After World War II, U.S. leaders. War in Vietnam ( ) CHAPTER UNITED STATES WORLD. Build on What You Know

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1 CHAPTER War in Vietnam ( ) Members of the Special Forces wore green berets such as this one to set them apart from other army units. UNITED STATES WORLD The 173rd Airborne Brigade is supported by helicopters during one of its operations President Kennedy sends members of the Special Forces and more U.S. military advisers to Vietnam The United States, Soviet Union, and Great Britain sign a nuclear-testban treaty. President Ngo Dinh Diem received U.S. support largely because of his strong anticommunist views The first U.S. combat troops arrive in Vietnam French forces lose to Vietnamese nationalists in May at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. In July Vietnam is divided into North Vietnam and South Vietnam President Ngo Dinh Diem of South Vietnam refuses to let his nation take part in elections to reunify Vietnam. French casualties were heavy during the battle at Dien Bien Phu. Build on What You Know After World War II, U.S. leaders worried about the spread of communism abroad. Determined to keep the Asian country of Vietnam from falling to communism, the United States sent thousands of troops there. As the fighting went on, however, the war in Vietnam began raising troubling questions for many Americans. 872 Chapter 29

2 The Tet Offensive involved some of the hardest fighting of the war. The Vietnam Veterans Memorial attracts thousands of visitors, including many veterans and their families President Johnson withdraws from the presidential election The Twenty-sixth Amendment is passed, lowering the voting age from 21 to The Paris Peace Accords are signed on January 27, ending U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. On November 7, Congress passes the War Powers Act to restrict presidential powers in committing U.S. troops to armed conflicts In January communist forces attack throughout South Vietnam in the Tet Offensive The British prime minister sends troops into Belfast, Northern Ireland, to stop rioting Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, falls to North Vietnamese forces. You Be the Historian What s Your Opinion? Do you agree or disagree with the following statements? Support your point of view in your journal. Global Relations A nation should become involved with foreign countries to encourage the growth of democracy. Geography Geography determines a country s chances of winning a war. Government New legislation can change the roles of the different branches of government. If you were there... Would you support U.S. involvement in the war in Vietnam? 873

3 Early Conflicts in Vietnam Early Conflicts in Vietnam Read to Discover 1. What events led to the creation of North and South Vietnam? 2. Why did the U.S. government support South Vietnam? 3. How did some South Vietnamese who disliked Diem s government show their beliefs? Reading Strategy DOUBLE DOOR Create the Double Door FoldNote described in the Appendix. Write North Vietnam on one flap of the double door and South Vietnam on the other flap. As you read the section, write details about each country on the inside of the appropriate flap. Define domino theory Identify Ho Chi Minh Vietminh Geneva Accords Ngo Dinh Diem National Liberation Front Vietcong The Story Continues In 1873 French explorer Francis Garnier encouraged the French to colonize Southeast Asia for trade and to bring Western culture to the people. However, one of Garnier s associates warned that colonization would be a mistake. The extraordinary resistance [of the Vietnamese], sometimes violent,...is stronger now than at any time since the conquest, he warned. We must open our eyes. A Vietnamese villager transports a French colonist. Vietnam Divides For many years, France controlled Vietnam along with neighboring Laos and Cambodia as a colony called French Indochina. Vietnamese nationalist Ho Chi Minh helped fight French rule. Over time, Ho came to believe that the best way to fight colonial imperialism was through a communist revolution. During World War II, Japanese troops and local nationalists drove French soldiers out of Indochina. Ho then refused to accept Japanese rule. After Japan s surrender to the Allies, Ho declared Vietnam independent on September 2, But France insisted that Vietnam was still a French colony. Ho warned the French to leave Vietnam alone. 874 Chapter 29

4 ARCTIC OCEAN ANDAMAN SEA Final French defeat by Vietminh, 1954 BURMA (MYANMAR) 100 E Bangkok Vientiane Red River LAOS THAILAND Phnom Penh Gulf of Thailand Dien Bien Phu ANNAMESE AFRICA Mekong River EUROPE Hanoi Red River Delta Gulf of Tonkin VIETNAM MOUNTAINS CAMBODIA ASIA INDIAN OCEAN AUSTRALIA Saigon Mekong Delta CHINA HAINAN ISLAND Hue Da Nang Central Highlands Miles PACIFIC OCEAN ANTARCTICA Robinson Projection NORTH AMERICA ATLANTIC OCEAN Equator SOUTH AMERICA W N S SOUTH CHINA SEA 20 N E 10 N French Indochina Interpreting Maps French Indochina consisted of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. At the end of World War II, Vietnam sought its own independence. Skills Assessment 1. Places and Regions What were the capitals of the three countries that made up French Indochina? 2. Contrasting What major geographic difference can you see between Laos and Vietnam? A French Foreign Legion pin Kilometers Mercator Projection 110 E The French ignored Ho s warnings and moved to retake Vietnam. President Eisenhower s administration aided France s efforts based on his belief in the domino theory. According to this theory, if Vietnam fell to the Communists as China and North Korea had done all of Southeast Asia would fall. You have a row of dominoes set up, Eisenhower explained. You knock over the first one, and... the last one... will go over very quickly. The Vietminh, as the Vietnamese nationalist forces were known, fought the war mostly through hit-and-run guerrilla attacks and ambushes. In March 1954 they trapped some 13,000 French troops at the village of Dien Bien Phu (DYEN BYEN FOO), causing more than 7,000 French casualties. On May 7, 1954, the French surrendered. The day after the Vietminh victory, an international conference in Geneva, Switzerland, addressed the future of Indochina. In July the delegates worked out the Geneva Accords, which temporarily divided Vietnam. North Vietnam was a communist state led by Ho Chi Minh. South Vietnam was a democracy led by Ngo Dinh Diem (NGOH DIN de-em), an anticommunist. The Geneva Accords also called for free elections in July 1956 to reunite North and South Vietnam. Reading Check: Contrasting How were the governments of North Vietnam and South Vietnam different? War in Vietnam 875

