS AND INTENTIONAL INTERFERENCES WITH PERSONS, PROPERTY ANDCHATTELS INTRODUCTION THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT "DIRECT" AND "INDIRECT" ACCIDENTAL, NEGLIGENT AND INTENTIONAL CONDUCT VOLITION AND CAPACITY RELATIONSHIP WITH CRIMINAL LAW 36 (a) Introduction 36 (b) Can Criminal Prosecutions Exclude or Suspend Civil Proceedings? 36 (c) Can Criminal Law Sanctions Affect Tort Damages? 39

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS (d) Restitution and Compensation Under Cri minal Law ASSAULT BATTERY 43 (a) Introduction 43 (b) Intentional Battery 43 (i) Intention 43 (ii) Directness 44 (iii) Offensiveness 45 (iv) Physical Contact 47 (v) Bürden of Proof: Fault or Wrongdoing 47 (vi) Sexual Wrongdoing 49 (c) Negligent Battery FALSE IMPRISONMENT 54 (a) Introduction 54 (b) Intentional False Imprisonment 56 (i) Imprisonment 56 (ii) Directness 57 (iii) Imprisonment by "Agreement" 59 (iv) Knowledge of the Confinement 61 (c) Negligent False Imprisonment MALICIOUS PROSECUTION ABUSE OF PROCESS MAINTENANCE AND CHAMPERTY INTENTIONAL INFLICTION OF MENTAL SUFFERING: THE TORT IN WILKINSONV. DOWNTON 72 (a) Introduction 72 (b) An Act or Statement 73 (c) Calculated to Produce Harm 75 (d) Harm INVASION OF PRIVACY TRESPASS TO CHATTELS 80 (a) Introduction 80 (b) Intentional Trespass 80 (i) Intention 80 (ii) Legal Possession 81 (iii) Directness 82 (iv) Damage 82 (c) Negligent Trespass DETINUE 84 (a) Introduction 84 (b) Wrongful Detention 85 (i) Demand and Refusal 85 (c) Remedies 87

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi 17. CONVERSION 88 (a) Introduction 88 (b) Who Can Sue? 89 (c) Intention 90 (d) Chatteis 93 (e) Types of Dealings 93 (f) Remedies ACTION ON THE CASE FOR PERMANENT DAMAGE TO REVERSIONARY INTEREST REPLEVIN TRESPASS TO LAND 97 (a) Introduction 97 (b) Intentional Trespass 98 (i) Intention 98 (ii) Possession of Land 99 (iii) Types of Interferences 102 (iv) "Land" 104 (v) Remedies 106 (c) Negligent Trespass REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE PUNITIVE DAMAGES 108 Chapter 3 DEFENCES TO TRESPASS AND INTENTIONAL INTERFERENCES INTRODUCTION GENERAL COMMENTS CONSENT 114 (a) Introduction 114 (b) Sports 118 (c) Medical Treatment SELF-DEFENCE DEFENCE OF OTHERS DEFENCE OF PROPERTY LEGAL AUTHORITY PROVOCATION NECESSITY 140 Chapter 4 INTRODUCTION TO NEGLIGENCE LAW THE PLACE OF NEGLIGENCE LAW IN THE LAW OF TORTS THE HISTORY OF NEGLIGENCE LAW 146

5 xii TABLE OF CONTENTS 3. ANALYSIS OF A NEGLIGENCE ACTION 148 Chapter 5 INTRODUCTION TO DUTY OF CARE THE PURPOSE OF THE DUTY CONCEPT THE ELEMENTS OF THE DUTY RELATIONSHIP 153 (a) Donoghue v. Stevenson: The Neighbour Principle 153 (b) The Role of Reasonable Foreseeability 155 (c) Legal Status of Unborn Child 159 (d) Policy as an Aspect of Duty 161 (e) The Roles of Foreseeability, Proximity and Policy 163 Chapter 6 THE DUTY TO ASSIST OTHERS INTRODUCTION THE STRICT RULE SHOULD THERE BE A DUTY? RELATIONSHIPS REQUIRING ASSISTANCE 177 (a) Introduction 177 (b) Relationships of Economic Benefit 178 (c) Relationships of Control or Supervision 183 (i) Introduction 183 (ii) Parent and Child 183 (iii) Teacher and Pupil 187 (iv) Other Relationships 190 (d) Creators of Dangerous Siruations 195 (e) Reliance Relationships 196 (f) Statutory Duties 197 (g) Responsibility of Occupiers 198 Chapter 7 RECOVERY OF PURELY ECONOMIC LOSSES INTRODUCTION LIABILITY FOR NEGLIGENT STATEMENTS 204 (a) The Natureof the Problem 204 (b) Hedley Byrne & Co. v. Heller & Partners Ltd. 208 (c) The Special Relationship 210 (i) Introduction 210 (ii) Skill of the Advisor 215 (iii) Skill of the Advisee 218 (iv) Nature of the Occasion 218 (v) Request 219 (vi) Nature of Advice 221 (d) Inaecurate or Misleading Statement 222 (e) Negligence 224 (f) Reliance 225 (g) Damage Caused by the Reliance 226

