Contents. List of Figures List of Maps List of Tables List of Contributors. 1. Introduction 1 Gillette H. Hall and Harry Anthony Patrinos

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1 Contents List of Figures List of Maps List of Tables List of Contributors page vii ix x xv 1. Introduction 1 Gillette H. Hall and Harry Anthony Patrinos 2. Indigenous Peoples and Development Goals: A Global Snapshot 17 Kevin Alan David Macdonald 3. Becoming Indigenous: Identity and Heterogeneity in a Global Movement 73 Jerome M. Levi and Biorn Maybury-Lewis 4. Indigenous Peoples in Central Africa: The Case of the Pygmies 118 Quentin Wodon, Prospere Backiny-Yetna, and Arbi Ben-Achour 5. China: A Case Study in Rapid Poverty Reduction 149 Emily Hannum and Meiyan Wang 6. India: The Scheduled Tribes 205 Maitreyi Bordia Das, Gillette H. Hall, Soumya Kapoor, and Denis Nikitin 7. Laos: Ethnolinguistic Diversity and Disadvantage 249 Elizabeth M. King and Dominique van de Walle 8. Vietnam: A Widening Poverty Gap for Ethnic Minorities 304 Hai-Anh Dang v

2 vi Contents 9. Latin America 344 Gillette H. Hall and Harry Anthony Patrinos 10. Conclusion 359 Gillette H. Hall and Harry Anthony Patrinos Index 393

3 Figures 3.1. Polythetic classification, showing the variable interrelationships among components page Regional distribution of ethnic groups, Urbanization rate by ethnic group and year Rural poverty headcount, cases, and confidence interval bounds by ethnic group, CHIP National percent illiterate by ethnic group and year, adult population National percent college-educated by ethnic group and year, adult population Enrollment rates among seven- to sixteen-year-olds by year and ethnic category Access to social insurance programs by ethnic category, Scheduled Tribe expenditures grew more rapidly at the higher end of the expenditure distribution between 1994 and Most Scheduled Tribe (ST) men in rural India are self-employed subsistence farmers: Scheduled Tribe members earn more than non Scheduled Tribe members when employed in high-paying, regular, urban jobs No significant differences exist in earnings among casual, low-skilled workers More Scheduled Tribe children are severely stunted and wasted within the first ten months of their birth More Schedule Tribe members now have some education, but gaps are still large after primary level Scheduled Tribe women are at a significant disadvantage compared to non Scheduled Tribe women and Scheduled Tribe men: They are in school for fewer years 234 vii

4 viii Figures 7.1. Share of Lao PDR population in the majority Lao-Tai ethnicity, by province Incidence of remittances by per capita consumption Average years of schooling, by age, gender, and ethnolinguistic group, Literacy rates, by age, gender, and ethnolinguistic group, Self-reported health status over four weeks prior to survey Prevalence of long-term illness or disability Incidence of temporary health problems over four weeks prior to survey Demand for treatment at a health facility or provider GDP per capita growth rate for Vietnam versus other countries, Income distribution for ethnic majority and ethnic minority groups, Vietnam, Income distribution for ethnic majority and ethnic minority groups, Vietnam, Incidence of child labor for age 6 25, Vietnam, Years of schooling, by year of birth, Vietnam, Trends in poverty over time, Bolivia Trends in poverty over time, Ecuador Trends in poverty over time, Guatemala Trends in poverty over time, Mexico Trends in poverty over time, Peru Trends in poverty over time, Chile Poverty headcount (%) Poverty rates over time Annual rate of change in poverty headcount India: Post-primary attainment rate by year of birth and ST status Vietnam: Schooling attainment by year of birth and minority status Percentage of people who have ever attended school in CAR 374

5 Maps 1. Chinese linguistic groups, 1990 page Distribution of the minority population by county-level administrative units, ix

6 Tables 1.1. Indigenous population by region page Indigenous population by region Indigenous population by region Central and Southern Africa: Basic well-being indicators West Africa: Basic well-being indicators East Africa: Basic well-being indicators India: Basic well-being indicators Nepal: Basic well-being indicators Bangladesh: Basic well-being indicators South East Asia: Basic well-being indicators Australia: Infant and maternal mortality, education, and income New Zealand: Child mortality, education, and income South America: Basic well-being indicators Central America: Basic well-being indicators United States: Education, income, and poverty United States: Infant mortality Canada: Infant mortality, education, and income Documented Pygmy numbers for all provinces in the DRC Poverty and welfare indicators by ethnicity in Gabon Population share by quintile of per capita consumption, by ethnicity in CAR Poverty and human development indicators in the national 123 household survey, DRC a. Gender and educational attainment (fifteen years and older) in Gabon 129 x