5 Born in Vietnam in 1890, Nguyen That Thanh later adopted the name Ho Chi Minh, which means he who enlightens. Vietnam at War The new government in South Vietnam was dishonest and brutal. President Diem put family members in top positions and was aggressive in silencing his enemies. Although Diem was not a very good leader, many American policy makers believed he was the best alternative to a communist state. The Eisenhower administration began sending supplies to South Vietnam and training Diem s military forces during its last years in office. Ho Chi Minh, on the other hand, enjoyed greater popular support. Many people in North Vietnam favored his government s land redistribution policies and social reforms. One North Vietnamese man recalled the positive changes that took place. History Makers Speak The living conditions of the people were getting better and better every day. The people were well off. They had enough to eat.... They had land to work and buffaloes to help them plow the land. Anonymous, quoted in The Vietnam Wars: , by Marilyn B. Young Analyzing Primary Sources Drawing Inferences and Conclusions What do you think life was like in North Vietnam before Ho Chi Minh took over leadership of the government? However, these changes did not help everyone. Ho blamed landlords for North Vietnam s poverty. Communist government officials searched out landowners, imprisoning and killing thousands of them. As the planned 1956 reunification elections drew near, Diem refused to allow South Vietnam to take part. He feared that the northern communist government would win. U.S. officials backed his decision. Diem tried to stamp out support for the Vietminh by arresting thousands of South Vietnamese citizens. Many nationalists in South Vietnam joined the National Liberation Front (NLF), a group that fought Diem s government. The NLF largely depended on the Vietcong, Interpreting the Visual Record U.S. advisers As Diem s government in South Vietnam faced increasing opposition, the United States sent more military advisers to train his army. What type of training do these U.S. troops appear to be providing? 876 Chapter 29

6 communist guerrilla forces, as its army. North Vietnam supplied and funded the Vietcong as its soldiers began a civil war against Diem s government in the late 1950s. As fighting between the Vietcong and Diem s Army of the Republic of Vietnam grew worse, President Eisenhower sent more aid and advisers to South Vietnam. By the end of 1960, some 900 U.S. military advisers were stationed in South Vietnam. When John F. Kennedy became president, he sent even more advisers. He also sent 400 Special Forces soldiers to Vietnam in May By the end of 1963, some 16,000 U.S. military personnel were serving there. Despite U.S. help, Diem s government was losing power. Diem became even more unpopular when his soldiers fired on Buddhist demonstrators. Some Buddhist monks set themselves on fire in protest. Appearing on television and in newspapers, these shocking images helped turn Americans against Diem. Some of Diem s military leaders came to believe that his unpopularity hurt the war effort. In November 1963 a group of South Vietnamese generals took over the government and killed Diem. After the takeover, the political situation in South Vietnam grew worse. Buddhist monks held many nonviolent demonstrations against President Diem and his policies. Reading Check: Identifying Cause and Effect Why was Diem s government in South Vietnam unpopular, and how did the citizens respond to it? Section 1 keyword: Review 1 Define and explain: domino theory 3 Sequencing Copy the time line below. 4 Finding the Main Idea 2 Use it to explain important events in Vietnam s history following the end of World War II. Identify and explain: Ho Chi Minh Vietminh Geneva Accords Ngo Dinh Diem National Liberation Front Vietcong late 1950s SC5 HP29 a. What events in Vietnam ended in the creation of two separate countries? b. How were North Vietnam and South Vietnam different, and why did the United States support South Vietnam? Writing and Critical Thinking Summarizing Imagine that you are a State Department official. Write a report for President Eisenhower explaining why many South Vietnamese dislike Diem s government and how they are expressing their disapproval. Consider the following: Diem s methods of ruling and maintaining order the influence and support of North Vietnam on resistance efforts the nonviolent protests of Buddhist demonstrators War in Vietnam 877

7 The Escalation of the War The Escalation of the War Read to Discover 1. What actions did President Johnson take to involve the United States more deeply in the war in Vietnam? 2. How did U.S. military leaders try to defeat the North Vietnamese? 3. How did the Vietnam War affect South Vietnamese civilians and American soldiers? Reading Strategy PREVIEWING TEXT Preview the section s headings and vocabulary. Write what you already know about the people and topics. What would you like to find out? As you read, look for information that answers your questions. Define escalation search-and-destroy missions pacification Identify Tonkin Gulf Resolution Operation Rolling Thunder Ho Chi Minh Trail William Westmoreland Soon after taking office, President Johnson expanded the U.S. role in Vietnam. The Story Continues On November 24, 1963, the new president, Lyndon B. Johnson, met with his foreign-policy advisers to discuss Vietnam. One aide recalled Johnson s fear that the Communists would think that with Kennedy dead [the Americans] have lost heart. Johnson increased military support for South Vietnam and insisted that a message go out to South Vietnam that Lyndon Johnson intends to stand by [the United States s] word. Johnson s Vietnam Policy President Lyndon B. Johnson faced a complicated situation in Vietnam. After Diem s assassination, some of the new South Vietnamese leaders wanted to work out an agreement with the Communists. Johnson and his advisers, however, refused to accept the possibility of a communist South Vietnam. On August 2, 1964, a U.S. navy vessel exchanged fire with North Vietnamese vessels in the Gulf of Tonkin off the North Vietnamese coast. U.S. ships later reported that the North Vietnamese had launched 878 Chapter 29