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii (h) Contributory Negligence 227 (i) Pre-and Post-Contractual Negligent Misrepresentations (j) The Employee's Duty LlABILITY FOR NEGLIGENT PERFORMANCE OF SERVICES 235 (a) Direct Undertakings to Perform a Gratuitous Service 235 (b) Indirect Undertakings to Perform a Service LIABILITY FOR RELATIONAL ECONOMIC LOSSES 242 (a) Economic Losses Consequent on Property Damage Suffered by a Third Party 242 (b) Economic Losses Consequent on Personal Injuries Suffered by a Third Party 248 (i) Introduction 248 (ii) Loss of Consortium 248 (iii) Loss of Services LIABILITY FOR ECONOMIC LOSSES CAUSED BY DEFECTIVE PRODUCTS OR BUILDINGS 254 Chapter 8 THE DUTY OF CARE OF PUBLIC AUTHORITIES INTRODUCTION CROWN LIABILITY THE DUTY OF CARE OF PUBLIC AUTHORITIES 265 (a) Introduction 265 (b) Express Statutory Liability 266 (c) The Negligent Statement Cases 268 (d) The Policy/Operational Dichotomy 270 (e) Critique of the Policy/Operational Dichotomy as a Touchstone of Duty 272 (f) Other Approaches 277 (g) Legislative and Judicial Immunity 283 (h) Legislative and Judicial Immunity MlSFEASANCE IN A PUBLIC OFFICE 290 (a) Public Official 290 (b) Act Must Relate to an Exercise of Statutory Authority or Power 291 (c) Intentional Wrongdoing CONCLUSION 294 Chapter 9 THE STANDARD OF CARE INTRODUCTION THE NEGLIGENCE ISSUE: THE ROLES OF JUDGE AND JURY THE REASONABLE PERSON 303

7 xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS (a) Introduction 303 (b) Intellect, Knowledge and Experience 305 (c) Physical Abilities 309 (d) Age REASONABLE AND UNREASONABLE RISKS 315 (a) Introduction 315 (b) The "Learned Hand" Formula 315 (i) Likelihood of Injury 316 (ii) Gravity of the Injury 317 (iii) Cost of Avoidance 317 (c) Emergencies GENERAL PRACTICE B REACH OF STATUTORY STANDARDS DEGREES OF NEGLIGENCE PRODUCT LIABILITY 331 (a) Introduction 331 (b) DutyofCare:ToWhomisitOwed? 333 (c) Standard of Care 333 (i) Design 334 (ii) Manufacture 336 (iii) Marketing 337 (d) Problems ofproof 342 (e) Economic Losses 343 Chapter 10 PROFESSIONAL NEGLIGENCE INTRODUCTION CONCURRENT LIABILITY GENERAL PRINCIPLES 349 (a) The Standard of Care 349 (b) The Locality Rule 355 (c) Generalists and Specialists 356 (d) Beginners 357 (e) Errors of Judgment SPECIFIC PROFESSIONAL GROUPS 359 (a) Lawyers 359 (i) The Immunity Question 359 (ii) The"TrialWithinaTrial" 361 (iii) The Lawyer's Duty to Third Parties 363 (iv) TheEffectofaRetainer 366 (v) Examples of Legal Malpractice 367 (b) Doctors 369 (i) The Duty to Disclose 369 (ii) Extensions of the Duty to Disclose 377 (iii) Wrongful Life and Wrongful Birth 380

