INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017

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1 INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017

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3 INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS Fourth Report of the Continuous Reporting System on International Migration in the Americas (SICREMI) 2017

4 OAS Cataloging-in-Publication Data International Migration in the Americas: Fourth Report of the Continuous Reporting System on International Migration in the Americas (SICREMI) p.; cm. Includes bibliographical references. (OAS. Official records ; OEA/ Ser.D) ISBN Emigration and immigration--economic aspects. 2. Emigration and immigration--social aspects. 3. Emigration and immigration law. 4. Alien labor. 5. Refugees. I. Organization of American States. Secretariat for Access to Rights and Equity. Department of Social Inclusion. Migration and Development Program (MIDE). II. Continuous Reporting System on International Migration in the Americas (SICREMI). III. Title: Fourth Report of the Continuous Reporting System on International Migration in the Americas (SICREMI) IV. Series. OEA/Ser.D/XXVI.2.4 ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES 17th Street and Constitution Ave., N.W. Washington, D.C , USA All rights reserved. Secretary General, OAS Luis Almagro Assistant Secretary General, OAS Nestor Mendez Secretary for Access to Rights and Equity Mauricio Rands Director of the Department of Social Inclusion Betilde Muñoz-Pogossian The partial or complete reproduction of this document without previous authorization could result in a violation of the applicable law. The Organization of American States supports the dissemination of this work and will normally authorize permission for its reproduction. To request permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this publication, please send a request to: Secretariat for Access to Rights and Equity Organization of American States 1889 F ST N.W. Washington D.C , USA DIS@oas.org The publication cover was designed by Miki Fernández of Ultradesigns, Inc. This publication is available at

5 / iii The coordination and production of this Report was jointly managed by Juan Manuel Jiménez Martínez and Marcia Bebianno Simões, Specialists of the Secretariat for Access to Rights and Equity of the Organization of American States (OAS) and Georges Lemaître, former principal Administrator of the International Migration Division of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Véronique Gindrey, statistician of the OECD provided support in statistics and in the analysis of the labor market outcomes. Katiuska Lourenço da Silva, Specialist of the Department of Social Inclusion of the OAS provided support in preparing the country notes and coordinating the publication process. René Maldonado, coordinator of the Remittances and Financial Inclusion Program of the Center for Latin American Monetary Studies (CEMLA); Jesús Cervantes, Manager of Economic Statistics and coordinator of the Latin American and Caribbean Remittances Forum of CEMLA and Salvador Bonilla, Deputy Manager of Economic Statistics (CEMLA) contributed to the remittances portion of this report. The content of this report is based on the official information provided and validated by the Network of National Correspondents designated by the OAS member countries participating in this report. Preparation and dissemination of this document was made possible thanks to the contribution of the Agencia Española de Cooperación para el Desarrollo, AECID, and the People s Republic of China.

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7 / v FOREWORD We are very pleased to present the 2017 edition of International Migration in the Americas, the fourth report since As in previous editions, the report is based on the Continuous Reporting System on International Migration in the Americas, better known under its Spanish acronym SICREMI. This work is a joint effort of the Organization of American States (OAS) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Since its inception in 2009, the objective of the SICREMI project has been to compile, analyse and publish statistics on international migration in the western hemisphere, but also from the countries of the Americas to OECD countries located outside the western hemisphere. The publication is a useful source of information on recent changes in movements and in migration policies in the Americas. It is also aimed at supporting discussions and public debate on international migration. In addition, international comparisons can provide important insights into economic and social phenomena and how governments address them. International migration in the Americas between 2010 and 2015 grew by 5% per year. This figure, however, exceeded 11% for the Latin America and Caribbean region. Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador and Panama have established themselves as the new immigration countries of the western hemisphere, drawing immigrants from many of their neighbouring countries. In the past 15 years, the total number of immigrants resident in LAC countries, originating both within and outside the region, increased by 2.6 million people or 45%. By comparison, during the same period, the number of migrants increased by 34% in the United States and by 30% in Europe (including intra EU migrants). Although South-North flows remain predominant in the hemisphere, this trend clearly illustrates the dynamism of international migration within and towards LAC countries. In recent years, the deceleration of economic growth in Latin America and the global recovery in advanced countries have led to an increase in outflows from LAC, in particular to Spain and to the United States. In the latter case, total permanent immigration increased both in 2014 and 2015 without, however, recovering its pre-crisis level while temporary migration reached 1.9 million in In addition, annual entries to Canada represent about 1.7% of the total population, the highest rate after Barbados and before the United States. In the Americas, as in other parts of the world, migration trends have been reinforced by the increase in the number of people fleeing their countries, whether from natural catastrophes, or economic or political instability. Labor market integration of Latin American emigrants in OECD countries was severely affected by the deterioration in labor market conditions in the aftermath of the global financial crisis of Those who arrived shortly before or after 2007 faced high risks of unemployment, notably in Spain. With the recovery finally taking hold almost everywhere, the labor market outlook of Latin

8 vi / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2015 American emigrants has improved both in North America and in other OECD countries. Remittances have also recovered from the severe decline observed during the crisis and are now 4% above their pre-crisis levels (in constant dollars). But this small increase illustrates the severe toll which the economic crisis has had on immigrant earnings and transfers to their countries of origin. We trust that this publication will contribute to the debate on international migration, a phenomenon which is here to stay and which can bring great benefits to both origin and destination countries as well as to the migrants themselves. Angel Gurría OECD, Secretary-General Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Luis Almagro OAS, Secretary Organization of American States

9 / vii MEMBER COUNTRIES OF THE ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES (OAS) Antigua and Barbuda Argentina The Bahamas (Commonwealth of) Barbados Belize Bolivia (Plurinational State of) Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Dominica (Commonwealth of) Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico

10 viii / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States of America Uruguay Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

11 / ix MEMBER COUNTRIES OF THE ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT (OECD) Australia Austria Belgium Canada Chile Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Israël Italy Japan Korea Luxembourg

12 x / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Norway Poland Portugal Slovak Republic Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom United States

13 / xi NETWORK OF NATIONAL CORRESPONDENTS SICREMI 2017 The participating organizations would like to express their special thanks to the National Correspondents of the participating OAS Member States and their teams, who worked hard to produce the national reports, on which this report is based. Argentina Horacio José García, Director, Dirección Nacional de Migraciones Diego H. Enriquez, Director, Dirección General de Información, Análisis y Control Migratorio, Dirección Nacional de Migraciones Santiago De Carli, Analist, Dirección General de Información, Análisis y Control Migratorio, Dirección Nacional de Migraciones Barbados Wayne Marshall, Chief Immigration Officer, Immigration Department Janice Robinson, Immigration and Passport Department Belize Permanent Mission of Belize to the Organization of American States Bolivia (Plurinational State of) German Guaygua Choqueguaita, Chief of Consular Policy Unit, Dirección General de Asuntos Consulares, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores Brazil Simone Eliza Casagrande, Chief, Divisão de Nacionalidade e Naturalização, Ministerio de Justicia Canada Xiaoyi Yan, Director, Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada Chile Carlos Appelgren Balbontín, Director, Dirección General de Asuntos Consulares y de Inmigración, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores Rolando Ortega Klose, Director of Consular Policy, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores Pedro Osvaldo Hernández González, Deputy director of International Migration, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores

14 xii / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2015 Colombia Luz Stella Jara Portilla, Director, Dirección de Asuntos Migratorios, Consulares y Servicio al Ciudadano, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores César Camilo Vallejo, Advisor, Dirección de Asuntos Migratorios, Consulares y Servicio al Ciudadano, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores Costa Rica Gisela María Yockchen Mora, Director, Dirección General de Migración y Extranjería Luis Alonso Serrano, Chief of Institutional Planning, Dirección General de Migración y Extranjería Ada María Porras Salazar, Advisor, Dirección General de Migración y Extranjería Dominican Republic Samuel O. Jiménez Lorenzo, Director of Migratory Control, Dirección General de Migración, Ministerio de Interior y Policía Ecuador José Luis Jácome, Viceminister of Human Mobility, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Movilidad Humana Rebeca Eloísa Pico Castro, Viceministry of Human Mobility, Third Secretary of Foreign Service, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Movilidad Humana El Salvador Angélica María Andreu, Chief of Planning, Dirección General de Migración y Extranjería, Ministerio de Justicia y Seguridad Pública de El Salvador Guatemala Arabella Woolfolk, General Director, Dirección General de Asuntos Consulares y Migratorios, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores Miriam Fabiola Mazariegos Caravantes, Second Secretary of Consular Affairs and Migration, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores Honduras Liza Claudett Medrano Moncada, General Director, Protección al Hondureño Migrante, Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores y Cooperación Internacional Jamaica Toni-Shae Freckleton, Manager, Population and Health Unit, Social Policy, Planning and Research Division, Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ)

15 Network of National Correspondents / xiii Mexico Graciela Martínez Caballero, Director of Statistics, Unidad de Política Migratoria, Secretaría de Gobernación de México Panama Flor Carrera Muñoz, Chief, Oficina de Asuntos Internacionales, Servicio Nacional de Migración Panamá Paraguay Juan Ignacio Livieres, General Director, Dirección de Asuntos Consulares, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores Peru Anibal Sánchez Aguilar, Deputy chief of Statistics, Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática Juan Diomedes Trejo Bedon, Analyst, Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática United States of America Gregory Holliday, Population, Refugee and Migration Bureau, State Department Uruguay Fiorella Di Landri, Analyst, Departamento de Estadísticas Sociodemográficas, Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas A special thanks to Antônio Tadeu Ribeiro de Oliveira, of the Migration Observatory and the Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE), for his invaluable contribution to the national report of Brazil.

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17 / xv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY An overview of immigration movements in 2014 and 2015 Immigration into countries of the Americas as a whole increased by 6% in 2015, only slightly more than the rate of increase observed on average over the period. Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) immigration, on the other hand, resumed its strong growth in 2015 (11%) after the barely 2% observed in 2014 relative to The increase in the Mercosur region was somewhat higher than for the LAC region as whole, at 13%. Overall movements in the LAC region reached 20% of all immigration into countries of the Americas, both permanent and temporary, in The level of migration into LAC countries stood at close to 880 thousand in 2015, an increase of almost 365 thousand compared to The nature of migration in the Americas Migration is driven by many different motives and the regulation of migration as embodied in the visas and permits granted to immigrants reflects this diversity. Family-related migration is expected to be relatively more common among permanent migration and work-related migration among temporary and this is indeed what one observes in general in virtually all countries of the Americas. Study migration, while visible in almost all destination countries, plays a significant role in temporary migration in only a few, namely Barbados, Canada, Honduras and the United States. Humanitarian migration is evident only in Canada, the United States and in Brazil, which has granted permanent residence to many Haitian earthquake refugees in recent years. Asylum seeking in the Americas Asylum applications in the Americas increased 83% between 2013 and 2015, reaching 184 thousand applications. These represent 6% of all applications worldwide, which increased 187% in the same period, as a result of armed conflict in Syria, Afghanistan and Iraq. Asylum seekers born in the Americas accounted for 56% of all asylum applications in the hemisphere, a 7% rise when compared to 2013 levels. Between 2001 and 2015, the main countries of origin being Mexico (29%), Colombia (13%), El Salvador (12%), Haiti (12%), Guatemala (10%), Honduras (6%) and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (4%). In the Americas there has been a progressive legislative harmonization with regard to the status of refugees, with countries incorporating the principles and standards of protection contained in the 1951 Convention and its 1967 Protocol. Many countries of Latin America have also signed the 1984 Cartagena Declaration on Refugees, which expands the definition of the 1951 Convention to

18 xvi / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 include persons who have fled their countries because of internal conflicts, violations of human rights or other circumstances that have seriously disrupted public order. However, the right of free establishment introduced by the Mercosur Residence Agreement and which now applies to virtually all countries of South America, has made the broader concept somewhat redundant for the countries of the region, while the distance of South America from war zones in Africa and Asia as well as visa requirements have up to now limited the number of asylum requests on this basis. While requests for asylum have been increasing in many countries of the Americas, refugee status is nonetheless granted to only a minority of applicants in most countries as is generally the case throughout the OECD zone. The regional dimension of migration in the Americas Immigration into countries of the Americas remains, for most countries of the region, an intra- American phenomenon, with a heavy predominance of migrants from other countries of the hemisphere. There are exceptions to this, with Canada and the United States, long-standing migration countries, showing relatively more immigrants from Asia in 2015 and indeed in most years, and Brazil, Colombia and Mexico, the three most populated countries of the LAC region, with some 15-20% of immigrants from Asia. Migration within signatory countries of regional agreements (Mercosur, NAFTA, CARICOM, SICA) accounts for a majority or more of all immigration from the Americas for the signatory countries of these agreements taken as a whole. The Mercosur bloc shows the strongest concentration of intra-bloc movements, with almost three quarters of its intra-hemispheric immigration coming from other Mercosur members. A significant proportion of the increase in intra-american migration, however, can be attributed to persons fleeing conflict zones, natural catastrophes or conditions of economic collapse or underdevelopment, for example in Colombia, Cuba, Haiti and Venezuela. In other words, the increase in immigration in this region cannot be entirely viewed through the lens of a greater-economic-integration perspective. The acquisition of nationality by immigrants in countries of the Americas Overall, outside of Canada and the United States relatively few immigrants in LAC countries appear to take out the nationality of their adopted countries. The low propensity may be associated with the existence of numerous regional agreements facilitating movements among the countries concerned but also because much of the migration in LAC countries involves persons from neighboring countries, to whom settlement may not always appear as definitive. Recent developments with regard to movements to the United States and Spain The evolution of migration movements from the Americas to the United States, as tracked by the American Community Survey, shows a notable development, namely, the fact that immigration from Mexico had still not recovered from pre-crisis levels as of In that year, it stood at about half of the levels registered in Since authorized migration by Mexican nationals has actually increased by about 32% over this same period, largely as a result of temporary movements, the drop in overall migration suggests a strong decline in unauthorized migration from Mexico. The 2008 economic crisis saw a significant reduction in arrivals to the United States, especially from Mexico, with all regions showing a strong recovery by 2015 except Mexico. Stay rates of immigrants