8 The U.S. Air Force used longrange bombers such as this B-52 to drop huge numbers of explosives on targets in North and South Vietnam. torpedoes at them. Although the ships were not damaged, Johnson called the reported attack an act of war. He ordered air strikes against bases in North Vietnam. On August 7 Congress passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, which gave President Johnson the power to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States. With the authority granted by this resolution, President Johnson greatly increased U.S. military involvement in Vietnam. In March 1965 the first U.S. combat troops arrived in South Vietnam. That same month, Johnson ordered Operation Rolling Thunder a series of air strikes meant to destroy war industries in North Vietnam. Johnson also saw the operation as a way to destroy the Ho Chi Minh Trail. This trail was a network of paths, small roads, and tunnels leading from North Vietnam through neighboring Laos and Cambodia and into South Vietnam. The Vietcong used the Ho Chi Minh Trail as their major supply route. Johnson and his advisers wanted to destroy North Vietnam s ability to supply the Vietcong. They believed that if they succeeded, the United States could win the war. Thick jungle covered much of the trail and hid the movement of the supplies. To burn off the forests, U.S. airplanes dropped napalm, or jellied gasoline. The planes also released chemical poisons, such as Agent Orange, that killed vegetation and tree leaves. These chemicals caused environmental damage to the area and led to health problems for Vietnamese civilians and U.S. veterans. The bombing raids lasted until late Before they ended, U.S. planes had dropped more than a million tons of explosives, much of it on South Vietnam. Operation Rolling Thunder killed many Vietnamese soldiers and civilians. However, the U.S. effort did not stop the Communists ability to fight the war. Reading Check: Summarizing Describe Operation Rolling Thunder and how it affected the North Vietnamese Communist war effort. That s Interesting! Underground Tunnels Did you know that the Vietcong used underground tunnels as military bases? American soldiers were baffled when the Vietcong launched attacks and then seemed to disappear into thin air. The Vietcong were actually using hidden tunnels to escape detection and shield themselves from bombing raids. The tunnels were about two feet wide and five feet high and had thick roofs. These narrow passages connected rooms such as kitchens, hospitals, and storage areas. Many tunnel systems had several levels and were protected by deadly traps. Today, tourists in Vietnam can go on special tours to view these amazing tunnel systems. War in Vietnam 879

9 BURMA (MYANMAR) N W E S 100 E Major U.S. air strikes Major U.S. bases Areas under attack in Tet Offensive, 1968 Base areas/war zone Areas of prolonged fighting Gulf of Thailand Vientiane THAILAND Red River NORTH VIETNAM Dien Bien Phu Hanoi Xam Nua LAOS Muang Ngat Mekong River Laos invaded, 1971 Phnom Penh CAMBODIA Cambodia bombed, ; invaded, Miles Kilometers Mercator Projection 105 E AFRICA EUROPE Vinh HO CHI MINH TRAIL ASIA INDIAN OCEAN AUSTRALIA Hon Gai Red River Delta Gulf of Tonkin Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) Da Lat Khe Sanh Hue Da Nang Bien Hoa Saigon CHINA North Vietnam bombed (Operation Rolling Thunder), 1972 (Linebacker I and II) Gulf of Tonkin incident, 1964 SOUTH VIETNAM Ben Tre Mekong Delta ARCTIC OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN ANTARCTICA Robinson Projection South China Sea My Lai The Vietnam War Interpreting Maps North Vietnam used the Ho Chi Minh Trail to supply communist forces in the South. NORTH AMERICA Equator U.S. 7th Fleet Nha Trang Vinh Cam Ranh U.S. 7th Fleet Surrender of South Vietnam, E Skills Assessment Places and Regions Through which countries did the Ho Chi Minh Trail pass? ATLANTIC OCEAN SOUTH AMERICA 20 N 17 N 15 N 10 N The Ground War In the mid-1960s President Johnson sent more ground forces to Vietnam. Between 1965 and 1967 the number of U.S. soldiers grew rapidly as Johnson followed a policy of escalation, or increased U.S. involvement in the war. At the same time, North Vietnam also became more involved. North Vietnam sent more of its regular army units, the North Vietnamese Army (NVA), to fight alongside the Vietcong. General William Westmoreland, who led the U.S. ground forces in Vietnam, developed a new fighting strategy. He sent U.S. patrols on searchand-destroy missions. U.S. patrols searched for enemy camps and supplies hidden in the jungle. Then the soldiers destroyed them with massive firepower and air raids. Because the United States had better military technology, officials believed there would be a quick American victory. One U.S. general said, The solution in Vietnam is more bombs, more shells, more napalm. However, U.S. generals did not understand just how difficult it would be to defeat the North Vietnamese. The Vietcong and the NVA had certain key advantages, which made up for their inferior firepower. They used effective guerrilla strategies and had a better knowledge of the local geography. Moving secretly, they set traps and land mines to kill and wound U.S. soldiers. The Vietcong and the NVA usually attacked quickly and by surprise. Marine Philip Caputo recalled the effects of this kind of fighting. Analyzing Primary Sources Identifying Bias What mistake does Caputo say U.S. soldiers first made about the Vietnamese? History Makers Speak The discovery that the men we had scorned [disregarded] as peasant guerrillas were, in fact, a lethal [deadly], determined enemy... broke our early confidence. Philip Caputo, A Rumor of War Reading Check: Contrasting In what different ways did the Americans and the North Vietnamese use their advantages in the war? 880 Chapter 29

10 No Safe Place South Vietnamese villagers found themselves caught in the middle of the fighting. U.S. and South Vietnamese officials tried to win their support through a policy of pacification. Under this program, they set aside civilian areas guarded by government troops. Even in areas protected by soldiers, villagers were not safe, however. At night, while the government forces stayed in their camps, the Vietcong came out of hiding. They attacked or killed people they believed had helped the South Vietnamese government. South Vietnamese civilians had no safe place to go. Many Vietnamese civilians also suffered at the hands of U.S. forces. Sometimes U.S. troops destroyed the villages and crops of innocent civilians, believing they belonged to the Vietcong. Soldier Kenneth Campbell recalled how an officer explained the destruction of two seemingly peaceful farming villages. According to Campbell, the officer said they were probably feeding the NVA with rice anyway, so therefore they are the enemy. Such reasoning led to a larger number of deaths and injuries among civilians. It also made it harder for Americans to win local support or loyalty. Reading Check: Analyzing Information What types of problems did South Vietnamese civilians face during the war? A Difficult War Despite its size and power, the United States faced many challenges in the Vietnam War. U.S. Military Advantages The U.S. military had advanced weapons, many soldiers, and tremendous firepower to use against the enemy. Visualizing History 1. Science and Technology How would the weapons shown have helped the United States during the war? 2. Connecting to Today What types of challenges do U.S. military forces face on their missions around the world today? U.S. Military Disadvantages The North Vietnamese and the Vietcong used the difficult terrain and aggressive guerrilla tactics to hide themselves and attack by surprise. U.S. soldiers often did not know who might be the enemy. War in Vietnam 881