8 TABLE OF CONTENTS xv (c) Engineers and Architects 383 (d) Other Professionals 385 Chapter 11 CAUSAL CONNECTION INTRODUCTION ESTABLISHING THE CAUSAL CONNECTION 389 (a) Introduction 389 (b) The "ButFor" Test 389 (c) Alternative Approaches: Establishing Cause in the Difficult Case 393 (i) Athey v. Leonati: The Basic Propositions 393 (ii) Making it Easier for Plaintiffs: Alternatives to the "But for" Test 395 (iii) The "Material Contribution" Test 395 (iv) Redefining Cause: The Material Increase in Risk of Injury Approach 397 (v) Redefining "Injury": Increasing the Risk of Adverse Results is an Injury in Itself 403 (vi) The Failure of the "But for" Test 405 A. Additional causes 406 B. Alternative causes 407 C. The rule in Lewis v. Cook CAUSATION AND LOSSES SUCCESSIVEACCIDENTCASES 413 Chapter 12 REMOTENESS INTRODUCTION TESTS FOR PROXIMATE CAUSE 419 (a) Introduction 419 (b) The Directness Test of Re Polemis 419 (c) The Reasonable Foreseeability Test of Wagon Mound No (d) The Scopeof Foreseeability 421 (i) Hughes v. Lord Advocate The Type of Injury 421 (ii) Wagon Mound No. 2 The Possibility of Injury WHERE TO DRAW THE LINE? A QUESTION OF POLICY SPECIFIC REMOTENESS PROBLEMS 426 (a) Recovery for Nervous Shock and Purely Economic Losses 426 (b) The "Thin Skull" Problem 434 (c) The Problem of Novus Actus lnterveniens 438 (i) Introduction 438 (ii) Responsibility for the Actsof Third Parties 438 A. Injuries caused by persons under one's control and supervision 439 B. Responsibility for injuries caused by strangers.. 442

9 xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS (iii) Exacerbation of Original Injuries 446 A. The "second accident" case 446 B. The suicidecases 448 C. Subsequent medical treatment THE DUTY TO RESCUERS 450 Chapter 13 DEFENCES TO THE NEGLIGENCE ACTION AND APPORTIONMENTISSUES INTRODUCTION CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 455 (a) Contributory Negligence Defined 455 (b) Contributory Negligence at Common Law 457 (c) Contributory Negligence Legislation 458 (i) Introduction 458 (ii) Scope of the Statutory Defence 459 (iii) Problems of Imputed Fault 463 (iv) Rule of Last Clear Chance 464 (v) Basis of Apportionment 466 (vi) Effect of a Finding of Contributory Negligence 469 (d) Special Cases 471 (i) Children 471 (ii) Failure to Use a Safety Device VOLUNTARY ASSUMPTION OF RISK 476 (a) Basis of the Defence 476 (b) Express Agreements 479 (c) Implied Agreements ILLEGALITY 485 (a) Introduction 485 (b) Hall v. Hebert 485 (c) Conclusion CONTRIBUTION BETWEEN WRONGDOERS 487 (a) The Common Law 487 (i) Joint and Several, Concurrent Tortfeasors 487 (ii) Consequences of Joint Liability 490 (iii) No Contribution Between Wrongdoers 491 (b) Contribution Legislation 492 (i) Introduction 492 (ii) Scope of the Contribution Provisions 493 (iii) Right to Seek Contribution 494 (iv) Obligation to Pay Contribution 495 (v) Basis of Apportionment 500 (vi) Other Matters 501 Chapter 14 PROOF INTRODUCTION 503

10 TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii 2. BÜRDEN OF PROOF IN GENERAL THE MAXIM RES IPSA LOQUITUR 505 (a) Introduction 505 (b) When Does "A Thing Speak for Itself"? 507 (i) Introduction 507 (ii) TheRequirementofControl 508 (iii) The Occurrence Would Not Ordinarily Happen Without Negligence 511 A. Fires 512 B. Medical malpractice 514 C. Products 515 D. Automobile accidents 516 (iv) The Cause of the Occurrence Must Not Be Known 518 (c) The Procedural Effect of the Maxim 520 (d) Conclusion 523 Chapter 15 OCCUPIERS' LIABILITY INTRODUCTION THE COMMON LAW 526 (a) Definition of Occupier 526 (b) Categories of Entrants 528 (i) Trespassers 529 (ii) Licensees 529 (iii) Invitees 531 (iv) Contractual Entrants 532 (c) Duties of Occupiers 533 (i) Duties Owed to Trespassers 534 (ii) Duties Owed to Licensees 537 (iii) Duties Owed to Invitees 538 (iv) Duties Owed to Contractual Entrants OCCUPIERS' LIABILITY LEGISLATION 540 (a) Definition of Occupier 540 (b) Common Duty of Care 542 (c) Acceptance of Risks 546 (d) Restrictive Duties 549 (e) Miscellaneous Provisions 551 Chapter 16 STRICT LIABILITY INTRODUCTION THE PRINCIPLE OF RYLANDS V. FLETCHER 554 (a) Introduction 554 (b) Non-Natural Use 556 (c) Escape 560 (d) Anything Likely to Do Mischief 562 (e) Type of Compensable Damage 563