19 Excecutive Summary / xvii who arrived in the United States between 2006 and 2015 (mostly permanent and unauthorized, but including some temporary) have averaged around 70%. In 2004, prior to the economic crisis, barely 1% of immigrants from the Americas in Spain left that country every year. As the Spanish economy fell into a deep recession, outflow rates of immigrants from the Americas stood at close to 6% in However, not all of this increase appears to be related to the economic crisis, since rates had already begun increasing strongly before the crisis hit. As in the United States, the highest departure rates from Spain were for immigrants from Canada and the Southern Cone. About one third of immigrants from the Americas present at any time in Spain from 2002 to 2016 had left as of 2015, ranging from under or close to 20% for immigrants from the Caribbean to over 40% for immigrants from Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Mexico and Paraguay. As in the United States, differences in mobility patterns among immigrants of different nationalities have changed the composition of immigration in Spain. A general overview of emigration from countries of the Americas to Europe and to other countries of the Americas Despite the strong increases in immigration observed in many countries of Latin America and the Caribbean in recent years, they remain for the most part countries of emigration. From a situation where only 27% of migration movements from the Americas went to countries of Latin America and the Caribbean over the period , a mere three years later ( ) it was fully 34% of movements. This is a large change over such a short period. Most of the change came at the expense of emigration to Europe and in particular to Spain. Recent outflows from the Americas show signs of a partial return to traditional patterns of expatriation, but with continued strong increases in intra-lac movements. The labor market outcomes of migrants from the Americas in Europe and the United States By 2015, migrants from the Americas had reached 22.8 million in the United States and more than 2.4 million in Spain. They represented fully 9.4% of the working-age population in the United States and 6.2% in Spain. In , three quarters of immigrants from the Americas living in the United States or European OECD countries were in the labor force. Their employment rate reached 69%, a 1.6 percentage point increase since and their unemployment rate 9%, down 2.7 percentage points. If all immigrant from the Americas groups saw their situation in the labor market improve recently, immigrants living in Spain are still lagging behind with an employment rate of 58% and an unemployment rate of fully 29%. Nonetheless, the risk of being unemployed has decreased for virtually every group of immigrants from the Americas between and Migrant men living in Spain in particular gained from the employment recovery, with their employment rate increasing by 3.6 percentage points between and In the United States, immigrant men from other countries of the Americas register higher participation and employment rates and lower unemployment rates than other foreign-born men and indeed, than US-born men. The situation for immigrant women from the Americas in the United States is the exact opposite.

20 xviii / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 In Spain, the largest destination country in Europe for emigrants from the Americas, men and women face a higher risk of unemployment than the Spanish-born but a lower one than other immigrants. In , in the United States and European OECD countries there were respectively 3.2 million and employed tertiary-educated immigrants from the Americas. Compared to other regions of origin, immigrants from the Americas represent 10% of the employed tertiary-educated immigrants in Europe a more substantial share in Spain, 39% and 29% in the United States. Tertiary-educated immigrants from the Americas are often over-qualified for the job they may hold. In particular, over-qualification affects more than half of Central Americans working in the United States and of Andeans working in Spain. Remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean in 2016 In 2016, remittance flows to Latin America and the Caribbean reached record levels in nominal terms, with an undoubtedly positive impact on millions of recipient households. The most important characteristics of the flows were: i) the total amount reached USD million, after increasing for 7 consecutive years; ii) the growth of the inflows from 2015 to 2016 was 7.2%, which is the highest growth rate recorded in the past 10 years, iii) the increase in remittances was general throughout all the different sub-regions; and iv) the increase stemmed from, among other factors, higher employment and higher average wages and, consequently, a larger total wage bill for migrant workers from the main destination countries. After the fall in remittances experienced in 2009, the flows of remittances recovered, albeit at a much slower rate than had been observed prior to the financial crisis. By 2014 levels exceeded those observed before the financial crisis in nominal terms. In real terms, the pre-crisis levels were exceeded only in 2016, by about 4%. In countries such as Haiti, Honduras, El Salvador, Jamaica and Guatemala, income from remittances was between 10% and 29% of GDP in 2016.

21 / xix CONTENTS PART I: Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes... 1 Introduction... 3 An overview of immigration movements in 2014 and The nature of migration in the Americas... 8 Immigration by permanent / temporary status...8 The diversity of migration movements...11 Asylum seeking in the Americas Decisions on asylum applications in the Americas, The regional dimension of migration in the Americas The acquisition of nationality by immigrants in countries of the Americas Recent developments with regard to movements to the United States and Spain Entry into and departure from the United States by persons from the Americas, Entry into and departure from Spain by emigrants from the Americas, A general overview of emigration from countries of the Americas to Europe and to other countries of the Americas The labor market outcomes of migrants from the Americas in Europe and the United States Remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean in Mexico...56 Central America...56 The determinants of the increase in remittance flows to Mexico...57 The Caribbean...59 South America...59 The determinants of remittance flows...59 United States...60 Spain...62 At the Origin Latin America and the Caribbean...62 References Annex A1. Using the American Community Survey to track migration flows... 66

22 xx / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 PART II: Country Notes Introduction Argentina Country note Country note table Barbados Country note Country note table Bolivia Country note Country note table Brazil Country note Country note table Canada Country note Country note table Chile Country note Country note table Colombia Country note Country note table Costa Rica Country note Country note table Dominican Republic Country note Country note table Ecuador Country note Country note table El Salvador Country note Country note table

23 Contents / xxi Guatemala Country note Country note table Honduras Overview of the History of International Migration Immigration Emigration Legal Framework Governing International Migration Regulations Governing Entry and Stay Entry categories Acquisition of Nationality and Citizenship Asylum, refugees and complimentary protection References Country note table Jamaica Country note Country note table Mexico Country note Country note table Panama Country note Country note table Paraguay Country note Country note table Peru Country note Country note table United States of America Country note Country note table Uruguay Country note Country note table

24 xxii / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 PART III: Statistical Annex Introduction The table-lettering system Sources and definitions Statistical tables I.a.fl. Inflows of legal immigrants of foreign nationality I.d.fl. Inflows of legal permanent immigration, by country of nationality Argentina Barbados Belize Bolivia (Plurinational State of) Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Honduras Jamaica Mexico Panama Paraguay Peru United States of America Uruguay Metadata related to Tables I.a.fl. and I.d.fl. Inflows of legal immigrants of foreign nationality I.a.as. Inflows of asylum seekers Metadata related to Tables I.a.as. and I.d.as. Inflows of asylum seekers I.a.fb. The foreign-born population Metadata related to Table I.a.fb. The foreign-born population I.a.an. Acquisitions of nationality I.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality, by country of previous nationality Barbados Belize Bolivia (Plurinational State of) Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica

25 Contents / xxiii Dominican Republic Ecuador Honduras Guatemala Jamaica Mexico Peru United States of America Uruguay Metadata related to Tables I.a.an. and I.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality E.a.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries by country of nationality E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination Antigua and Barbuda Argentina The Bahamas, Commonwealth of Barbados Belize Bolivia, Plurinational State of Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States of America Uruguay

26 xxiv / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Metadata related to Tables E.a.fl. and E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries E.a.fb.US. The population born in the Americas living in the United States E.a.fb.SP. The population born in the Americas living in Spain Metadata related to Tables E.a.fb.US. and E.a.fb.SP. The population born in the Americas and living in the United States and Spain E.a.an. Acquisitions of nationality in OECD countries and other countries of the Americas E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality Antigua and Barbuda Argentina The Bahamas, Commonwealth of Barbados Belize Bolivia, Plurinational State of Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States

27 Contents / xxv Uruguay Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Metadata related to Tables E.a.an. and E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in OECD countries and countries of the Americas E.a.em. Employment rates of emigrant workers from the Americas in the United States and the European OECD countries by country of birth and gender, 2008 to E.a.un. Unemployment rates of emigrant workers from the Americas in the United States and the European OECD countries by country of birth and gender, 2008 to E.a.pr. Participation rates of emigrant workers from the Americas in the United States and the European OECD countries by country of birth and gender, 2008 to Metadata related to Tables E.a.em., E.a.un., and E.a.pr. Labor force outcomes of emigrants from the Americas in the United States and Europe

28 xxvi / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Index of Tables and Figures Tables Table 1. International migration inflows in the Americas, permanent and temporary, Table 2. Asylum seekers in the Americas, Table 3. The extent of immigration from the Americas to and from signatory countries of regional agreements, Table 4. Emigration from selected origin countries towards regions of the Americas, permanent and temporary migration, Table 5. Acquisitions of nationality in countries of the Americas, Table 6. Entries to and departures from Spain of immigrants from the Americas, Table 7. Emigration from the Americas to destination regions in the Americas and to OECD countries, Table 8. Percent change in emigration from the Americas to OECD countries and other countries of the Americas, Table 9. Labor market outcomes of emigrant workers from the Americas in the United States and European OECD countries by country of birth and gender, and averages Table 10. Over-qualification among employed tertiary-educated immigrants from the Americas in European OECD countries and the United States, Table 11. Exchange rate and inflation effects in remittances, Table 12. Income from remittances in Latin America and the Caribbean Figures Figure 1. Inflows, permanent and temporary, as a percentage of the population, 2010 and Figure 2. Percent of immigration which is permanent, 2010 and Figure 3. International migration inflows by type, Figure 4. Main asylum destination countries for asylum seekers born in the Americas, Figure 5. Decisions on asylum requests by country of asylum, Figure 6. Decisions on asylum requests by country of origin, Figure 7. Immigration into countries of the Americas, permanent and temporary, by continent of origin, Figure 8. Evolution of immigrant arrivals in the United States, by region of origin, American Community Survey, Figure 9. Distribution of immigrant arrivals into the United States of America , by region of origin, American Community Survey Figure 10. Rate of outflow per year from the United States, immigrants from the Americas, percent of the stock, Figure 11. Immigrants from the Americas who arrived in the United States from , by presence in the United States in 2015, selected countries Figure 12. Immigration to Spain from the Americas, by region of origin, Figure 13. Gap in employment rates between men and women in the United States and in European OECD countries, by country of region of birth, Figure 14. Remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean,

29 Contents / xxvii Figure 15. Remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean, Figure 16. USA: Change from 2013 to 2016 in selected employment and earnings of Mexican immigrant workers Figure 17. Remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean, Figure 18. Intraregional remittances to selected countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, Figure A1. Immigrants in the United States by years since arrival, arrival cohorts combined, American Community Survey Figure A2. Year-to-year change in the estimated number of immigrants from other countries of the Americas to the United States, , American Community Survey Boxes Box 1. Defining permanent and temporary migration... 8 Box 2. Spotlight on Brazil Box 3. The determinants of remittances in 2016: The case of Mexico... 57

30 xxviii / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 ACRONYMS AECID CAN CARICOM EU GDP LAC Mercosur NAFTA OAS OECD SICA SICREMI UNHCR Agencia Española de Cooperación para el Desarrollo Andean Community Caribbean Community and Common Market European Union Gross Domestic Product Latin American and the Caribbean Southern Common Market North American Free Trade Agreement Organization of American States Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Central American Integration System Continuous Reporting System on International Migration in the Americas United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

31 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes

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33 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 3 Introduction The countries of the Americas have seen somewhat lower Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth since 2013 relative to the post-2008 crisis recovery years, with growth nonetheless remaining positive almost everywhere, except in the Bahamas and Brazil but showing signs of a strong downturn in Ecuador and Uruguay. In Spain, one of the two main destination countries for emigrants from Latin America, growth finally became positive in 2014 and exceeded 3% in In the United States it was close to 2.5% in both years. 1 We will examine what effect these economic developments have had on migration movements in the Americas in 2014 and As analyses of OECD countries have shown, it is generally free circulation or free establishment movements as well as temporary migration which react the most to changes in economic conditions, with employers recruiting less and workers tending to remain at home closer to family support networks in times of economic downturns (OECD 2011). Family migration can be delayed if immigrants intending to bring in family members lose their means of livelihood, but the migration of family members is not mainly motivated by the availability of work. This chapter presents an overview of migration movements in and out of the Americas in 2014 and Recent movements are presented first, followed by a discussion of the permanent/temporary nature of the immigration observed (section 2), the diversity of the types of immigration (work, family, study, etc.) and the extent of asylum seeking (section 3). Next is reviewed the regional nature of immigration (section 4) into countries of Latin America and the Caribbean and the acquisition of nationality in the countries of the Americas (section 5). The United States and Spain remain major destination countries for emigrants from the Americas and movements into and out of these countries are covered next. This is followed by a broader overview of emigration in general (section 7). The chapter closes with a section on the labor force outcomes of emigrants from the Americas in the United States and Europe and one on the remittances transmitted by emigrants to their families in origin countries. An overview of immigration movements in 2014 and 2015 In view of the fact that changes in economic conditions have not been strongly positive or negative, except perhaps in a few countries, in , one might have expected smaller changes in migration movements in the Americas relative to the past and this is indeed what one observed in 2014 in Latin America and the Caribbean; 2015, however, showed a stronger overall increase, but one which needs to be nuanced by country (Table 1). 1 The most recent reference year for the analyses in this section concerns Irregular migration into LAC countries, which is significant, will not be covered in this issue. The reader is referred to the Annex of Chapter 1 of the previous addition of this publication, where a number of indicators of the extent of irregular migration were presented.