11 U.S. troops often used helicopters to reach jungle areas. The Soldiers Stories The war in Vietnam greatly affected the more than 2 million U.S. soldiers who served in it. Many soldiers were very young. Their average age was 22, about four years younger than in previous wars. Most of the soldiers had been drafted into service. They were often from minority groups and poor families. On the other hand, college students most of whom were white and from the middle and upper classes could earn draft releases called deferments. Many of the young men who served in Vietnam supported the war in the beginning. However, by mid-1967 more than 300 U.S. soldiers a week were dying in combat. As the war dragged on and the number of casualties rose, support for the war dropped. Some 10,000 women also served in the military during the war. One nurse recalled watching a soldier die. Analyzing Primary Sources Identifying Points of View How does this nurse seem to feel about her experience in Vietnam? History Makers Speak When you are sitting there working on... a 19-year-old kid who s 10,000 miles from home, and you know that he s going to die before dawn... and you re the only one that he s got... well it [gets] into your soul. Dusty, quoted in Shrapnel in the Heart, by Laura Palmer Section 2 2 keyword: Review Identify and explain: Tonkin Gulf Resolution Operation Rolling Thunder Ho Chi Minh Trail William Westmoreland Like the nurse, many of those who served in Vietnam found that the experience left them forever changed. Reading Check: Finding the Main Idea How did many soldiers beliefs about the war change over time? 1 Define and explain: escalation search-and-destroy missions pacification 3 Identifying Cause and Effect Copy the chart below. Use it to explain American policies and strategies during the 4 Finding the Main Idea war and their effects. Event Cause Effect Tonkin Gulf Resolution Operation Rolling Thunder escalation search-and-destroy missions pacification 5 SC5 HP29 a. How did President Johnson increase U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War? b. How did the lives of many South Vietnamese civilians change as a result of the war? Writing and Critical Thinking Analyzing Information Imagine that you are a U.S. soldier stationed in Vietnam. Write a letter home describing your experiences in the war. Consider the following: the strategies of the Vietcong and the NVA the condition of South Vietnamese civilians the progress of the war 882 Chapter 29

12 A Divided Nation A Divided Nation Read to Discover 1. How did doves protest U.S. involvement in the war? 2. How did the Tet Offensive change public opinion about the Vietnam War? 3. How did the Vietnam War affect American politics during the 1968 presidential election? Reading Strategy MAPPING CAUSE AND EFFECT Make a two-column chart. Label the columns Cause and Effect. As you read this section, look for cause-and-effect relationships between events. List causes and their effects in the appropriate columns. Define doves hawks Identify Tet Offensive Eugene McCarthy Robert F. Kennedy Hubert Humphrey George Wallace Richard M. Nixon The Story Continues The women gathered at about 6:00 A.M.outside the military office, before the arrival of the new recruits for the Vietnam War. They marched with signs reading I Support Draft Refusal, and some sat down in the street to block the recruits buses. A police officer warned an older woman, Missus, you don t want to get arrested. She answered, I have to, my grandson s in Vietnam. As more American soldiers went off to fight and to die in Vietnam, the antiwar movement grew stronger. As the fighting dragged on, more Americans began demanding an end to the war. YORK THE GRANGER COLLECTION,NEW Divided Opinions Journalists, particularly television reporters, played an important role in shaping public opinion about the war. Through television, Americans felt the violence of the war right in their own homes. The graphic images of war led many people to wonder if the war in Vietnam was worth the cost. Some journalists began to report their growing suspicions that the fighting was not going as well as the military claimed. Gradually, some people who had supported the Vietnam War began to call for the United States to get out of the conflict. These people were called doves named after the birds that symbolize peace. War in Vietnam 883

13 TO NECTING CO MATH Just the Facts U.S. Troops in Vietnam, Year Number U.S. Military of U.S. Personnel Troops Killed in Action ,300 6, ,600 9, ,000 14, ,200 9, ,600 4, ,800 1, , Using Mathematical Skills 1. In what year were the most U.S. military personnel sent to Vietnam? 2. Create a bar graph showing how many military personnel in Vietnam, out of the total, were killed in action from 1966 to Imagine that you are a member of Congress in Write a report to your colleagues explaining the significance of these statistics. Arkansas senator J. William Fulbright became a leading dove. As the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Fulbright had strongly supported the Tonkin Gulf Resolution. But he later questioned whether U.S. troops should even be in Vietnam. You don t want to negotiate, he accused a group of Johnson s advisers. Other doves, like Martin Luther King Jr., believed that the U.S. government spent money on the war that could better be used for important social programs. President Johnson and most members of Congress said that defeating communism in Vietnam took priority over domestic reforms. These so-called hawks wanted more military spending to send new forces to Vietnam. Many Americans did not agree with the hawks. College students often held protests to call for a change in U.S. war policy. Many of them had already taken part in the civil rights movements. The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) became one of the most active antiwar groups. SDS protested the draft system and the companies that made weapons used in the war. In 1965, SDS led 20,000 protesters in a march on Washington, D.C. As the war continued, the student movement grew bolder and sometimes even grew violent. By the end of 1968, protests had taken place on almost 75 percent of the country s college campuses. Many ordinary citizens also took part in antiwar protests. Charlotte Keyes helped organize a group called Women Strike for Peace. She described the different types of people in the antiwar movement. History Makers Speak The peaceniks [war protesters] these days are legion [very large] they are ninety years old and fifteen, heads of families and housewives with babies, students, (and) young people. Charlotte Keyes, Suppose They Gave a War and No One Came, McCall s Reading Check: Summarizing Why and how did some Americans oppose the Vietnam War? Interpreting the Visual Record Reporting on the war A team of television journalists interviews a group of U.S. soldiers in Vietnam. How might interviews such as this one bring the war closer to the American public? 884 Chapter 29