7 Tables xi 4.5b. Gender and educational attainment (fifteen years and older) in CAR a. Illiteracy rates in Gabon b. Illiteracy rates in CAR Labor force participation, unemployment, and unpaid work, Gabon and CAR a. Employment by sector, Gabon b. Employment by sector, CAR Percent minority by province, National poverty county status in minority and nonminority villages (two definitions) Village topography in minority and nonminority villages (two definitions) Village isolation in minority and nonminority villages (two definitions) Rural poverty lines and headcount estimates, Han vs. minority population Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) indices, standard errors, and confidence intervals (CI), rural CHIP sample, Average income of the adult population by ethnic group, Occupational composition of the adult population by ethnic group and residence status, Educational composition of the adult population by ethnic group in 1990, 2000, and Indicators of exclusion : Percent not enrolled and less than junior high school attainment by year and residence status, ages sixteen to twenty-one Indicators of exclusion : Percent with each characteristic among all and among excluded by year, ages sixteen to twenty-one Household characteristics, children ages seven to sixteen Family circumstances of children ages seven to sixteen, by ethnic group and year Enrollment rates among seven- to sixteen-year-olds by year, ethnic group, and urban-rural status Rural enrollment and attainment, children ages seven to sixteen 191

8 xii Tables Reported health status by ethnic group, adult population (percent) Village health facilities in minority and nonminority villages (two definitions) Access to social insurance programs by ethnic group and residence status, adult population, excluding students, 2005 (percent) Share of Scheduled Tribes in total population, Basic demographic characteristics, Scheduled Tribes and total population, Trends in poverty incidence (Headcount Index), Scheduled Tribes are poorer than other social groups Trends in poverty gap (FGT P 1 Index), India, slower decline in poverty gap for Scheduled Tribes Trends in poverty severity (FGT P 2 Index), India, slower decline in poverty severity for Scheduled Tribes Distribution of Scheduled Tribes across deciles (Wealth Index), : Scheduled Tribes are concentrated in the poorest wealth deciles Poverty incidence is higher in states with a high proportion of Scheduled Tribes (percent) Sample means: Urban and rural ST households differ, particularly in characteristics of the household head (HH) Infant mortality rates are similar across the population, but by age five, ST children are at significantly greater risk of dying Under-five mortality is higher in states with high proportion of Scheduled Tribe members The gap between Scheduled Tribes and others persists in immunization outcomes, as well Scheduled Tribe children are less likely to be treated for illnesses (percent) Despite gains, maternal health indicators for ST women remain below par (percent) Educational attainment ( ): Scheduled Tribes still lag far behind the rest (percent) Age-grade distortion is higher among Scheduled Tribe children (percent) Poverty by ethnicity, urban/rural, and elevation 254

9 Tables xiii 7.2. Determinants of living standards Enrollment rates, by school cycle and age group Primary school enrollment rates, by residence, gender, ethnolinguistic group, and poverty status Lower-secondary school enrollment rates, by residence, gender, ethnolinguistic group, and poverty status Upper-secondary school enrollment rates, by residence, gender, ethnolinguistic group, and poverty status Net primary school enrollment rates, by residence, gender, and ethnolinguistic group (percent) Children aged ten to sixteen who have never attended school (percent) Mean characteristics of accessible primary schools, by residence and ethnolinguistic group (percent) The probability of attending school for rural children ages six through fifteen, by gender and ethnolinguistic group, Determinants of self-reported health status Time use of children (excluding those on vacation) aged ten to sixteen, by gender, poor/nonpoor status, and ethnicity Time use of adults aged 17 to 55, by gender, poor/nonpoor status, and ethnicity (hours per day) Basic demographics, Vietnam (percent) Poverty headcount, (percent) Calculated probabilities of household being poor, 2006 (percent) Employment sector for people age fifteen and over, (percent) Earnings differentials for people age fifteen and over, Vietnam, Contribution of independent variables to earnings differential between ethnic minority and ethnic majority for people age fifteen and over, Vietnam, Educational achievement, people aged fifteen and over, Vietnam, 2006 (percent) Age-grade distortion, Vietnam, Predicted probability of being enrolled in school, seven- to fourteen-year-olds, Vietnam, 2006 (percent) Child mortality rates, Vietnam, 2002 (per 1,000 live births) Vaccination rates for children ages months, Vietnam 2002 (percent) 330

10 xiv Tables Medical insurance, (percent) Knowledge about AIDS for ever-married women ages 15 49, Vietnam, 2002 (percent) Utility access and household assets, Vietnam, 2006 (percent) Availability/distance to community facilities, Vietnam, 2006 (km) Average annual per capita growth rates in Latin America by decade, Inequality (Gini coefficient) in Latin America by decade, Indigenous population in our case studies Indigenous poverty as proportion of total Poverty rates decreased significantly in Asia Poverty gap (FGT1) by minority/indigenous status across countries Poverty gap (FGT1) by minority/indigenous status across countries and over time, early to latest estimates Earnings differentials, Vietnam, (age fifteen and over) Vaccination rates for India and Vietnam, latest year (percent) Social program coverage by expenditure quintile, Vietnam, 2006 (percent) 378

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