34 4 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Table 1. International migration inflows in the Americas, permanent and temporary, % change all migration Inflows as a %age of total population / /2010 annualised Permanent Argentina 31 9 Temporary Permanent Barbados Temporary Permanent Bolivia (1) -3 9 Temporary Permanent Brazil 3 7 Temporary Permanent Canada 0 0 Temporary Chile Permanent and temporary Colombia Permanent and temporary Costa Rica Permanent Temporary Dominican Republic Permanent Temporary Ecuador Permanent Temporary Permanent El Salvador Temporary Permanent Guatemala Temporary Permanent Honduras Temporary Jamaica Permanent and temporary Permanent Mexico -6 6 Temporary Permanent Panama Temporary

35 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 5 Table 1. International migration inflows in the Americas, permanent and temporary, (cont.) % change all migration Inflows as a %age of total population / /2010 annualised Permanent Paraguay Temporary Peru Permanent and temporary Permanent United States 6 4 Temporary Permanent Uruguay Temporary All countries AB All countries less Canada and the United States A Mercosur members and associate countries A as a percentage of AB Source: National administrative data on visas and residence permits. Notes: Estimates have been revised for Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador and Peru. Statistics for Ecuador nominally based on 2010 estimates have been calculated using 2011 estimates. For certain countries, entry visas or permits do not distinguish clearly between migrants allowed to enter for a limited time (for example, seasonal workers) and those on a permanent migration track (investors or family members of nationals). For such countries, entries of migrants are shown as a combination of both permanent and temporary migration. (1) Plurinational State of

36 6 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Immigration into countries of the Americas as a whole increased by 6% in 2015, only slightly more than the rate of increase observed on average over the period. Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) immigration, on the other hand, resumed its strong growth in 2015 (11%) after the barely 2% increase observed in 2014 relative to The 11% is in line with the annualized five-year rate of immigration over the period. The increase in the Mercosur region was somewhat higher than for the LAC region as whole, at 13%. Overall movements in the LAC region reached 20% of all immigration into countries of the Americas, both permanent and temporary, in The level of migration into LAC countries stood at close to 880 thousand in 2015, an increase of almost 365 thousand compared to As Table 1 illustrates, however, the overall picture of migration movements into this region masks a highly contrasted situation, with a number of countries showing very large increases relative to 2014, in particular Panama and Uruguay, where entries at least doubled 2, and others with rather significant declines, namely Barbados (-12%) and Honduras (-24%). Among the migration countries with higher levels of immigration, increases have exceeded 20% in both Argentina and Chile but have remained largely stable in Brazil and Canada and showed a modest increase (6%) in the United States. The granting of green cards in the United States, largely subject as these are to numerical limits, increased by scarcely 3%, while temporary migration rose by close to 7%. Migration to Mexico declined by 6%, largely as a consequence of the fall in persons changing status from temporary to permanent, a movement which had increased significantly following the implementation of the new migration law in late Still immigration remains a relatively modest phenomenon in almost all countries of the LAC region, with only Argentina, Barbados, Chile and Costa Rica showing immigration rates exceeding half of a percent of the population per year (Figure 1). Brazil and Mexico, the most populated countries of the region, show rates of scarcely 0.07% per year. Overall, the immigration rate in the region stood at 0.16% in Although the extension of the Mercosur Residence Agreement to virtually all countries of South America, in combination with the decline of migration to the United States and Spain following the economic crisis, has undoubtedly spurred intra-american migration, levels remain in general relatively low. 2 Note that entries here may include regularisations or changes from temporary to permanent status in some countries, for which entry into the country did not necessarily occur in the year when it is recorded.

37 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 7 Figure 1. Inflows, permanent and temporary, as a percentage of the population, 2010 and 2015 Barbados Canada United States of America Costa Rica Chile Argentina Ecuador Panama Jamaica Uruguay Bolivia (1) Paraguay Colombia Peru Dominican Republic Mexico Brazil Guatemala El Salvador Honduras Source: National administrative data on visas and residence permits. Note: The 2010 data shown for Ecuador are from (1) Plurinational State of Still, the 11% annual increase observed over is far from insignificant and, if it persists, will bring much higher levels of immigration in the LAC region in the future. Indeed, if this rate of increase is maintained, immigration levels into LAC countries as a whole will reach 2.5 million by This would correspond, roughly speaking, to immigration for the LAC region that is proportionally comparable to what Ecuador and Panama experienced in 2015, but still significantly below the immigration rates of Argentina, Chile and Costa Rica.

38 8 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 The nature of migration in the Americas Immigration by permanent / temporary status As immigration becomes a more common phenomenon in Latin American and Caribbean countries, one might expect movements to begin to respond to general economic conditions, as structural movements (marriage migration, cultural exchange, retirement, etc.) decline in importance relative to overall movements. This would mean in principle an increase in the relative importance of temporary migration, which tends to be more heavily skewed towards labor-related migration, with immigrants moving to take advantage of significantly better wages than are available in their own countries or regions and then returning home with their savings. But other factors can come into play as well, in particular, movements of persons fleeing persecution or conflict zones or indeed, changes in migration laws and regulations which either restrict or facilitate migration movements. With the recovery from the economic crisis of 2008, one might have expected an increase in temporary migration, as more favorable conditions in destination countries reasserted themselves. However, even a strong economic downturn such as occurred in does not result in a disappearance in economic movements; demand may decline significantly, but not uniformly across sectors, and labor shortages may persist in certain occupations which have come to depend on immigrant labor. In short, migration movements will be recovering from a base which is higher than what existed in the past. The change in the permanent / temporary nature of migration between 2010 and 2015 (see Box1), as exemplified by the proportion of permanent residence permits granted in the destination countries, is depicted in Figure 2, with a number of countries, however, showing a strong increase in permanent migration, contrary to expectations, while one (Paraguay) showed a very strong decline. It is instructive to examine these situations a little more closely, in order to understand what has been driving these movements. Box 1. Defining permanent and temporary migration The immigration statistics for countries of the Americas presented in this chapter are based on administrative data on grants of visas or residence permits. These evidently are not designed to measure immigration in the way that demographers normally understand the term but rather to keep track of national regulation of entry and stay in the country by persons of foreign nationality. They also by definition exclude unauthorized immigrants, unless such persons manage to obtain a permit of some kind while they are in the country and thereby enter the statistics of persons authorized to stay. In such cases, they will enter the country in the year when they enter into the statistics and not in the year when they originally arrived. The administrative data on visas or permits have been adapted to measure immigration in the way that most countries reflect it in their laws and regulations, that is, an entry into the national territory by a foreigner for a specific purpose, either indefinitely (a permanent migrant) or for a specified period (a temporary migrant). Excluded from consideration are entries for tourism, business visits (for prospection or purchases), to exercise diplomatic functions or to transport passengers or goods into the country.

39 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 9 Box 1. Defining permanent and temporary migration (cont.) A temporary immigrant is defined as a person admitted with a visa or granted a permit which is of limited duration and which is either not renewable or only renewable on a limited basis. These may include stays of very short duration, such as those of performing artists or equipment installers, but also those of international students, which may last for the entire period during which they are studying. A permanent migrant is a person who is granted a permit of indefinite duration at entry or, equivalently, one that is of limited duration but indefinitely renewable, even if there may be conditions which must be satisfied for the renewal to occur. Many countries allow certain temporary migrants to change status and to become permanent migrants after several years of residence in the country. In this chapter, such persons are considered to be permanent migrants in the year when they change status. Perhaps the bestknown example of this are persons in the United States who adjust their status from a temporary one and obtain green cards, that is, obtain the status of lawful permanent residents. In recent years, over half of green cards were granted to persons who were adjusting their status. Such persons are included as permanent immigrants in the statistics of this chapter. In practice, this means that status changers are counted twice, once when they enter as temporary migrants and once when they change status and become permanent. One notable example of this is that of international students who apply for and are allowed to stay on after the completion of their studies. 3 The double-counting for such persons, however, is not substantially different from that in which a person arriving as a temporary migrant, leaves the country, applies abroad for the right of permanent residence, is accepted and returns. Such persons are also counted twice. Indeed, in some countries in the past, changes in status were not allowed and temporary migrants who wished to become permanent had to leave the country and apply from abroad. Internationally there are other definitions used in addition to this one, among them, that of long-term vs short-term immigration, where the distinction is made on the basis of the actual stay of the immigrant in the country. The definitional cut-off that distinguishes between longterm and short-term in this case is generally one year. National immigration statistics almost always need to be adjusted to conform to this definition, to the extent that it is possible to do so. Although this definition may appear to be conceptually simpler than the permanent/ temporary distinction, it has not been retained here, because the one-year cut-off does not reflect a distinction which is meaningful in migration policy and because statistics on this basis are not generally recognizable or understandable to migration stakeholders in most countries. Indeed, almost everywhere, the permanent/temporary distinction is, from a policy perspective, a fundamental one. Note that statistics for a number of countries covered by this report have been revised since the last issue of this publication in This is notably the case for Brazil, Chile, Ecuador and Peru. Such revisions can occur for a number reasons. The changes may reflect corrections or revisions to national data by countries, or a better understanding of national permit systems allowing a more accurate classification of permits or visas or more simply, the identification and correction of processing or tabulation errors. Every effort is made to produce and publish 3 OECD studies suggest that up to 30% of international students eventually stay on in the country where they studied (OECD, 2011).

40 10 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Box 1. Defining permanent and temporary migration (cont.) the most accurate data possible for the countries presented in this publication. As time series of permit or visa data accumulate, errors or inaccuracies in principle should become less common, as more information is obtained about the nature of the data and as year-to-year measures of change provide for the possibility of identifying statistical anomalies. Figure 2. Percent of immigration which is permanent, 2010 and Barbados Bolivia (1) El Salvador Dominican Republic Brazil Ecuador Honduras Mexico United States Panama Guatemala Canada Argentina Costa Rica Paraguay Uruguay Source: National administrative data on visas and residence permits. Note: The 2010 data shown for Ecuador are from (1) Plurinational State of Now the large increase in permanent migration from 2010 to 2015 in the case of the Dominican Republic and Brazil are both due essentially to the belated effect of the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, with significant numbers of Haitians receiving the right of permanent residence after spending a number of years of residence in both countries. In Brazil in particular, almost Haitian migrants were granted the right of permanent residence in 2015 (and almost from ). The Dominican Republic granted permanent residence to about Haitians in 2015 but also to about citizens of the United States. Indeed, these two countries alone accounted for more than 60% of immigration to the Dominican Republic in 2015, both permanent and temporary.

41 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 11 Likewise, Ecuador saw considerable conflict-related movements from Colombia from 2010 to 2015, as well as of Cubans, for whom no visa was required at the time and who expected to make their way through Colombia and Central America to the United States border to take advantage of special policies for Cubans who arrived in the United States by land. 4 In both cases some migrants from the countries concerned settled in Ecuador. On the other hand, the large increase in permanent migration observed in Bolivia and the decline in Paraguay are, paradoxically, both linked to migration under the Mercosur free establishment regime. In Bolivia, more and more Mercosur migrants are applying for permanent residence after having lived for the two years in the destination country required before this status can be granted. Most of these immigrants are from Brazil and Peru. Under the Paraguayan migration regime in 2010, almost 90% of immigrants received the right of permanent residence at entry. Under the Mercosur regime, however, Mercosur migrants receive a two-year permit upon entry, which has increased the percentage of temporary migrants, since migrants from Mercosur countries account for over 80% of immigration in Paraguay. Finally, Honduras has seen a generalized fall in immigration from all continents of origin, while in Panama, it was the reverse; the latter is associated with the phased-in implementation of the new migration law (Law Decree No. 3 of 22 February 2008) between 2009 and 2013 which has made immigration into Panama relatively easier. Thus, in general, if economic prospects in the destination country are what drive many migration movements, of more immediate effect may be unpredictable causes such as natural catastrophes and changes in the regulation of migration, either of which may act as an impetus to movements which might not otherwise have occurred, or occurred less frequently. The diversity of migration movements All countries regulate the entry into and stay of foreigners within their territory and the extent of this regulation depends on the nature of the migration. Most countries, for example, recognize the right of permanent residents, whether nationals of foreigners, to marry or adopt whom they wish and a certain proportion of international movements every year concerns persons who are spouses or children of nationals who married while abroad as students or expatriate workers and are returning to their home country. Others are family members who are joining former migrants as new residents. Such movements can be said to be non-discretionary, in that destination countries which recognize the rights of family members to live together, generally the case in most countries, exercise limited discretion with regard to limiting these movements. There may be requirements that foreign residents have a certain minimum income and decent lodgings in order to bring in their families, but these requirements are generally modest and not normally such as would exclude significant proportions of nationals, were they to be applied to this population. 4 Under the so-called wet-foot, dry-foot policy, Cubans who arrived at a land border of the United States were admitted and allowed to apply for permanent residence one year later. Cubans caught at sea would be returned to Cuba or sent to a third country.