14 Interpreting the Visual Record The Tet Offensive These U.S. military police are leading away one of the Vietcong guerrillas who attacked the U.S. embassy in Saigon during the Tet Offensive. How do you think Americans might respond to this photograph? The Tet Offensive Despite the growing antiwar movement, most Americans supported the Vietnam War until early In previous years, a cease-fire had halted all fighting during Tet the Vietnamese New Year. On January 30, 1968, however, during Tet, North Vietnamese and Vietcong soldiers launched the Tet Offensive a surprise attack on U.S. forces throughout southern Vietnam. The soldiers even invaded the U.S. Embassy in Saigon. In most places, the U.S. and South Vietnamese troops defeated most of the communist forces quickly. Still, the Tet Offensive shocked Americans and changed many people s opinions about the war. A short time earlier, General Westmoreland had said that the war would soon be over. There is light at the end of the tunnel, he promised. The Tet Offensive, however, appeared to show the opposite that communist forces still had the strength and the will to fight. The Tet Offensive also convinced many Americans that officials were not telling the truth about the war. Several well-known journalists doubted leaders claims of success. Television news anchor Walter Cronkite shared his views in February To say that we are closer to victory today is to believe, in the face of the evidence, the optimists who have been wrong in the past. Although there were already about 525,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam, General Westmoreland asked for 206,000 more soldiers. Many people questioned whether such an increase was necessary if the United States was really winning the war. President Johnson turned down Westmoreland s request. The Purple Heart medal is given to those who are injured or killed while serving their country. Reading Check: Analyzing Information What effect did the Tet Offensive have on the American public, and why? War in Vietnam 885

15 Free Find: Election of 1968 After reading about the election of 1968 on the Holt Researcher CD ROM, create a bar graph that shows how many votes each candidate won. The Democrats in 1968 As doubts about the war increased, President Johnson began losing public support. A new poll showed that only 33 percent of Americans believed that the United States was winning the war. About 49 percent said that the United States should never have gotten involved in Vietnam. Johnson, who had won the presidency by a landslide in 1964, was expected to win the Democratic primaries easily. At first, his main opponent was Eugene McCarthy, a senator from Minnesota. McCarthy was a major antiwar critic. The Democratic Party in 1964 promised no wider war, he reminded voters. Yet the war is getting wider every month. In the New Hampshire primary, Johnson narrowly beat McCarthy. This result showed how unpopular Johnson and his Vietnam policies had become. Physically and emotionally exhausted, President Johnson stunned the nation by announcing on March 31 that he would drop out of the election. Meanwhile, Senator Robert F. Kennedy of New York, the former U.S. attorney general, had entered the race for the Democratic nomination on March 16. He believed that the United States should do everything possible to bring a quick and peaceful end to the war. Analyzing Primary Sources Identifying Points of View How can you tell that Kennedy wanted a peaceful settlement to end the war? History Unable to defeat our enemy or break his will at least Makers without a huge, long, and ever more costly effort we must Speak actively seek a peaceful settlement.... [that] will give the Vietcong and the National Liberation Front a chance to participate in the political life of the country. Not because we want them to, but because that is the only way in which this struggle can be settled. Robert F. Kennedy, Vietnam Illusion and Reality, Chicago Sun Times Robert F. Kennedy was a popular political leader. Kennedy s positions on civil rights reform, assistance to the poor, and the war drew him much support. Johnson, however, backed another Democratic candidate his vice president Hubert Humphrey. Many voters disliked Humphrey for his support of the war, and Kennedy began gaining ground. On June 5, 1968, Kennedy won the California primary, a major step before the Democratic National Convention in Chicago. That night a gunman named Sirhan Sirhan shot Kennedy. After Robert Kennedy died, Humphrey was almost sure to win the Democratic nomination. However, the party remained bitterly divided. Many delegates at the Democratic National Convention wanted a candidate who was not tied to the war. Angry debates soon broke out inside the convention hall. In the streets outside the convention hall, hundreds of antiwar protesters marched, shouting, Peace now! Peace now! Police officers moved in to stop the protesters, using clubs and tear gas to break up the crowd. A riot broke out, with television cameras broadcasting live images of the events to a concerned nation. Reading Check: Evaluating How did the Vietnam War affect the 1968 Democratic presidential campaign?

16 A Republican Victory Humphrey won the Democratic nomination for president and chose Maine senator Edmund Muskie as his running mate. Conservative Alabama governor George Wallace entered the race as the candidate of the American Independent Party. Wallace wanted to overturn civil rights legislation as well as most federal social programs. The Republicans nominated former vice president Richard M. Nixon, who said that he could restore order to American society. Nixon also hinted that he had a secret plan for ending the Vietnam War. Millions of Americans had been alarmed by the events at the Democratic National Convention. To these people, the riots showed the decline of law and order in society and politics. Many voters blamed the Democrats. However, the election of 1968 was still quite close. Nixon received only 43.4 percent of the popular vote, but won the presidency with 302 electoral votes. Humphrey received 42.7 percent of the popular vote and 191 electoral votes. Wallace won 45 electoral votes, all from southern states. As President-elect Nixon prepared to take office, Americans watched events in Vietnam closely. Reading Check: Drawing Inferences and Conclusions Why do you think Nixon won the 1968 election? Interpreting the Visual Record Protests More people, including returned veterans, protested the war as it escalated. Growing concern over the Vietnam War forced presidential candidates to address the issue in their campaigns. How do you think these protests might affect the actions of government officials? Section 3 keyword: Review 1 Define and explain: doves hawks 3 Contrasting Copy the diagrams below. Use them to show the 4 Finding the Main Idea 2 different views that Americans had of the Vietnam War. Identify and explain: Tet Offensive Eugene McCarthy Robert F. Kennedy Hubert Humphrey George Wallace Richard M. Nixon Who? Why? Doves Who? What? Hawks Why? What? 5 SC5 HP29 a. What actions did doves take to try to change U.S. war policy? b. What effects did the Tet Offensive have on Americans attitudes toward the war? Writing and Critical Thinking Supporting a Point of View Imagine that you are a journalist reporting on the 1968 elections. Write an opinion piece sharing your thoughts on how the Vietnam War affected the presidential primaries and election. Consider the following: Johnson s decision not to run for re-election the Democratic National Convention the appeal that Nixon had for voters War in Vietnam 887