11 xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS (f) Remoteness DEFENCES 564 (a) Consent 564 (b) Act of God, of the Plaintiff or of Strangers 565 (c) Statutory Authority LIABILITY FOR FIRES 569 (a) Introduction 569 (b) Special Action on the Case 569 (c) Rylands v. Fletcher 571 (d) The Fires Prevention (Metropolis) Act, LIABILITY FOR ANIMALS 573 (a) Introduction 573 (b) The Scienter Action 574 (c) Cattle Trespass 578 (d) The Rule in Searle v. Wallbank VICARIOUS LIABILITY 579 (a) Introduction 579 (b) Who is an Employee? 582 (c) Course of Employment 586 (d) Vicarious Liability for "Independent Contractors" 592 (e) Non-delegable Duties 593 (f) Statutory Vicarious Liability 596 Chapter 17 BUSINESS TORTS INTRODUCTION DECEIT 599 (a) Introduction 599 (b) Elements of the Tort 600 (i) False Representation or Statement 601 (ii) Knowledge 605 (iii) Intention to Deceive 606 (iv) Material Inducement Causing Damage 606 (c) Assessment of Damage INTERFERENCE WITH CONTRACTUAL RELATIONS 610 (a) Introduction 610 (b) Inducing Breach of Contract by Direct Interference 610 (i) Introduction 610 (ii) The Existence of a Contract 611 (iii) Intention 612 (iv) Knowledge 615 (v) Conduct Inducing Breach 616 (vi) Damage 618 (vii) Justification 618 (c) Procuring Breach of Contract by Indirect Means 620

12 TABLEOF CONTENTS xix (d) Interferences with Contractual Relations not Involving Breach INTIMIDATION 625 (a) Introduction 625 (b) Threat 625 (c) Unlawful Act 626 (d) Submission to Threat 627 (e) Intention CONSPIRACY 628 (a) Introduction 628 (b) Agreement and Execution 630 (c) Conspiracy to Injure 631 (d) Conspiracy to Use Unlawful Means 633 (e) Damage INTERFERENCE WITH ECONOMIC INTERESTS BY UNLAWFUL MEANS SECONDARY PICKETING 640 Chapter 18 NUISANCE INTRODUCTION PUBLIC NUISANCE 641 (a) Introduction 641 (b) Types of Activities 642 (i) What is Public? 642 (ii) What is a Nuisance? 643 (c) The Negligence Requirement 645 (d) The Special Damages Requirement PRIVATE NUISANCE 649 (a) Introduction 649 (b) Deliberate and Continuing Nuisances 651 (c) Continuing or Adopting a Nuisance 656 (d) Accident Compensation and Loss Distribution 65 8 (e) The Defence of Statutory Authority 661 (f) Other Defences 664 (i) Prescription 664 (ii) Acquiescence 665 (iii) Contributory Negligence 665 (iv) Acts of Normal Husbandry 665 (v) Statutory Immunity 666 (g) Remedies 667 Chapter 19 DEFAMATION INTRODUCTION 669

13 xx TABLE OF CONTENTS 2. SOURCES OF DEFAMATION LAW THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN LIBEL AND SLANDER ELEMENTS OF THE PLAINTIFF'S CASE 672 (a) What is Defamatory? 672 (b) Reference to the Plaintiff 678 (c) Publication DEFENCES 685 (a) Justification 685 (b) Absolute Privilege 687 (c) Qualified Privilege 690 (i) Protectionof One'sOwnlnterests 691 (ii) Protectionof Another'sinterest 692 (iii) Protection of Common Interests 694 (iv) Protection of the Public Interest 694 (d) Exceeding the Privilege and Malice 701 (e) Fair Comment 704 (i) Comment and Fact 705 (ii) Public Interest 706 (iii) Fairness 707 (iv) Malice 709 (f) Consent REMEDIES SLANDEROFGOODS 714 Index 717

call-in shows, 922 consent, See also voluntary assumption of risk careless performance of contract, 315 cattle trespass, 773 causation

call-in shows, 922 consent, See also voluntary assumption of risk careless performance of contract, 315 cattle trespass, 773 causation Index absolute privilege, 926-932 abuse of process, 87-90, 477-478 abuse of public office, 383-391 accidental conduct, 36-39 accidents, successive, 560-564 accountants/auditors, negligence of, 515 act