42 12 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Certain other types of movements are bound by international treaties signed by countries, such as the Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees or treaties involving free circulation or establishment for nationals and permanent residents of the signatory countries, such as the Treaty of Rome for the European Union and the 2002 Mercosur Residence Agreement. For these as well, governments have limited discretion in limiting movements, once they have signed the treaties, although there may exist certain requirements for entry or settlement, such as the absence of a criminal record or sufficient means of livelihood. Other forms of migration, on the other hand, such as migration for work or study, are generally subject to discretionary control, with the objective, for example, of limiting competition with the domestic workforce in the case of labor migration. Certain forms of labor migration concern the movements of very limited duration, such as those of artists, performers and athletes, and operate on the basis of flexible rules and reciprocity agreements with other countries. Movements of investors and entrepreneurs and temporary assignments of employees of multinational corporations also tend to be facilitated, because of the economic contribution they are considered to make to the host country. The same applies to international students, professors and researchers, whose stay is believed to stimulate the internationalization of higher education and of research, as well as paving the way to the possible definitive settlement of the persons concerned in the country. Migrants with university degrees obtained in the host country tend to be viewed favorably by destination countries. Labor migration involving domestic work contracts in jobs that could in principle be held by residents tends to be the most regulated form of migration, especially with regard to lesser or mediumskilled jobs, for whose incumbents job mobility or retraining is not always perceived as being as possible or accessible as for workers with high levels of educational attainment. For jobs involving such labor, there is often some form of verification of the domestic labor market, at least at the local level, to ensure that no already resident workers could occupy the jobs for which employers want to recruit from abroad. Governments often have a preference for temporary labor migration for these kinds of jobs, as a way of satisfying immediate labor needs not being met on the domestic labor market, while ensuring that there is no lasting impact on the domestic work force. In summary then, migration is driven by many different motives and the regulation of migration as embodied in the visas and permits granted to immigrants reflects this diversity. In view of the observations made above, one might expect family-related migration to be relatively more common among permanent migration and work-related migration among temporary and this is indeed what one observes in general (Figure 3).

43 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 13 Figure 3. International migration inflows by type, 2015 Panama El Salvador Honduras Canada Barbados Temporary Costa Rica Brazil Mexico Bolivia (1) Ecuador United States Dominican Republic Argentina Paraguay Permanent Permanent and temporary Jamaica Peru Colombia Honduras United States Dominican Republic Barbados El Salvador Canada Ecuador Mexico Argentina Panama Paraguay Costa Rica Bolivia (1) Brazil 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Family Other and unknown Humanitarian International agreements Study Work Source: National administrative data on visas and residence permits. Note: The 2010 data shown for Ecuador are from (1) Plurinational State of

44 14 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 The picture, however, is somewhat clouded by the fact that free establishment visas or permits do not always identify the nature of the migration because the migrants are, like nationals, largely free to come and go as they wish and governments do not always record the reason underlying a move when a migrant requests the right to enter a country. This is especially the case for Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador and Paraguay for temporary migration and for Argentina and Bolivia in the case of permanent migration. In addition, for temporary migration in the Dominican Republic and permanent migration in Costa Rica and Paraguay, the available visa / permit statistics do not yet allow a clear delineation of the precise nature of the types of migration involved. 5 As is evident, study migration, while visible in virtually all destination countries, plays a significant role in temporary migration in Barbados, Canada, Honduras and the United States and, to a somewhat lesser extent, in Brazil, Costa Rica, Mexico and Panama. Labor migration is also not necessarily uncommon in permanent migration, as the examples of Canada, Ecuador, Mexico and Panama illustrate. Finally, humanitarian migration is evident only in Canada, the United States and especially Brazil, where the granting of permanent residence to Haitian earthquake refugees in 2015 is clearly apparent. Persons fleeing the conflict in Colombia for Ecuador started to be granted Mercosur permits in 2014 and thus no longer appear in the humanitarian migration stream in that country. For the rest of the world, LAC countries remain remote asylum destinations which have seen some but not yet significant entries of persons fleeing persecution or war zones. Box 2. Spotlight on Brazil Brazil is the most populated country in Latin America and the Caribbean, with a population of close to 210 million people. Although it has a long history of immigration, in recent decades immigration has been at very low levels. The immigrant population stood at less than half of one percent of the total population in 2010 and annual inflows, as we have seen, are very low in proportion to the population. Still, more and more attention is being accorded in Brazil to immigration policy and statistics and an Observatory of International Migration was established in 2014, with the objective of deepening the knowledge and understanding of immigration, emigration and return migration. In its mandate is also the objective of creating a database to facilitate analysis of migration phenomena. The regulation of migration in Brazil, with the exception of entry visas, is in the hands of two bodies, the National Immigration Council (CNIg) and the Ministry of Justice (MOJ). Up until 2017, the general legal framework is defined by the migration law, No , of 19 August 1980, commonly known as the Estatuto do Estrangeiro. The CNIg is responsible for applying the law and in particular, issues Normative Resolutions which define the precise conditions regarding the entry and stay of particular categories of migrants, within the framework defined by the migration law. This is a rather unique and flexible system, in that migration regulations can be adapted to changing circumstances without the need for the passage of a new law 5 When migrants change from a temporary to a permanent status in some countries, neither the nature of the original migration nor that of the change in status is recorded.

45 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 15 Box 2. Spotlight on Brazil (cont.) to respond to each situation. The role of the CNIg in this regard appears to have evolved in response to numerous migratory situations not specifically addressed in the immigration law. Among other things, the CNIg oversees the implementation of immigration policy; conducts surveys about the needs of qualified foreign workers for permanent or temporary admission, and about other issues related to immigration; makes decisions on immigration cases that are not provided for in Brazilian Law; and reviews proposed legislation related to immigration (Marques da Fonseca Neto, 2009). The discretionary authority of the CNIg was most visibly exercised recently when almost 35 thousand Haitians were granted residence in 2015 for humanitarian reasons, under Normative Resolution 97. The Ministry of Justice is the other body concerned with migration in Brazil and is responsible for temporary extensions of stay, for changes in status to permanent as well as for the granting of permanent residence to foreigners who are spouses or parents of Brazilian nationals. Brazil has a fairly well-developed labor migration system, which issued almost 70 thousand work permits in 2011, a number which dropped to 47 thousand in 2014 and to 37 thousand in 2015, with the economic downturn. Many of the permits involve work on offshore platforms and ships, which are related to oil exploration and production. Almost all are temporary. The work permit system also specifically identifies a group of migrants who come to work in Brazil to provide technical assistance or to transfer technology, but without a Brazilian work contract. These are known as service providers in international trade parlance and represented 20% to 30% of work permits prior to the onset of the recession. The immigration statistics presented in this chapter are taken from work permit data for labor migration and from entries into the Foreigners Register for all other forms of migration. However, the Foreigners Register is in part limited as a data source by the fact that it only keeps on file the most recent status of an immigrant, which may not reflect the status of the immigrant at the time of entry. Statistics for Brazil on the reason for migration (for reasons other than work) may be distorted as a result. In May 2017, a new migration law No /2017 was approved and took effect in November 2017 (see country note on Brazil later in this publication). Asylum seeking in the Americas Asylum applications in the Americas increased 83% between 2013 and 2015, reaching 184 thousand applications. These represent 6% of all applications worldwide, which increased 187% in the same period, as a result of armed conflict in Syria, Afghanistan and Iraq (see Table 2). The increase in asylum applications was more marked in Canada and the United States of America (98%) than in Latin America and the Caribbean (31%). There are 437 applications per million inhabitants in Canada and the United States, while only 30 in Latin America and the Caribbean, which is what the pattern has been historically. In short, Latin America and the Caribbean are not common destinations for asylum seekers (OAS/OECD, 2015).

46 16 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Table 2. Asylum seekers in the Americas, Average Average % of change 2015/2013 Number of applications per million population (2015) Main countries of origin Country of asylum Canada China, Pakistan, Nigeria, Hungary, Colombia, Iraq, Syrian Arab Rep., Somalia United States of America Mexico, El Salvador, China, Guatemala, Honduras, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Canada and the United States Antigua and Barbuda Syrian Arab Rep. Bahamas China, Cuba Barbados Cuba Afghanistan,Iran (Islamic Rep. of),syrian Arab Rep. Dominica Dominican Republic Haiti, Cuba, Syrian Arab Rep. Grenada Syrian Arab Rep. Guyana Haiti Ethiopia, Cuba Jamaica Cuba Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Liberia, Nigeria Trinidad and Tobago Cuba, Syrian Arab Rep. Caribbean Belize El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras Costa Rica Colombia, El Salvador,Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of), Cuba

47 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 17 Table 2. Asylum seekers in the Americas, (cont.) Average Average % of change 2015/2013 Number of applications per million population (2015) Main countries of origin El Salvador Syrian Arab Rep., Honduras, Iraq Guatemala Nepal, El Salvador, Honduras, Cuba Honduras Nicaragua, El Salvador Mexico Honduras, El Salvador Nicaragua El Salvador, Honduras Panama Colombia, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of), Nicaragua, Cuba, El Salvador Central America Bolivia (1) Colombia, Nigeria Colombia Cuba,Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Ecuador Peru Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of), Colombia, Cuba Venezuela (2) Colombia Andean Region Argentina Senegal, Cuba, Syrian Arab Rep., Ukraine, Haiti, Colombia Brazil Senegal, Syrian Arab Rep., Nigeria, Ghana, Dem. Rep. of Congo, Angola, Bangladesh,Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Chile Colombia Paraguay Syrian Arab Rep.,Cuba Uruguay Cuba, Syrian Arab Rep., Colombia Southern Cone

48 18 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Table 2. Asylum seekers in the Americas, (cont.) Average Average % of change 2015/2013 Number of applications per million population (2015) Latin America and the Caribbean Canada and the United States All countries of the Americas All countries of the World Source: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Population Database, Note: For Ecuador, average corresponds to years Data for Ecuador not available after (1) Plurinational State of; (2) Bolivarian Republic of Main countries of origin Colombia, Senegal, El Salvador, Syrian Arab Rep., Cuba, Honduras, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of), Nigeria, Ghana, Dem. Rep. of the Congo Mexico, China, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of), India, Ecuador, Haiti, Ukraine El Salvador, Mexico, China, Guatemala, Honduras, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of),colombia, India, Syrian Arab Rep Syrian Arab Rep., Afghanistan, Ukraine, Iraq, Serbia and Kosovo, Pakistan, Dem. Rep. of the Congo

49 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 19 Asylum seekers born in the Americas accounted for 56% of all asylum applications in the hemisphere, a 7% rise when compared to 2013 levels. Between 2001 and 2015, Canada and the United States received between 54-91%, depending on the year, of all asylum applications from asylum seekers born in the Americas, the main countries of origin being Mexico (29%), Colombia (13%), El Salvador (12%), Haiti (12%), Guatemala (10%), Honduras (6%) and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (4%). Although data for Ecuador is only available until 2013, its share as a receiver of requests for asylum increased steadily between 2000 and 2010, reaching a maximum of 51% of all asylum requests from the Americas. Almost all were from Colombians. Figure 4. Main asylum destination countries for asylum seekers born in the Americas, % 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Canada United States Ecuador Other Source: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Population Database, Note: Data available for Ecuador only up to The implementation in Ecuador of the Expanded Registration Program in resulted in the granting of refugee status to approximately 24 thousand Colombians. More recently, the beginning of the peace process in 2012 has reduced the number of asylum requests, while the ratification of the Mercosur Residence Agreement in 2014 obviated the need for such requests, as Colombians became eligible for Mercosur permits.

50 20 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Decisions on asylum applications in the Americas, Once an asylum request has been filed, a legal or administrative process is launched, known as Refugee Status Determination. The RSD is the process by which governments determine whether a person seeking international protection is considered a refugee under international, regional or national law. The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees does not prescribe the mechanisms that treaty signatories should use to determine whether or not a person fits the definition of refugee; as a result, asylum seekers are assessed in varying ways around the world, depending on the different legal and political regimes in place (UNHCR, 2016). In the Americas there has been a progressive legislative harmonization with regard to the status of refugees, with countries incorporating the principles and standards of protection contained in the 1951 Convention and its 1967 Protocol. According to the Convention and the subsequent Protocol, a refugee is defined as a person who owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, in unwilling to avail himself the protection of than country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it. However, other regional reference instruments have also been developed whose concepts have been included in the national legislation of several countries of the region and which adopt a broader concept of refugee. The 1984 Cartagena Declaration on Refugees expands the definition of the 1951 Convention to include persons, who have fled their countries because their life, security or freedom have been threatened by widespread violence, foreign aggression, internal conflicts, massive violation of human rights or other circumstances that have seriously disrupted public order. Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay have adopted this broader concept of refugee. However, the right of free establishment introduced by the Mercosur Residence Agreement and which currently applies to virtually all countries of South America, has made the broader concept somewhat redundant for the countries of the region, while the distance of South America from war zones in Africa and Asia as well as visa requirements have up to now limited the number of asylum requests on this basis. With the recent suspension of Venezuela from Mercosur, citizens from that country who emigrate due to a deterioration of economic and political conditions could in principle no longer avail themselves of Mercosur permits in order to establish themselves freely elsewhere. However, Argentina, Bolivia and Uruguay have continued granting Mercosur permits to Venezuelans and Peru has renewed the Mercosur permits of persons who had been granted them before the suspension. In the case of Ecuador there is an Ecuador-Venezuela agreement of residence since 2011, while Brazil has introduced a special resolution offering temporary residence to Venezuelans.