17 The War under Nixon The War under Nixon Read to Discover 1. What policy for Vietnam did President Nixon follow when he first took office? 2. What were the final years of the Vietnam War like? 3. What effects did the war have on those countries that took part in it? W HY IT MATTERS TODAY Although the Vietnam War ended more than 25 years ago, many Americans and Vietnamese still remember the war very well. Use or other current events sources to identify ways Americans view the effects of the Vietnam War today. Record your findings in your journal. Identify Henry Kissinger Vietnamization Khmer Rouge Twenty-sixth Amendment Paris Peace Accords MIAs War Powers Act Vietnam Veterans Memorial U.S. combat troops arriving in Vietnam The Story Continues January 20, 1969, was the day of President Nixon s inauguration. That day, a top aide distributed a detailed questionnaire about Vietnam to high-level military and diplomatic personnel. One question indirectly asked was Could the United States win the war, even at that late date? One army general who took part in the study remembered the answer that came back. Nobody believed the war could be won in the foreseeable [near] future. That answer left the new president with another pressing issue. How was he going to end the Vietnam War? Peace with Honor President Nixon said that he wanted to end the war as quickly as was honorably possible. At the same time, he wanted to avoid appearing defeated. I will not be the first President of the United States to lose a war, he told Republican leaders. Nixon and his national security adviser Henry Kissinger created a policy to bring about peace with honor. In a process called Vietnamization, they would gradually turn over all of 888 Chapter 29

18 Interpreting the Visual Record Military secrets U.S. troops hoped that North Vietnamese Army papers captured in Cambodia would reveal important military secrets. How might intelligencegathering operations like this one be valuable to the U.S. military? the fighting to the South Vietnamese army. The United States would continue to provide supplies and training to South Vietnam even as U.S. troops left the country. Nixon also believed that the threat of using nuclear weapons against the North Vietnamese might help end the war. He explained this view privately to an aide. History I call it the madman theory.... I want the North Vietnamese to believe I ve reached the point where I might do Makers Speak anything to stop the war. We ll just slip the word to them that,... Nixon is obsessed [crazed] about Communists. We can t restrain [control] him when he s angry and he has his hand on the nuclear button, and Ho Chi Minh himself will be in Paris in two days begging for peace. Richard M. Nixon, quoted in The Vietnam Wars, , by Marilyn R. Young However, Nixon and Kissinger misjudged the determination of the North Vietnamese and the Vietcong. Even though Ho Chi Minh died in September 1969, his followers promised to keep fighting to reunite Vietnam. New U.S. leaders refused to consider any peace agreement that did not include the immediate removal of all U.S. troops. After he took office, President Nixon did begin withdrawing U.S. ground troops from Vietnam. But he also ordered bombing raids on Laos and Cambodia without telling Congress or the American public. Like President Johnson, Nixon wanted to cut off use of the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The North Vietnamese responded to the bombings by giving more support to the Khmer Rouge (kuh-mer ROOZH), the Cambodian communist army. Nixon announced on April 30, 1970, that he would send U.S. troops to protect Cambodia s new, pro-u.s. government. When he announced the invasion of Cambodia, many Americans were outraged. Instead of working for peace, it looked as if Nixon was expanding the war. Reading Check: Contrasting What actions did President Nixon take to end the war, and what actions did he take to expand the war? Richard M. Nixon Richard Milhous Nixon was born in 1913 and grew up in and around Whittier, California. Even as a young man, Nixon showed various aspects of his adult personality. He was shy and socially awkward, but he pushed himself to meet people and win their support. His determination helped him to become a leader. At both Whittier College and Duke Law School, Nixon was elected studentbody president. After practicing law and serving in World War II, he ran for Congress in Writer David Halberstam described Nixon s drive. Once he started in politics, he could never stop: there would always be one more office to run for. What events in Nixon s life demonstrated his interest in politics? War in Vietnam 889

19 Interpreting the Visual Record Kent State The killings of antiwar protesters by National Guardsmen at Kent State University in 1970 hardened many Americans attitudes against the war. Why do you think scenes like this one upset the American public? I N G G N N K I L I PAST to PRESENT The United States and Vietnam Today After the war, the United States and Vietnam had a very unfriendly relationship for many years. Recently, however, the two countries have formed closer ties. The United States first lifted its trade ban on Vietnam in The United States opened a new embassy in Vietnam in Then in December 2000 President Bill Clinton made the first presidential visit to Vietnam in more than 30 years. Vietnamese leaders have encouraged American businesses to open operations in Vietnam. Many well-known American goods are now available in Vietnam, and signs for American products can be seen in the streets of Vietnamese cities. Give examples of the new relationship between Vietnam and the United States. New Protests Students responded to President Nixon s announcement by demonstrating at hundreds of college campuses, including Ohio s Kent State University. After students attacked a military training building, the governor called in the National Guard. On May 4, 1970, students at Kent State started to demonstrate again. The National Guard troops tried to break up the protest with tear gas. As the students threw rocks at the soldiers, some of the guardsmen opened fire. When the smoke cleared, 4 students were dead and 9 others were hurt. The Kent State killings shocked the public, and antiwar activists held more protests. Nearly 20 years later, university officials dedicated markers in the parking lot where the four students were killed. As the year went on, political and public opinion continued to turn against the war. In December 1970 Congress overturned the Tonkin Gulf Resolution. Public opinion grew even more divided when the New York Times published secret U.S. government documents obtained from Daniel Ellsberg, a former Pentagon official. The Pentagon Papers, as they were called, showed that U.S. officials had been lying about the progress of the Vietnam War for years. It is a system that lies automatically from top to bottom, Ellsberg said. After the Pentagon papers were published, some members of Congress wanted to cut off all funds for the Vietnam War. As the 1972 election drew near and as public opinion continued to turn against the war, President Nixon began to change his strategy. He ended the invasion of Cambodia and became more open to compromise. In 1972 Henry Kissinger began secret peace negotiations with North Vietnamese leaders. Reading Check: Identifying Cause and Effect Why did American public opinion continue to turn against the Vietnam War, and what effect did this have on political leaders? 890 Chapter 29

