CRIMINAL LAW: TEXT AND MATERIALS

Transcription

1 CRIMINAL LAW: TEXT AND MATERIALS Fifth Edition by C. M. V. CLARKSON, B.A.,LL.B.,LL.M. Trofessor oflaw, University ofleicester H. M. KEATING, LL.M. Senior Lecturer in Law, University ofsussex LONDON SWEET & MAXWELL 2003

2 xvii CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgments TableofCases Table ofstatutes Table ofstatutory Instruments v vii xxv xlv li 1. CRIMEANDPUNISHMENT 1 I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. WHATCONDUCTOUGHTTOBECRIMINAL? 3 A. Introduction 3 B. Criteria for Criminalisation 4 1. Wrongful conduct 4 2. Is it necessary to employ thè criminal law? Is it permissible to criminalise thè conduct? 23 C. Conclusion 25 III. PUNISHMENT 25 A. Retribution Vengeance Expiation Desert Censure or denunciation 33 B. Deterrence Individuai deterrence General deterrence Educative deterrence 41 C. Incapacitation 46 D. Rehabilitation 53 E. Combining thè Theories Whomay bepunished? How severely do we punish? What type of punishment? 67 F. Sentencing Guidelines United States England and Wales THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY I INTRODUCTION 82 II ACTUS REUS 84 A. Introduction 84 B. Constituent Elements of Actus Reus 85 C. The Act must be Voluntary 87

3 Contents D. Status Offences E. Omissions 1. Dutytoact 2. Performance of duty 3. Distinguishing positive acts from omissions 4. Omissions and causation 5. A generai duty to act? Ili MENS REA A. Blame and Responsibility B. Blame and Mens Rea 1. Intention 2. Recklessness 3. Negligence 4. Levels of culpability IV RELATIONSHIP OF MENS REA TO ACTUS REUS A. Introduction B. Coincidence of Actus Reus and Mens Rea C. Transferred Malice D. Mistake 1. Mistake as to element of actus reus 2. Mistake as to a defence element 3. Mistake as to law V DISPENSINGWITH MENS REA 1. The problem of proof 2. Dualism 3. Determinism VI. STRICT LIABILITY 1. Introduction 2. The law 3. Defences to strict liability 4. Are strict liability offences justifiable? 5. Strict liability and thè European Convention on Human Rights 6. Enforcement 7. Sentencing 8. Conclusion VII CORPORATE CRIMINAL LIABILITY A. Introduction B. The Law 1. Vicarious liability 2. Direct liability: thè identification doctrine C. The Law in Action D. Restructuring Corporate Criminal Liability 1. Aggregation doctrine 2. Reactive corporate fault 3. Corporate mens rea doctrine E. Specific Corporate Offences F. Corporate or Personal Criminal Liability G. Punishment of Companies y<j X lo 1 lo -J- Q

4 Contents xix 3. GENERAL DEFENCES 270 I JUSTIFICATION AND EXCUSE 270 A. Introduction 270 B. Justification 272 C. Excuses 274 D. Exemptions 279 E. Significance of Distinctions 280 II CONSENT 283 A. Introduction 283 B. The reality of consent 284 C. The nature and degree of thè harm 287 D. Reform proposals 297 E. The rationale of consent as a defence 298 III. SELF-DEFENCE 299 A. Introduction 299 B. The triggering conditions Threatof unjustified harm Protected interests 302 C. The permitted response Necessity for any defensive action The amount of responsive force that may be used The duty to retreat The imminence of threatened attack Excessive self-defence 318 IV CHASTISEMENT 321 V DURESS AND NECESSITY 323 A. Introduction 323 B. Duress by Threats Rationale of duress by threats as a defence Parameters of thè defence 329 C. Duress of Circumstances 350 D. Necessity Distinction between necessity and duress of circumstances The traditional approach of English law Emergence of a new defence? 360 VI SUPERIOR ORDERS 363 VII INVOLUNTARY CONDUCT 365 A. Introduction Narrow definition of involuntariness Preceding fault Cause of involuntariness 368 B. Insanity Introduction The law 372 C. Àutomatism 395