51 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 21 Elsewhere, in the United States in particular, humanitarian migrants who do not qualify as refugees may be eligible for humanitarian protection under the Temporary Protection Status (TPS) program. TPS is granted to eligible nationals of certain countries (or parts of countries) who are already in the United States and unable to return because of a) ongoing armed conflict (such as civil war) b) environmental disaster (such as earthquake or hurricane), or an epidemic c) other extraordinary and temporary conditions. TPS does not confer permanent residency, citizenship, or any right to ongoing immigration status and once the U.S. government has ended a country s TPS designation, persons revert to their prior immigration status. El Salvador, Guinea, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, South Sudan, Syria and Yemen are countries currently under the TPS program with an estimated Salvadorans, Haitians, Hondurans and Nicaraguans in the program. In practice, governments may also adapt their regulations on asylum to specific circumstances, especially in cases where the movements are significant and the situation in the country of origin is especially difficult. The case of Ecuador and the Expanded Registration Program has already been mentioned. Following the 2010 earthquake, many Haitians relocated in Brazil but evidently did not satisfy the criteria of the Geneva Convention in order to be considered refugees. They were nevertheless eventually granted a residence permit for humanitarian reasons through Normative Resolution 97/2012, allowing them to legally establish and work in the country and granting them access to health and educational services. Figure 5. Decisions on asylum requests by country of asylum, % 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Venezuela(1) Argentina United States Ecuador Accepted Mexico Canada Rejected Costa Rica Brazil Americas Source: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Population Database, Note: Rejections include those in both first and second instances; rejection rates are thus inflated and acceptance rates underestimated. Acceptances include positive decisions on refugee status but also on complementary protection. (1) Bolivarian Republic of

52 22 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 While asylum has become more accessible in many countries of the Americas, refugee status is nonetheless granted to only a minority of applicants in most countries, as is generally the case throughout the OECD zone. Figure 5 shows the decisions on requests for asylum in the eight most important recipient countries of the region, covering 99% of the decisions taken in the Americas for the period The figure excludes situations where no decision was taken on a request, either positively or negatively, because the applicant withdrew his or her application before the interview took place, did not show up for the interview or if the application was considered inadmissible. The percentage of positive decisions includes the granting of either refugee status or other protection statuses and varies between countries from a minimum of 24% to a maximum of 57%, with the overall percentage for the Americas being 46%. 6 Finally, Figure 6 shows decisions on asylum requests by nationality of origin for 14 nationalities accounting for 69% of all decisions. There is high variability in the decisions according to nationality, which reflect different assessments of the situation in the countries of origin as well as of the evidence or narrative provided by the applicant in support of the request. Figure 6. Decisions on asylum requests by country of origin, % 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Mexico Peru El Salvador Guatemala Indonesia Cuba Honduras Haiti India Albania Colombia Venezuela(1) Pakistan China Americas Accepted Rejected Source: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Population Database, Note: See Figure 5. (1) Bolivarian Republic of 6 The statistics on acceptances/rejections may be somewhat distorted because they include decisions in both first and second instances. For example, a request denied initially may be approved on appeal. Both are counted here. This evidently inflates the rejection rates.

53 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 23 In summary then, although LAC countries are far from the main sources of refugees in Africa and Asia, because of civil conflicts, problems of security, economic and social crises and natural catastrophes, they have been faced with many of the same challenges as countries closer to current war zones, that is, that of providing refuge to persons who may not be persecuted, strictly speaking, but are in need of protection or indeed, have no homes or prospects to return to. The regional dimension of migration in the Americas Immigration into countries of the Americas remains, for most countries of the region, an intra- American phenomenon, with a heavy predominance of migrants from other countries of the hemisphere (Figure 7). There are exceptions to this, with Canada and the United States, longstanding migration countries, showing relatively more immigrants from Asia in 2015 and indeed in most years, in particular from China, India and the Philippines. In Brazil, Colombia and Mexico, the three most populated countries of the LAC region, which are destinations with large markets offering attractive economic opportunities, some 15-20% of immigrants are from Asia. The case of Jamaica is more surprising, where over 40% of immigrants are from Asia, most on work permits and largely from China and India (see country note on Jamaica later in this publication).

54 24 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Figure 7. Immigration into countries of the Americas, permanent and temporary, by continent of origin, 2015 Uruguay Southern Cone Argentina Chile Paraguay Brazil Caribbean Central America Andean Region Bolivia(1) Ecuador Peru Colombia Costa Rica Honduras El Salvador Panama Mexico Dominican Republic Barbados Jamaica Canada and the United States United States Canada 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Americas Africa Asia Other Europe Source: National administrative data on visas and residence permits. Note: The 2010 data shown for Ecuador are from (1) Plurinational State of

55 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 25 Immigrants from Europe are still a relatively significant group almost everywhere in countries of the Americas, with a somewhat more important presence in the large countries. In the high immigration countries of Argentina, Chile and Costa Rica, on the other hand, over 90% of immigrants are from other countries of the Americas. 7 These countries have GDP per capita levels which are two to three times that of neighboring countries such as Bolivia, Paraguay and Peru in the case of Argentina and Chile, and Nicaragua in the case of Costa Rica. In countries south of Mexico as a whole, more than half of immigrants coming from outside the Americas are from Europe and almost 70% of these are from Spain, Italy, France, Germany and the United Kingdom. To complete this picture of regional migration in the Americas, Table 3 shows the extent of migration among signatory countries of regional agreements, of which there are six in the hemisphere, with several having overlapping membership. The agreements generally include special provisions to facilitate movement of certain persons or workers of countries which are members or associate members of the trading blocs. For four of the six agreements close to a majority or more of immigration from the Americas into the signatory countries of the agreements are from other signatory countries. The exceptions are the Andean Community and the Pacific Alliance, only about one third of whose immigration from the Americas comes from signatory countries but about 55% from Mercosur countries. The Mercosur bloc shows the strongest concentration of intra-bloc movements, with almost three quarters of its intra-hemispheric immigration coming from other Mercosur members. 7 Table A1 in the annex to this chapter provides more detail, showing, for each destination country of the Americas for which the statistics were available, the share of total migration taken up by the top ten countries of origin and the distribution of immigration by type (family, work, study and other) for each of these.

56 26 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Table 3. The extent of immigration from the Americas to and from signatory countries of regional agreements, 2015 Destination regions Origin countries NAFTA CARICOM SICA MERCOSUR Andean Community Pacific Alliance Canada United States Antigua and Barbuda < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 Barbados < Cuba Dominica < 5 < 5 < 5 10 Dominican Republic Grenada < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 Guyana Haiti Jamaica Saint Kitts and Nevis < 5 10 < 5 < 5 Saint Lucia < 5 10 < 5 10 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines < 5 10 < 5 < 5 Suriname < The Bahamas (1) < Trinidad and Tobago Other CARICOM < 5 10 < 5 < 5 Belize Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Mexico Nicaragua Panama Bolivia (2) Colombia Ecuador Peru Argentina Brazil Chile Paraguay < Uruguay < Venezuela (3) Other Americas 120 <

57 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 27 Table 3. The extent of immigration from the Americas to and from signatory countries of regional agreements, 2015 (cont.) Destination regions Origin countries NAFTA CARICOM SICA MERCOSUR Total immigration from Americas from NAFTA countries from CARICOM countries from SICA countries from MERCOSUR countries from Andean Community countries from Pacific Alliance countries Andean Community Pacific Alliance Percent Source: National adminstrative data on visas and permits. Notes: Shaded cells in each country row reflect membership in the regional bloc specified in the column heading. Percentages add up to more than one hundred because of overlapping membership. Covers all destination countries of Table 1 except Guatemala, for which no country-of-origin data were available CARICOM in this table is represented by only two destination countries, Barbados and Jamaica. The table includes, among destination countries, both full and associate members of the specified agreements, where possible. (1) Commonwealth of; (2) Plurinational State of; (3) Bolivarian Republic of This picture of economic migration in the LAC region, driven by labor needs in regional labor markets which transcend national borders, is not a complete one without a mention of what might be called flight migration, from conflict zones, natural catastrophes or conditions of economic collapse or underdevelopment. Although FARC-related strife saw large movements of persons fleeing from Colombia to Ecuador, Colombian nationals in fact fanned out over the entire continent. This was also somewhat the case of Haitians leaving their island in the aftermath of the earthquake devastation of 2010 and of Cubans seeking to reach the United States and other countries in search of better economic prospects and, in some cases, freer political expression as well. Preliminary indications are that movements out of Venezuela are showing the same pattern, with Venezuelans fanning out to Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Panama, Argentina and Chile. In 2015 Colombian emigration to other countries of the Americas was still increasing (Table 4) but can be expected to taper off with the 2016 peace agreement signed between the Colombian government and the FARC. In the Andean region, Ecuador in particular has been on the front lines as a destination country for three of the four origin countries concerned by flight migration, but it is the Southern Cone which has absorbed more than 55% of the increase in migrants from these countries since Note that the four origin countries shown in Table 3 are by themselves responsible for 24% of migration in LAC countries in 2015 and fully 47% of the change in immigration over the period. In other words, the increase in immigration in this region cannot be entirely viewed through the lens of a greater-economic-integration perspective. Still, whatever the reason for the migration increases, they may nonetheless contribute to closer economic

58 28 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 integration over the short to medium term, because of a tendency for migration channels to persist once established and because the presence of foreign nationals tends to stimulate and facilitate economic links with their origin countries. Table 4. Emigration from selected origin countries towards regions of the Americas, permanent and temporary migration, Region of destination Canada and the United States Country of origin Colombia Cuba Haiti Venezuela (1) Caribbean Colombia Cuba Haiti Venezuela (1) Central America Colombia Cuba Haiti Venezuela (1) Andean Region Colombia Cuba Haiti Venezuela (1) Southern Cone Colombia Cuba Haiti Venezuela (1) All countries Colombia Cuba Haiti Venezuela (1) All countries except Canada and the United States Percent of total immigration in LAC region Source: National administrative data on visas and residence permits. Note: Destination countries include all countries of Table 1 except Guatemala and Uruguay. (1) Bolivarian Republic of

59 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 29 Finally, the political conflict and economic collapse in Venezuela, although still in its early stages in 2015, was associated with a slow rise in the exodus of Venezuelan nationals from their country, which reached 66 thousand persons per year in In proportional terms relative to the population of Venezuela, this amounts to 80% of the departure rate of Colombians from their country in the same year. It seems likely, however, that the departure rates for Venezuelans have been or will be significantly higher in 2016 and The acquisition of nationality by immigrants in countries of the Americas An analysis in the previous issue of this publication (2015) showed that more and more emigrants from the Americas to OECD countries were remaining in their new countries of residence and that with the extension of the period of residence, more and more were taking out the nationality of their adopted countries. What then is the reverse situation, that is, of persons emigrating to countries of the Americas and receiving the right of permanent residence. Table 5 gives an overview of this for countries for which data on acquisitions of nationality were available. In addition to the number of acquisitions for the years shown, the table includes an indicator of the rate of acquisition by recent permanent immigrants, that is, the numbers of persons acquiring the nationality over the period relative to the number of permanent immigrants for a three-year period fiveyears earlier. The 5-year offset is intended to take into account the fact that the acquisition of nationality generally requires a minimum number of years of residence in the country, which varies from country to country. Table 5. Acquisitions of nationality in countries of the Americas, Ratio of acquisitions to permanent immigrants Bolivia (1) Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Mexico Paraguay Peru United States of America Uruguay Source: SICREMI acquistions database. Notes: The periods used in calculating the ratio have been adapted according to the availability of the data. See text for Bolivia. (1) Plurinational State of

60 30 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 The persons acquiring nationality in are of course not necessarily those who entered in ; the ratio is intended to give a general indication of the propensity for immigrants to take out the nationality of the host country, which can be affected by the legal requirements but also the perceived advantages to the immigrants themselves. In most countries of the Americas, the legal requirements are relatively modest, especially for nationals of neighboring countries, which constitute the bulk of migration for most countries of the hemisphere. 8 In the settlement countries of Canada and the United States, the ratio of acquisitions of nationality to permanent immigrants is about two-thirds to three quarters. The Canadian figure is somewhat inflated by the increase in naturalizations which occurred in 2014 and which maintained itself in 2015, created by an increase in applications in anticipation of a hardening of naturalization conditions in 2014 and the reduction of a sizable backlog in applications (400 thousand) over the 2-year period. Overall, as is clear from the table, outside of Canada and the United States relatively few immigrants in LAC countries appear to take out the nationality of their adopted countries. In certain countries, such as Chile, Colombia, Paraguay and Peru, the ratio is very small. The low propensity may in some cases be associated with the existence of numerous regional agreements facilitating movements among the countries concerned but especially, because much of the migration in LAC countries involves persons from neighboring countries, to whom settlement may not always appear as definitive. This is a pattern observed among migrants in the European Union. The increase in immigration in LAC countries is relatively recent, however, and as the duration of stay increases, the acquisition of the nationality of the host country may begin to seem a sensible and attractive choice. Recent developments with regard to movements to the United States and Spain Entry into and departure from the United States by persons from the Americas, The United States remains the main destination country within the Americas for emigrants from the hemisphere, with over 50% of emigrants who remain within the Americas migrating to that country. In 2015 more than half of these migrants were legal permanent residents, that is, recipients of socalled green cards. 9 The United States has also been the destination of choice for a significant number of unauthorized migrants moving north in response to labor demand and crossing the border without inspection or overstaying their visas. Their numbers have systematically exceeded the number of places available for workers among legal permanent residents and temporary migrants. It is estimated that in 2015, the number of such migrants resident in the United States was about 11 million, of which 5.55 million were from Mexico, 1.8 million from Central America, 650 thousand from South America and 425 thousand from the Caribbean (Passel and Cohn, 2017). This estimate represents a significant decline from the peak value of 12.2 million in 2007, before 8 For Bolivia, the residence requirement is especially short (at most two years, and in many cases one year) and the number of permanent immigrants has risen strongly in recent years. Accordingly, to give a more realistic figure, the ratio has been calculated as acquisitions relative to permanent migrants. 9 We will be departing from the terminology commonly used in the United States for migrants with a visa of limited duration, for work, study, family visit, etc. Such migrants are designated as non-immigrants in United States statistics and grouped with tourists and business visitors. Here they will be referred to as temporary migrants.