20 The End of the War The presidential election of 1972 offered voters a choice between two candidates with very different ideas about the war. Running against President Nixon was Senator George McGovern of South Dakota. A Democrat and a long-standing opponent of the war, McGovern promised that he would immediately pull all U.S. troops from Vietnam. The doors of government will be opened, and that brutal war will be closed, he said. In 1971 the Twenty-sixth Amendment had lowered the federal voting age from 21 to 18 years of age. Many Americans saw this change as fair because people of these ages were being drafted to serve in Vietnam. Some politicians expected this amendment to lead to a youth rebellion in the 1972 election. McGovern won the support of the majority of younger voters. However, most older voters from both parties supported Nixon. Although most Americans were tired of the war, they feared continued disorder and protests. Nixon also promised to end the war soon if re-elected. The public re-elected Nixon by a huge margin 520 electoral votes compared to 17 for McGovern. Ending the war proved difficult. Negotiations slowed after the election, and the United States began large-scale bombing of North Vietnam in December Finally, peace talks began again. On January 27, 1973, representatives of the National Liberation Front, North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the United States signed a cease-fire and a series of peace agreements in Paris. Known as the Paris Peace Accords, the agreements called for the removal of all U.S. troops and the return of all American prisoners of war (POWs). The accords also set up a demilitarized buffer zone between North and South Vietnam to maintain peace between the troops on each side. Under the agreement, Communists in South Vietnam could take part in politics. Further decisions about unification of the country were put off until later. Late in 1974, however, fighting broke out again between North and South Vietnam. The United States made it clear that it would not send troops back to South Vietnam. The following year large numbers of North Vietnamese troops invaded the South, where resistance collapsed rapidly. By the end of April 1975, the North Vietnamese had captured the southern capital, Saigon. Panic gripped the city, and many people fled. On July 2, 1976, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed. North and South Vietnam were officially unified under a communist government. Interpreting the Visual Record The fall of Saigon South Vietnamese who had supported the United States rushed to the U.S. embassy in hopes of escaping before the Communists took over. U.S. helicopters carried many people to safety, but more were left behind. How does this photograph indicate the urgency of the evacuation? Reading Check: Sequencing List the important events in the final years of the war in the order they occurred. War in Vietnam 891

21 TO CONNECTING The Vietnam Veterans Memorial In November 1982 the Vietnam Veterans Memorial opened in Washington, D.C., honoring the Americans who served in the Vietnam War. Designed by Maya Ying Lin, a 21-yearold Yale architecture student, the monument is a wall of black granite. The wall rises from the ground on one end and slopes back to the earth on the other end. The names of the more than 58,000 dead or missing Americans are listed according to the date that each died or disappeared. These names the only words on the monument force visitors to face the human costs of the war. The wall brings out strong emotions in visitors. Many people who visit the memorial leave behind keepsakes or military items. Why do you think this memorial brings out such strong emotions for visitors? The Consequences of the War The Vietnam War left long-lasting problems in Southeast Asia and the United States. Life was extremely difficult in Vietnam after the war. The death toll there was enormous. About 1 million North Vietnamese and Vietcong soldiers and about 185,000 South Vietnamese soldiers had died. Some 500,000 civilians also died, and almost 1 million Vietnamese children had become orphans. Cities and villages lay in ruins, while forests and farmlands lay bare. One Vietnamese newspaper editor described the damage. The war lasted thirty years, but it will take another twenty years before we will be able to overcome the legacy [history] of the problems it has left. Also in ruins, Laos and Cambodia fell to communist dictatorships in In Cambodia the Khmer Rouge Communists killed about 2 million people in a massive campaign to destroy supposed enemies of communism. Eventually, the Vietnamese and Cambodian Communists clashed. In 1979 Vietnam invaded Cambodia to drive out the Khmer Rouge. For many years afterward, Cambodia experienced ongoing conflict. Between 1975 and 1985 more than 1.5 million Southeast Asians left the region. Many of them died while trying to escape. About half of the refugees came to the United States. Le Ly Hayslip was a former Vietcong supporter who immigrated to the United States and later became a successful businesswoman. In her memoirs she addressed the U.S. soldiers who had fought in the war. Most of you did not know, or fully understand, the different wars my people were fighting when you got [to Vietnam], Hayslip wrote. The war also carried huge costs for the United States. Some 58,000 Americans died as a result of the war. About 2,500 remain MIAs. MIA 892 Chapter 29