5 xx Contents Vili DIMINISHED RESPONSIBILITY 399 A. Introduction 399 B. Theproblem 400 C. Thesolution 400 D. Should thè partial defence of diminished responsibility be retained? 405 IX. INTOXICATION 406 A. Background 406 B. Drunken intent 409 C. Meaning of voluntary intoxication 409 D. Law on voluntary intoxication Specific and basic intent A partial defence? Drunken mistake 420 E. Involuntary intoxication 424 F. "Dutch courage" intoxication 426 G. Intoxication can cause insanity or diminished responsibility 427 H. Reformofthelaw 430 X LACKOFAGE 434 A. Introduction 434 B. Belowtheageof C. Above thè age of XI SUNDRYDEFENCES CAUSATION 438 I INTRODUCTION 438 II APPROACHES TO CAUSATION 441 A. "Policy" Approach 441 B. Mens Rea Approach 442 C. Quest for General Principles Hart and Honoré's principles of causation Draft Criminal Code 446 III THE LAW'S RESPONSE 446 A. Factual causation 446 B. Legai causation Act of third party Actofvictim Causation and strict liability 460 IV CONCLUSION INCHOATE OFFENCES 463 I INTRODUCTION 463 II ATTEMPT 464 A. Criminology of Attempts 464 B. Should there bea Law ofattempt? 464 C. Punishment of Attempts 467 D. The Law 474

6 Contents xxi 1. Mens rea Actus reus 481 III CONSPIRACY 504 A. Introduction 504 B. Should there be a Law of Conspiracy? 505 C. Punishment of Conspiracies 508 D. The Law Typesof conspiracy Common law conspiracies Statutory conspiracy 512 IV INCITEMENT 520 A. Introduction 520 B. Rationale and Punishment of Inckement 521 C. The Law Actus reus Mens rea Impossibility 523 V ENDANGERMENT OFFENCES PARTICIPATIONINCRIME 528 I INTRODUCTION 528 II LAW 530 A. Principal Offenders 530 B. Secondary Parties Distinct modes of participation? Causation Assistance and encouragement Mens rea of accessories Procuring Reform proposals: assisting and encouraging crime 550 III THE LIMITS OF ACCESSORIAL LIABILITY 552 A. No Principal Offenders 552 B. Accessory can be Guilty of Graver Offence than thè One Committed 556 C. Withdrawal of Accessories 557 D. Victims Cannot be Accessories 560 E. Accomplices and Transferred Malice 561 IV CONCLUSION Blameworthiness Causingharm Lesser liability and punishment NON-FATAL OFFENCES AGAINST THE PERSON 570 I OFFENCES AGAINST THE PERSON (NON-SEXUAL) 570 A. The extent and Context of Violence 570

7 xxii Contents B. The Law 1. Introduction 2. Common assault and battery 3. Aggravated assaults C. Evaluation II SEXUAL OFFENCES A. Introduction 1. The level of offending 2. Rape in context 3. Whatisrape? 4. Sentencing B. The Law 1. Introduction 2. Artws rews 3. Mens rea C. Evaluation 8. HOMICIDE I INTRODUCTION A. The Level of Offending B. Homicide in Context II ACTUS REUS OF MURDER AND MANSLAUGHTER III MURDER A. History 1. Intent tokill 2. Intent to cause grievous bodily harm 3. Constructive malice B. PresentLaw C. Penalty for Murder D. Evaluation 1. The grievous bodily harm rule 2. Woollin test of intention 3. Conclusion IV MANSLAUGHTER A. Involuntary Manslaughter 1. (Subjective) Reckless manslaughter 2. Gross negligence manslaughter 3. Constructive manslaughter 4. Rationale and reform B. Vehicular Homicide 1. Causing death by dangerous driving 2. Causing death by careless driving when under thè influence of drink or drugs 3. Causing death by aggravated vehicle-taking C. Voluntary Manslaughter 1. Provocation

8 Contents xxiii 2. Diminished responsibility Killing in pursuance of a suicide pact 721 V INFANTICIDE 722 VI THE STRUCTUREOF HOMICIDE OFFENCES 726 A. Rationale of Distinction between Different Categories of Homicide 726 B. Greater Specificity 727 C. Basis of Distinctions 730 D. Unlawful Homicide a Single Offenee OFFENCES AGAINST PROPERTY 739 I INTRODUCTION A. The Level of Offending B. The Sociological Background 1. Why do people commit property offences? 2. Social attitudes towards property offences C. The Legai background II THEFT A. Extent and Context B. The Legai Background C. The Law 1. Definition 2. Appropriation 3. Property 4. Belonging to another 5. Dishonesty 6. Intention of permanent deprivation III OFFENCES INVOLVING DECEPTION A. The Sociological Background B. The Legai Background C. The Law 1. Common elements 2. The offences D. Rethinking thè Structure of Deception Offences IV MAKING OFF WLTHOUT PAYMENT A. Introduction B. The Law 1. Actus reus 2. Mens rea 3. Punishment V OTHER PROPERTY OFFENCES A. Sociological Background B. The Legai Background C The Law 1. Robbery

9 xxiv Contents 2. Burglary and aggravated burglary Handling stolen goods 848 VI CONCLUSION 851 A. Underlying Rationale 851 B. Structure of Property Offences 851 Index 859