61 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 31 the onset of the economic crisis. As we have seen in past issues of this publication, the postcrisis period saw a decline in emigration to both the United States and Spain, the main destination countries for emigrants from Latin America and an increase of emigration to other countries of the Americas. What was the precise stay and departure behavior of migrants from the Americas in the United States in response to the 2008 economic crisis? Have the movements north reasserted themselves in 2015, after 6 consecutive years of positive GDP growth in the United States? To examine these questions and others related to movements in and out of the United States, we will be using the American Community Survey (ACS), a survey of 3.5 million persons conducted every year to provide detailed information on households and persons in the period between population censuses. Although the coverage of immigrants in sample surveys is not perfect (see Annex A1 on this), the ACS has the virtue of covering in principle all immigrants, including the unauthorized, although they cannot be distinguished specifically in the sample from authorized immigrants. In fact, the ACS is the source commonly used to produce estimates of the unauthorized immigrant population in the United States by a number of researchers (Passel et al. 2014, Hoefer et al. 2012, Warren and Warren, 2013). The evolution of migration movements from the Americas to the United States, as tracked by the ACS, shows a notable development, namely, the fact that immigration from Mexico had still not recovered from pre-crisis levels (Figure 8) as of In that year, it stood at about half of the levels registered in Since authorized migration by Mexican nationals has actually increased by about 32% over this same period, largely as a result of temporary movements, the drop in overall migration suggests a strong decline in unauthorized migration. (see also Passel and Cohn, 2017).

62 32 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI Figure 8. Evolution of immigrant arrivals in the United States, by region of origin, American Community Survey, Andean Region Canada Caribbean Central America Mexico Southern Cone All origin regions 2006= Source: American Community Survey, United States Census Bureau. Notes: Immigrants here include temporary and unauthorised immigrants as well as legal permanent residents. Estimates may be subject to undercoverage of each of these. See Annex A1. Among Central Americans, overall migration declined by about a quarter after 2006 but had rebounded to about 120% of its 2006 level by The largest increases in 2015 relative to 2006 are actually observed among immigrants from Canada (almost 90% above 2006 levels) and from the Southern Cone (73% higher). But such is the weight of Mexican migration that despite the fact that all other destination regions are showing strong increases, arrivals overall are still 10% below 2006 levels. 10 This stagnation of Mexican migration in the presence of strong increases from other parts of the Americas evidently implies that the composition of migration to the United States has changed substantially over the decade Indeed, immigration from the Americas into the United States has over the period become more diverse (Figure 9), with all origin regions except Mexico having increased their shares of total entries. It is too early to say whether this will be a 10 In conjunction with the depressed level of migration to Europe and the greater propensity to remit of recent migrants, the decline in new migrants over the decade may explain why remittances to countries of the Americas, in constant dollar terms, were in 2015 barely 4 percent above their pre-crisis level.

63 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 33 lasting phenomenon, but the monotonic nature of the trend may suggest more than a temporary response to the difficult economic conditions brought about by the 2008 economic crisis Figure 9. Distribution of immigrant arrivals into the United States of America , by region of origin, American Community Survey Mexico Caribbean Central America Andean Region Canada Southern Cone Source: American Community Survey, United States Census Bureau. Notes: See Annex A1. The crisis itself led to an increase in departures from the United States, with a doubling of the annual overall outflow rate of immigrants from the Americas, from 2% of the stock in 2007 to 4% a year later, and an even greater increase in departures for migrants from Mexico (from 2% to almost 5.5% of the stock, Figure 10). This latter rate of departure is comparable to that observed in Spain in 2010 for all immigrants from the Americas. With the recovery in 2010, departures rates from the United States plummeted to about 1% of the resident stock per year, before climbing back erratically to 2-3% levels in 2013.

64 34 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI Figure 10. Rate of outflow per year from the United States, immigrants from the Americas, percent of the stock, All origin regions Mexico Source: American Community Survey, United States Census Bureau. Notes: The outflow rate excludes older immigrants. See Annex A1. The estimated outflow rate for Mexico for 2014 is based on a low estimate of outflows and is therefore subject to significant sampling variability. These estimates give some idea of the extent of departures among all migrants, but they tend to understate the likelihood of departures among recent migrants. As was described in the previous issue of this publication (2015), the duration of residence of immigrants from the Americas in the United States and the European Union is increasing and, as they become settled, more of them are taking out the nationality of the countries they have moved to. Recent migrants have looser ties in the countries of destination and can be expected to be more mobile. Some of them in fact may not even intend to settle, such as international students or workers on temporary contracts, many of whom can be expected to return to their countries of origin once they have completed their studies or the job for which they were initially hired. Departure rates for this group can thus be expected to be higher than those for immigrants as a whole. The ACS makes it possible to examine this question, although it cannot substitute for administrative data on departures, such as those to be presented later in this chapter for Spain. For technical reasons related to data quality, it was not possible to produce outflow or departure rates for immigrants from all countries of the Americas using the ACS. 11 But those shown here are no doubt 11 The criterion for retention of a country was that the immigrant cohorts who entered from 2006 to 2010 had to show a decline in numbers in the years following arrival. Those not retained had estimates which were either unreliable due to small sample sizes or were subject to undercoverage problems in the early years after arrival which distorted cohort behaviour over time. See Annex 1A on this point.

65 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 35 indicative of those for immigrants of other countries. Note that these departures are not necessarily returns to the country of origin, but could involve emigration to a third country. However, it is likely that most of the departures were in fact returns. On average, about 30% of immigrants who arrived in the United States from 2006 to 2015 from the countries shown, had left the country by 2015, ranging from a low of 17% for Colombia to a high of almost 50% for Canada (Figure 11). Mexico shows a departure rate of 27% as of 2015 among immigrants who entered the United States from 2006 to Departure rates ranged between 35 and 40% in Argentina, Chile and Brazil. Departure rates were thus highest in Canada and the Southern Cone, precisely the countries where arrivals have increased the most since 2006, which suggests that the increase in movements may concern temporary migrants. 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Figure 11. Immigrants from the Americas who arrived in the United States from , by presence in the United States in 2015, selected countries Canada Brazil Argentina Chile Mexico Still present Jamaica Left Costa Rica Colombia All countries shown Source: American Community Survey, United States Census Bureau. Note: See annex A1. In summary then the 2008 economic crisis saw a significant reduction in arrivals to the United States, especially from Mexico, with all regions showing a strong recovery by 2015 except Mexico. Departure rates were sharply up in 2008, before declining strongly in the following year, and have been erratic since then but hovering around pre-crisis levels. Stay rates of immigrants who arrived in the United States between 2006 and 2015 (mostly permanent and unauthorized, but including some temporary) have averaged around 70%.

66 36 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Entry into and departure from Spain by emigrants from the Americas, The Spanish municipal population register makes it possible to give a comprehensive picture of movements into and out of Spain over the period of immigrants from the Americas, for all countries. The statistics are not subject to sampling variability and cover unauthorized immigrants as well as the authorized, since there is no legal impediment to registration by the unauthorized nor is their legal status identified specifically when they register. Over the period 2002 to 2016, over three million immigrants from the Americas entered Spain. To give some idea of the scale of these movements, if the United States had received the same proportion of immigrants (permanent, temporary and unauthorized) from the Americas relative to its population as Spain did over this period, the migrants would have numbered over 21 million persons, which is more than three times the number of authorized immigrants from the Americas who entered the United States over the period. In 2004, prior to the economic crisis, barely 1% of immigrants from the Americas in Spain left that country every year (Table 6). As the Spanish economy fell into a deep recession, overall unemployment rates rose from about 8% in 2007 to 26% in Outflow rates of immigrants from the Americas stood at 5.7% per year in However, not all of this increase appears to be related to the economic crisis. Indeed, departure rates of immigrants from the Americas had been increasing steadily since 2003 and were already at 4.6% in 2007, before the economic crisis actually hit. Thus, it would appear that many emigrants to Spain may well have had return intentions at the outset and that the high departure rates initially may have not have had much to do with the strongly deteriorating conditions in the Spanish labor market which developed later. As in the United States, the highest departure rates are observed for Canada and the Southern Cone.

67 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 37 Table 6. Entries to and departures from Spain of immigrants from the Americas, Canada and the United States Annual outflow rates Outflow rate (all persons present over period) Inflows Outflows Net change Canada United States Caribbean Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Central America Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Mexico Nicaragua Panama Andean Region Bolivia (1) Colombia Ecuador Peru Venezuela (2) Southern Cone Argentina Brazil

68 38 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Table 6. Entries to and departures from Spain of immigrants from the Americas, (cont.) Annual outflow rates Outflow rate (all persons present over period) Inflows Outflows Net change Chile Paraguay Uruguay All above countries Source: National Statistical Institute, Spain, Municipal Population Register. Notes: The annual outflow rate is defined as the outflows over the year divided by the population of the given origin present at the beginning of the year. The cumulative outflow rate is the total of all outflows over the period divided by the sum of the population from the Americas present at the beginning of 2002 plus the inflows over the period. In short, it is the total of all outflows divided by the population of immigrants present at any time in Spain from (1) Plurinational State of; (2) Bolivarian Republic of

69 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 39 As the unemployment rate more than tripled in the years from 2007 to 2013, the departure rate of immigrants from the Americas only increased by one percentage point. 12 About one third of immigrants from the Americas present at any time in Spain from 2002 to 2016 had left as of 2015, ranging from under or close to 20% for immigrants from the Caribbean to over 40% for immigrants from Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Mexico and Paraguay. As in the United States, differences in mobility patterns among immigrants of different nationalities have changed the composition of immigration in Spain (Figure 12). With a strong decline in immigration from the Andean Region and the Southern Cone, the distribution of immigrants to Spain had by 2013 become much more diverse, with the relative share of immigrants from other regions having increased, especially of Central Americans, who are largely from Honduras, Mexico and Nicaragua. But with the pick-up in immigration levels beginning in 2014, the former dominance of immigrants from the Andean Region and the Southern Cone is starting to reassert itself; migration from Central America, however, appears to be maintaining its share. Figure 12. Immigration to Spain from the Americas, by region of origin, % 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Andean Region Southern Cone Central America Caribbean Canada and the United States Source: Municipal Population Register, National Institute of Statistics (INE), Spain. 12 These annual departure rates cannot be compared to those generated from the ACS, which is subject to undercoverage of recent entries for certain countries which may significantly affect the estimated outflow rates.

70 40 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 A general overview of emigration from countries of the Americas to OECD countries and to other countries of the Americas Despite the strong increases in immigration observed in many countries of Latin America and the Caribbean in recent years, they remain for the most part countries of emigration. The economic crisis of 2008, however, did dampen movements to the traditional main destination countries of the United States and especially to Spain and stimulated an increase in migration to neighboring countries, at the same time as the implementation of the Mercosur Residence Agreement in 2009 facilitated movements by nationals of member and associate member states (OAS/OECD, 2015). These developments were reviewed in the previous issue of this publication; here we update the picture to From a situation where only 27% of migration movements from the Americas went to countries of Latin America and the Caribbean over the period , fully 34% of such movements were intra-american (outside of Canada and the United States) a mere three years later ( ). This is a remarkable change over such a short period. Most of the change came at the expense of emigration to Europe and in particular to Spain. Table 7 portrays cells where the change was positive in blue and those where the change was negative in gray; the darker shades are for cells where the change (positive or negative) exceeded 5 percentage points. The pattern in the table is striking: every country of the Americas except Guyana saw an increase in outflows to LAC countries, and for many if not all, a decline in emigration to Canada and the United States and to OECD countries outside the Americas. In addition, all of the high-increase situations concern the same destination region, namely the Americas excluding Canada and the United States, and all of the high-decline situations concern either Canada-and-the-United States as a destination region or OECD countries outside of the Americas.