22 stands for missing in action. Many soldiers faced difficulties after the war. Instead of a warm welcome, many veterans faced insults from some Americans. While most veterans readjusted to civilian life, others suffered from depression and a condition known as post-traumatic stress disorder. The Vietnam War also left the United States deeply divided. The discoveries of government dishonesty weakened Americans trust in their leaders. In 1973 Congress passed the War Powers Act to prevent undeclared wars. The act required the president to get approval from Congress before sending U.S. troops to an armed struggle. President Nixon vetoed the measure, but Congress overrode the veto. Passage of the War Powers Act gave Congress greater responsibility in setting U.S. military policy. On Veterans Day in 1982, officials dedicated the Vietnam Veterans Memorial to honor those who died in the war. Designed by Maya Ying Lin, the memorial is a black granite wall engraved with the names of the dead and the missing. Bruce Weigl explained why he and other veterans have visited the wall. History Makers Speak We came to find the names of those we lost in the war, as if by tracing the letters cut into the granite we could find what was left of ourselves. Bruce Weigl, Welcome Home, The Nation U.S. Air Force captain Ronald Bliss runs to meet his wife after spending seven years as a POW in Vietnam. Some Americans bought wristbands, like the one shown here, to remember POWs. Hundreds of people, some weeping, visit the memorial daily. Many leave flowers, personal mementos, or written messages. Others simply ponder what the memorial with its dark silence has to tell them. Reading Check: Analyzing Information How did the Vietnam War affect Vietnam and the United States? Section 4 keyword: Review 1 Identify and explain: Henry Kissinger Vietnamization Khmer Rouge Twenty-sixth Amendment Paris Peace Accords MIAs War Powers Act 2 Comparing and Contrasting Copy the diagram below. Use it to list the consequences of the Vietnam War, both in Vietnam and the United States. 3 4 Finding the Main Idea Vietnam Veterans B Memorial United O States TH Vietnam SC5 HP29 a. How did President Nixon handle the conflict in Vietnam when he first became president? b. Why do you think the United States did not send troops back to South Vietnam in 1974 to protect it from invasion by North Vietnam? Writing and Critical Thinking Summarizing Imagine that you are a South Vietnamese citizen in Write a journal entry describing the feelings you have had during the last years of the war. Consider the following: the Paris Peace Accords the North Vietnamese invasion the takeover of the government by the Communists War in Vietnam 893

23 Chapter Review The Chapter at a Glance Examine the visual summary of the chapter below. Then write a paragraph explaining your opinion of which was the most important event in the Vietnam War. Compare your paragraph with a classmate s paragraph. 1950s After the division of Vietnam in 1954, the communist-backed Vietcong began a civil war in South Vietnam. The United States sent military advisers to help the South. The Long War 1970s In 1973 the United States agreed to remove its troops from Vietnam. South Vietnam fell to North Vietnamese forces in s U.S. involvement in the war reached its peak in 1968, with more than 500,000 military personnel stationed in Vietnam. U.S. planes also bombed North Vietnam. Identifying People and Ideas Use the following terms or people in historically significant sentences. 1. domino theory 6. pacification 2. National Liberation Front 7. Tet Offensive 3. Tonkin Gulf Resolution 8. Richard M. Nixon 4. Ho Chi Minh Trail 9. Vietnamization 5. William Westmoreland 10. War Powers Act Understanding Main Ideas Section 1 (Pages ) 1. What led to the establishment of South Vietnam and North Vietnam? Section 2 (Pages ) 2. How did President Johnson follow a policy of escalation in the Vietnam War? Section 3 (Pages ) 3. How did some doves try to change U.S. war policy? 4. How did news of the Tet Offensive change many Americans attitudes toward the war? Section 4 (Pages ) 5. How did President Nixon end U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War? 6. How did the Vietnam War affect Americans and the Vietnamese? You Be the Historian Reviewing Themes 1. Global Relations Why did the United States fight in Vietnam? 2. Geography How did Vietnam s geography challenge the U.S. military effort there? 3. Government How did the Tonkin Gulf Resolution and the War Powers Act affect the relationship between the legislative and executive branches of the U.S. government? Thinking Critically 1. Contrasting How were the governments of North and South Vietnam different? 2. Supporting a Point of View Do you think people can disagree with the policies and actions of their government and still be loyal citizens? Explain your answer. 3. Drawing Inferences and Conclusions Why did North Vietnam attack South Vietnam in 1975 despite the cease-fire? 894 Chapter 29

24 Interpreting Charts Study the chart below. Then use the chart to answer the questions that follow. Causes and Effects of the Vietnam War Long-Term Causes Fear of communist expansion U.S. support of South Vietnam s government Vietnam War Effects Many thousands of Americans and Vietnamese killed and injured Vietnam united as a communist nation Political divisions created in the United States Ailments suffered by U.S. veterans Immediate Causes Gulf of Tonkin incident Communist attacks against South Vietnam 1. Which of the following was not one of the effects of the Vietnam War? a. Vietnam was united as a communist nation. b. The Gulf of Tonkin incident occurred. c. U.S. veterans suffered ailments. d. Many Americans and Vietnamese were killed and injured. 2. How do you think the long-term causes of the war shaped the U.S. government s responses to the immediate causes of the war? Analyzing Primary Sources Read the following excerpt from the War Powers Act, and then answer the questions that follow. Whenever United States Armed Forces are introduced into hostilities [fighting] the President shall... report to the Congress... on the status [state] of such hostilities.... Within sixty calendar days after a report is submitted... the President shall terminate [end] any use of the... Armed Forces... unless the Congress (1) has declared war... (2) has extended by law such sixtyday period, or (3) is physically unable to meet as a result of an armed attack How does the War Powers Act lessen the president s control of the military? a. It limits the president s power to send troops to fight and involves Congress in decisions about war. b. It limits the troops that the president can send. c. It requires the president to get the permission of Congress to send troops. d. It limits the president s authority to declare war. 4. Why do you think Congress passed this law? Alternative Assessment Building Your Portfolio Cooperative Learning Complete the following activity in small groups. Imagine that you work in the map bureau of the State Department. A new U.S. diplomat to Southeast Asia has asked for a historical map of the region spanning the years 1954 to Create a detailed map for the diplomat. Make sure that your map explains important historical events in the region. As a group, present your map to the class. Internet Activity: go.hrw.com keyword: SC5 HP29 Choose a topic on the War in Vietnam to: Create a map on the geographic features of Southeast Asia. Write a journal entry from the point of view of a soldier in the war. Create a pamphlet describing the war under Nixon. War in Vietnam 895

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