71 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 41 Table 7. Emigration from the Americas to destination regions in the Americas and to OECD countries, Destination regions Canada and the United States Americas except for Canada and the United States OECD outside of Americas All destination regions Percent of all emigrants Percent of all emigrants Percent of all emigrants Number of emigrants Origin countries and regions Canada and the United States Canada United States of America Caribbean Antigua and Barbuda Barbados Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Grenada Guyana Haiti Jamaica Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname The Bahamas (1) Trinidad and Tobago Central America Belize Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras

72 42 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Table 7. Emigration from the Americas to destination regions in the Americas and to OECD countries, (cont.) Destination regions Canada and the United States Americas except for Canada and the United States OECD outside of Americas All destination regions Percent of all emigrants Percent of all emigrants Percent of all emigrants Number of emigrants Origin countries and regions Mexico Nicaragua Panama Andean Region Bolivia (2) Colombia Ecuador Peru Venezuela (3) Southern Cone Argentina Brazil Chile Paraguay Uruguay All above countries Source: SICREMI and OECD databases on international migration. Notes: A gray/blue shading indicates a decline/increase from to in the share of emigrants to the given region; a darker gray/blue shading indicates a decline/increase of more than five percentage points in the share. (1) Commonwealth of; (2) Plurinational State of; (3) Bolivarian Republic of

73 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 43 Caribbean emigration, although still largely oriented towards Canada and the United States, more than doubled its share of emigration to other countries of the Americas. Cuban and Haitian migration were largely responsible for this numerically, but every country of the Caribbean without exception increased its share of emigrants going to other countries of the Americas. Other regions where there was a shift towards countries of the Americas are evidently the Andean Region and the Southern Cone, with Colombia and Venezuela showing positive shifts in the share of emigrants moving to other countries of the Americas of 22 and 16 percentage points, respectively. Venezuelan emigration was largely redirected from the United States and Colombian outflows about equally from the United States and Europe. Does this reflect a fundamental reorientation of movements away from the traditional destination country of the United States and the more cent recent one of Spain? The answer is not entirely obvious, as Table 8 illustrates. Emigration to Canada and especially the United States has reasserted itself from 2012 to 2015, showing an increase of 13% compared to a decline of 4% over the previous three years. Likewise, migration to OECD countries outside the Americas is no longer declining in 2015 relative to 2012 after having dropped 15% from 2009 to 2012.

74 44 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Table 8. Percent change in emigration from the Americas to OECD countries and other countries of the Americas, Percent change over the period indicated Destination regions Canada and the United States Americas except for Canada and the United States OECD outside of Americas All destination regions Number of persons Number of persons Number of persons Number of persons Origin countries and regions 2012/ / / / / / / /2012 Canada and the United States Canada United States of America Caribbean Antigua and Barbuda Barbados Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Grenada Guyana Haiti Jamaica Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname The Bahamas (1) Trinidad and Tobago Central America Belize Costa Rica

75 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 45 Table 8. Percent change in emigration from the Americas to OECD countries and other countries of the Americas, (cont.) Percent change over the period indicated Destination regions Canada and the United States Americas except for Canada and the United States OECD outside of Americas All destination regions Number of persons Number of persons Number of persons Number of persons Origin countries and regions 2012/ / / / / / / /2012 El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Mexico Nicaragua Panama Andean Region Bolivia (2) Colombia Ecuador Peru Venezuela (3) Southern Cone Argentina Brazil Chile Paraguay Uruguay All above countries Source: SICREMI and OECD databases on international migration. Note: A gray/blue shading indicates a decline/increase in the flow of more than 15% over the period considered. (1) Commonwealth of; (2) Plurinational State of; (3) Bolivarian Republic of

76 46 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 The very high growth rate (48%) registered by emigrants to destination countries in the Americas other than Canada and the United States has declined to 25%, which remains a high level. However, it is only among Caribbean countries that one sees large declines for this destination region in 2015 relative to Outside of Canada and the Caribbean, the United States has rebounded as a destination region, particularly for Central America and for Brazil and Paraguay in the Southern Cone. A similar pattern holds for OECD destination countries outside the Americas, with only Ecuador and Peru continuing to show large declines in outflows to these countries. The tepid increase in outflows overall from 2009 to 2012 of only 5% has increased to a more substantial growth rate of 15% from 2012 to However, although this growth rate in outflows is lower than the growth rate of inflows into LAC countries, the outflows in 2015 still exceeded the inflows by a factor of about two to one. The question this raises then is the following: how long before immigration into LAC countries outweighs emigration from these same countries? Taking the average growth rates observed over and extrapolating into the future yields a figure of a little over twelve years. Note that this does not necessarily mean that LAC countries will necessarily be net immigration countries; the net will depend on the relative proportion of permanent and temporary migration and the extent to which immigrants/emigrants stay on in their adopted countries of residence. In summary, then, recent outflows from the Americas show signs of a partial return to traditional patterns of expatriation, but with continued strong increases in intra-lac movements. As noted previously, migration corridors once opened tend to maintain themselves, not the least because information channels are created conveying information on job opportunities and modalities of entry from migrants in destination countries back to family and friends in origin countries. And migration to neighboring countries, whether from Peru to Chile, Paraguay to Argentina or Nicaragua to Costa Rica are simpler, cheaper and in many cases less uncertain than a movement north or a transatlantic move to country thousands of kilometers from home. The labor market outcomes of migrants from the Americas in Europe and the United States In , three out of four migrants leaving the Americas for Europe and other countries of the Americas were going to Spain and the United States. By 2015, their numbers had reached 22.8 million in the United States and more than 2.4 million in Spain. They represented fully 9.4% of the working-age population in the United States and 6.2% in Spain. This section describes how this population fares in the labor markets of the United States and Europe. There has been progress on the employment front, based on stronger economic growth in the United States and economic recovery in Europe OECD countries economies grew by more than 2 percent on average in 2014 and Taken as a whole, the European Union saw rates of growth of gross domestic product (GDP) in that the United States had experienced in The latter experienced a more sustained growth in 2014 and 2015, 2.6% and 2.9% respectively, between half a point and a point above the European

77 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 47 growth. The Spanish economy is showing strong signs of recovery with 3.2% GDP growth in the year In , three quarters of American immigrants living in the United States or European OECD countries were in the labor force. Their employment rate reached 69%, a 1.6 percentage point increase since and the unemployment rate reached 9%, down 2.7 percentage points. If all American immigrant groups saw their situation in the labor market improve recently, immigrants who were living in Spain, were still lagging behind with an employment rate of 58% and an unemployment rate as high as 29%. Table 9 that presents the labor market outcomes of American emigrants living in the United States or European OECD countries in The blue/grey cells indicate an increase/a decrease of at least 1 percentage point in the participation or employment rates (vice-versa for the unemployment rate) since the preceding two-year period. The risk of being unemployed has decreased for virtually every group of immigrants from the Americas between and The only exceptions concern Bolivian men and Venezuelan women whose unemployment rates have increased in the period to reach 31% and 21% respectively, the highest unemployment rates observed in for men and women respectively from the Americas. Compared to other immigrants from other countries, a relatively high share of immigrants from Bolivia and Venezuela has fewer than 10 years of residence in their main destination country, that is, Spain in the case of Bolivians and the United States for Venezuelans. They are more likely to have been affected by the crisis than migrants who had arrived earlier. On average, participation rates of men and women born in the Americas remained constant in the US labor market. For those living in Europe, participation rates decreased by 2 percentage points on average, and by 1 percentage point in Spain. While the progress observed in employment in the period was due to increased participation, this time the increase in employment rates came from increased opportunities for those already present in the labor market. The employment rate of American immigrants in the United States or European OECD countries rose by 1.6 percentage points on average. The increase was higher for men, 2.0 percentage points, than for women, 1.4 percentage points. This can be explained by the fact that migrant men are relatively more often employed in sectors which are more sensitive to the business cycle, such as construction and accommodation and food service activities. Migrant men living in Spain in particular gained from the employment recovery, with their employment rate increasing by 3.6 percentage points between and

78 48 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Table 9. Labor market outcomes of emigrant workers from the Americas in the United States and the European OECD countries by country of birth and gender, and averages Participation rate % Employment rate % Unemployment rate % Participation rate % Employment rate % Unemployment rate % Men Women Men and women Men Women Men and women Men Country of birth Canada United States nr nr nr nr nr Canada and the United States Antigua and Barbuda nr nr 86 nr nr 79 nr nr nr nr nr nr nr nr nr nr nr nr Bahamas nr nr nr nr nr nr Barbados nr nr nr nr nr Cuba Dominica nr nr nr nr nr nr nr Dominican Republic Grenada nr nr nr nr nr nr Guyana Haiti Jamaica Trinidad and Tobago Caribbean Belize nr nr nr nr nr Costa Rica nr nr nr nr 8 El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Mexico Nicaragua Panama nr 8 7 Central America Bolivia (1) Colombia Ecuador Peru Venezuela (2) Andean Region Argentina Brazil Chile Paraguay Uruguay Southern Cone Women Men and women Men Women Men and women Men Women Men and women Men Women Men and women

79 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 49 Table 9. Labor market outcomes of emigrant workers from the Americas in the United States and the European OECD countries by country of birth and gender, and averages (cont.) Participation rate % Employment rate % Unemployment rate % Participation rate % Employment rate % Unemployment rate % Country of birth Destination: United States and European OECD countries Men Women Men and women Men Women Men and women Men Born in Americas Born elsewhere Native-born All persons Destination: United States Born in Americas Born elsewhere Native-born All persons Destination: European OECD countries Born in Americas Born elsewhere Native-born All persons Destination: Spain Born in Americas Born elsewhere Native-born All persons Sources: European Labor Force Surveys (Eurostat) for European OECD countries; American Community Surveys. Notes: Data refer to the population aged (participation and employment rates) and to the active population aged (unemployment rate). For the United States, the persons aged 15 were not asked about their employment status; they are considered here as inactive. A grey shading means a decline in the participation or employment of more than 1 percentage point or an increase in the unemployment rate of more than 1 percentage point. A blue shading reflects a positive evolution of these indicators of more than 1 percentage point. nr: not reliable (1) Plurinational State of; (2) Bolivarian Republic of Women Men and women Men Women Men and women Men Women Men and women Men Women Men and women Labor market outcomes for specific countries or regions of the Americas are driven by the relative distribution of migrants between the two destination countries, with countries whose migrants are more concentrated in Spain evidently showing higher unemployment rates and lower employment rates than those who tend to go to the United States. Of the Caribbean emigrants and Central American emigrants living in the United States or Europe, respectively 92% and 99% are in the United States; they have on average relatively low unemployment rates, 10.5% and 6.1% respectively. By comparison, 38% of the emigrants from the Andean region and 50% of the emigrants from the

80 50 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Southern Cone are based in Europe and their unemployment rates exceed 15%. The differences are smaller with respect to participation rates or employment rates. But the gap observed between American migrants based in the two major destination countries is wider than the one observed between the native-born in Spain and the United States. The relatively recent settlement of American immigrants in Spain a third of them have been in Europe for less than 10 years compared to 21% in the United States certainly contributes to this outcome. The two economies fundamentals are too different to allow for more comparisons between them; the analyses below will restrict themselves to comparisons between labor market outcomes of workers in each country or region separately. Gender gaps in labor market outcomes are wider among immigrants from the Americas than among immigrants from other continents In the United States, immigrant men from other countries of the Americas register higher participation and employment rates and lower unemployment rates than the other foreign-born men and than US-born men. The situation for American immigrant women in the United States is the exact opposite. Compared to other foreign-born women and US-born women, they have low employment or participation rates and are more likely to be unemployed. In Spain, the largest destination country in Europe for emigrants from the Americas, men and women face a higher risk of unemployment than the Spanish-born but a lower one than other immigrants. In Spain women from the Americas have high rates of participation and employment (79% and 57% respectively) compared to their native-born and foreign-born counterparts. While the employment rate of emigrant women from other countries of the Americas in the United States is 23 percentage points lower than men s, it is nearly equal to that of men in Spain, with a difference is only of 1 percentage point. Employed emigrant women from the Americas in Spain are over-represented in elementary occupations and service and sales occupations; indeed 38% are directly employed by households. The average gender difference in employment rates among the emigrant population from the Americas living in the United States or European OECD countries is, at 21 percentage points, 5 percentage points higher than the difference observed among other immigrants and 14 percentage points higher than the one observed among the native-born (Figure 13). The large difference observed for emigrants from the Americans is essentially driven by what is observed among Mexicans. In fact, 46% of migrants from the Americas living in the United States or Spain are from Mexico, and migrants from this country show the largest difference in employment outcomes between men and women. At the other end of the spectrum, Paraguayan and Bolivian emigrant women are more likely to be in employment than men from the same countries. Indeed, the latter have the highest rates of unemployment of all emigrant men from the Americas. The unemployment rate is 21% for men from Paraguay and 31% for men from Bolivia. The unemployment rates of women from these same countries do not exceed 13%. Emigrant women from the Caribbean record higher participation rates than emigrant women from other regions of the Americas. Their higher participation in the labor market may be due to the high prevalence of single-parent households. For example, in the United States in 2015, American Community Survey results show that 34% of working-age women from the Caribbean were in households with no adult men present, compared to 23% of emigrant women from other regions of the Americas.

81 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 51 Figure 13. Gap in employment rates between men and women in the United States and in European OECD countries, by country of region of birth, Mexico Guatemala Honduras Born in Americas Brazil El Salvador Venezuela(1) Dominica Costa Rica Born elsewhere Cuba Nicaragua United States Peru Belize Uruguay Canada Guyana Ecuador Colombia Grenada Dominican Republic Chile Native-born Argentina Panama Haiti Trinidad and Tobago Jamaica Bahamas Barbados Paraguay Bolivia(2) Source added: European Labor Force Surveys (Eurostat) for European OECD countries; American Community Surveys. Notes: Data refer to the population aged For the United States, the persons aged 15 were not asked about their employment status; they are considered here as inactive. (1) Bolivarian Republic of; (2)Plurinational State of Tertiary-educated American immigrants are often overqualified for the jobs they may hold In , in the United States and European OECD countries there are respectively 3.2 million and employed tertiary-educated immigrants from the Americas (Table 10). Each destination country has in addition 8 million tertiary-educated immigrants originating from other regions of the world. Compared to other regions of origin, immigrants from the Americas represent 10% of the employed tertiary-educated immigrants in Europe a more substantial share in Spain, 39% and 29% in the United States. In the United States, the number of employed highly educated immigrants from the Americas increased by 6% between and , twice as rapidly as for the native-born. In Europe, however, where labor market conditions remain on average less favorable and where migration from the Americas includes a smaller share of migrants raised and educated in the destination country, the number of employed highly educated immigrants from the Americas progressed more slowly than those coming from other parts of the World or the native-born. If migrants from Central America (including Mexico) to the United States are relatively low-educated only 11% hold a tertiary degree, in absolute terms they represent the first region of origin of

82 52 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 tertiary-educated migrants from the Americas to the United States with 1.2 million immigrants, followed by the Caribbean ( immigrants) for which one third of the emigrants have a tertiary degree. In Europe, the main group of employed tertiary-educated American migrants originates from the Andean region, followed by Canada and the United States. Tertiary-educated immigrants include both immigrants who migrated during childhood or for study reasons and stayed on, as well as foreign-born persons who obtained their highest degree in the country of origin and migrated in adulthood under a work permit or more often under family or humanitarian grounds (OAS/OECD, 2015). Despite their education level, such persons may occupy medium- or low-skilled jobs, in which case they are said to be over-qualified for the jobs they are holding. This definition of over-qualification is based on a classification of the skill level of occupations according to the current normal educational attainment level required to enter an occupation. In Europe, 36% of the employed tertiary-educated persons from the Americas are overqualified for the job they hold, which is comparable to what is observed for the native-born in Spain, the country in Europe where 46% of migrants from the Americas live. In the United States 13, close to half (47%) of the employed tertiary-educated born in the Americas are over-qualified versus 37% of their native-born counterparts and less than a third of other foreign-born persons (32%). Still, over-qualification affects more than half of Central Americans working in the United States and of Andeans working in Spain. If the number of employed tertiary-educated immigrants from the Americas increased by 4% in European OECD countries and by 6% in the United States, overqualification rates of American-born workers remained fairly stable over the first half of the decade. Table 10. Over-qualification among employed tertiary-educated immigrants from the Americas in European OECD countries and the United States, Number of employed tertiary-educated immigrants (average ) Employed tertiaryeducated immigrants as a percentage of all employed immigrants (average ) In European OECD countries Percent change in number of employed tertiary-educated immigrants (from to ) In European OECD countries Over-qualification rate of employed tertiary-educated immigrants ( ) In European OECD countries in percentages Country of birth In European OECD countries In the United States In the United States In the United States In the United States Canada United States na 75 na -2 na 15 na Canada and the United States na 71 na +4 na 15 na Antigua and Barbuda nr nr nr nr nr nr nr nr Bahamas nr nr 44 nr +0 nr 40 Barbados nr nr 44 nr +9 nr 39 Cuba Dominica nr nr nr nr nr nr nr nr Dominican Republic The measurement of the extent of over-qualification is not fully comparable between Europe and the United States because of uncertainties in the harmonization of educational and occupational skill levels.

83 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 53 Table 10. Over-qualification among employed tertiary-educated immigrants from the Americas in European OECD countries and the United States, (cont.) Country of birth Number of employed tertiary-educated immigrants (average ) In European OECD countries In the United States Employed tertiaryeducated immigrants as a percentage of all employed immigrants (average ) In European OECD countries In the United States Percent change in number of employed tertiary-educated immigrants (from to ) In European OECD countries In the United States Over-qualification rate of employed tertiary-educated immigrants ( ) In European OECD countries in percentages In the United States Grenada nr nr 36 nr -9 nr 47 Guyana nr nr 33 nr -0 nr 41 Haiti nr +13 nr 49 Jamaica Trinidad and Tobago nr 38 Caribbean Belize nr nr 32 nr -15 nr 41 Costa Rica nr nr +9 nr 44 El Salvador nr nr 10 nr +4 nr 58 Guatemala nr nr 10 nr -10 nr 59 Honduras Mexico Nicaragua nr nr 27 nr -1 nr 51 Panama nr nr 45 nr +1 nr 41 Central America Bolivia (1) Colombia Ecuador Peru Venezuela (2) Andean Region Argentina Brazil Chile Paraguay nr Uruguay Southern Cone All above countries Excluding Canada and the United States Other foreignborn

84 54 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Table 10. Over-qualification among employed tertiary-educated immigrants from the Americas in European OECD countries and the United States, (cont.) Country of birth Number of employed tertiary-educated immigrants (average ) In European OECD countries In the United States Employed tertiaryeducated immigrants as a percentage of all employed immigrants (average ) In European OECD countries In the United States Percent change in number of employed tertiary-educated immigrants (from to ) In European OECD countries In the United States Over-qualification rate of employed tertiary-educated immigrants ( ) In European OECD countries in percentages In the United States Native-born Native-born in Spain na 45 na +6 na 36 na Source: European countries: Labour Force Surveys (Eurostat); United States: American Community Survey. Notes: The term over-qualification refers to a situation in which a person with a tertiary degree holds a job for which the usual entry-level educational requirement is lower than tertiary. na: not applicable; nr: sample size too small to yield a reliable estimate (1) Plurinational State of; (2) Bolivarian Republic of Remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean in In 2016, remittance flows to Latin America and the Caribbean reached record levels, with an undoubtedly positive impact on millions of recipient households. The most important characteristics of the flows were: i) the total amount reached USD million, after increasing for 7 consecutive years; ii) the growth of the inflows from 2015 to 2016 was 7.2%, which is the highest growth rate recorded in the past 10 years, iii) the increase in remittances was general throughout all the different sub-regions; and iv) the increase stemmed from, among other factors, higher employment and higher average wages and, consequently, a larger total wage bill for migrant workers from the main destination countries. After the fall in remittances experienced in 2009, the flows recovered their growth, albeit at a much slower rate than had been observed prior to the financial crisis. By 2014 levels exceeded the highest levels observed before the financial crisis. The recovery in the flows accelerated significantly during 2015, reaching an annual growth rate of 5.9%, which was exceeded in This section is based on the publication Remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean in New Record. René Maldonado, coordinator of the Remittances and Financial Inclusion Program of the Center for Latin American Monetary Studies (CEMLA); Jesús Cervantes, Manager of Economic Statistics and coordinator of the Latin American and Caribbean Remittances Forum of CEMLA and Salvador Bonilla, Deputy Manager of Economic Statistics (CEMLA), 2017.

85 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 55 Figure 14. Remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean, USD billion Source: CEMLA based on figures from central banks, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. For the purposes of this analysis, the LAC region will be subdivided into Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean and South America. For the second consecutive year all, sub-regions of the Americas exhibited positive growth rates, higher than those of the previous year in the case of Andean countries 15, Mexico and Central America, but lower in South America and the Caribbean. 15 The Andean countries are Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela.

86 56 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Figure 15. Remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean, Mexico Central America Caribbean South America USD million Source: CEMLA based on figures from central banks, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Mexico During 2016, Mexico received slightly more than 38% of all remittances sent to LAC, exceeding the record amount observed in 2007 (See Box 3). After several years of ups and downs, remittance flows received by Mexico over the past three years have exhibited a sustained recovery, reaching USD 26,972 million during 2016, an increase of 8.8% on the previous year. Central America Remittances received by Central American countries continued to increase at rates similar to those observed immediately after the 2008 financial crisis. In 2016, a new record was set for remittances received by this sub-region as well, the amount reaching USD million; this was an increase of 8.5% relative to 2015, the highest observed over the last 6 years. The rate was the result of higher growth in remittances in Guatemala (13.9%), El Salvador (7.2%) and Nicaragua (5.9%), partly offset, as in 2015, by a decline in remittances received by Panama (-9.9%) and, to a lesser extent, Costa Rica (-0.5%).

87 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 57 Box 3. The determinants of remittances in 2016: The case of Mexico Mexico is the country with the fourth highest amount of remittances in the world, after India, China and the Philippines, and the first in Latin America. In 2016, the inflows of remittances accounted for 38.3% of remittances received by Latin America and the Caribbean. Remittances here as elsewhere have contributed to improving standards of living and to reducing poverty by helping to fund expenditure on consumer goods, education, health, housing, and in some cases investment in family businesses as well. In 2016, remittance flows to Mexico reached record levels, surpassing the previous record of USD million set in The inflows registered their third consecutive annual increase in 2016 measured as a proportion of GDP, accounting for 2.59 percentage points of GDP, after having been equal to 1.77 percentage points in This is relatively small compared to what is observed in other countries of the region, particularly those of Central America and the Caribbean where remittances account for more than 10% of GDP in some countries. Nevertheless, remittances accounted for a high proportion of GDP during 2016 in some states of Mexico, particularly the poorest ones such as Michoacán (11.4 points of state GDP), Guerrero and Oaxaca (9.3 points of GDP in both cases). Figure 16. USA: Change from 2013 to 2016 in selected employment and earnings of Mexican inmigrant workers Change of employement Number of workers Change of total earnings USD millions Change of average annual earnings Dollars Total (9.5%) (26.5%) (15.5%) Full time (11.6%) (27.8%) (14.4%) Partial time (-1.6%) (11.9%) (13.8%) Men (8.3%) (27.7%) (17.9%) Women (11.9%) (23.4%) (10.2%) Total (annual variation) Total (annual variation) Total (annual variation) The determinants of the increase in remittance flows to Mexico There are three factors that help explain the recent increase in remittance flows to Mexico. First, a sharp depreciation of the Mexican peso vis-à-vis the United States dollar which took place in 2015 and 2016 did not result in significantly higher price levels in Mexico. In other words, the increase in the purchasing power of remittances was higher than the increase in

88 58 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Box 3. The determinants of remittances in 2016: The case of Mexico (Cont.) remittances measured in current dollars. From 2013 to 2016, annual flows from remittances rose by 20.9% in current dollars, but in constant pesos, i.e., in the purchasing power obtained by recipient households, it grew by 61.3%. Secondly, uncertainty among Mexican migrants regarding whether the remittances they send from the United States might be subject to administrative restrictions or even taxes in the future could also have accelerated the rate of such transfers. Thirdly, the main factor explaining the increase in remittance flows to Mexico is the positive evolution in the United States of employment, average wages and the total wage bill for migrant workers from Mexico. In particular, although during 2016, the number of Mexican workers employed did not increase as was the case in 2014 and 2015, there were increases in average wages and thus in the total wage bill. In 2016, average wages among Mexican workers rose by USD compared to the previous year, while the total wage bill increased by USD million, with increases of USD million for men and USD million for women. 23% Figure 17. Remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean, Annual Percentage Change 18% 13% 8% 3% -2% -7% -12% -17% South America Andean regions Mexico Central America Caribbean Source: CEMLA based on figures from central banks, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.

89 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 59 The Caribbean The remittances received by this region have fluctuated widely since the international financial crisis, experiencing growth during and immediately after the natural disasters faced by countries such as Haiti with the 2010 earthquake, and remaining close to zero afterwards. Nevertheless, since the end of 2013, positive growth rates began to be observed, a trend which continued during the following years, reaching an increase of 6.5% on the previous year in 2016, a figure slightly lower than that of the previous year. Total remittances of USD million were received in 2016, a higher figure than in previous years. Haiti and the Dominican Republic were again the countries whose remittances largely influenced this result, with increases in remittances of 11.3% and 6.1%, respectively. South America In contrast to Mexico and Central American countries, where remittances are mainly from the United States, in the South American region Spain is also a significant source of such flows. In addition, differences in levels of development and in economic conditions among the countries of the continent result in wage differences that foster intraregional migration, with remittances flowing from countries like Argentina and Brazil to Bolivia or from Paraguay and Colombia to Venezuela. However, the importance of these intraregional flows continues to be relatively small with respect to their impact on remittances, compared to those originating from the United States and Spain. During 2016, remittances received by South America grew at a slower rate than those observed in other regions, with growth of 3.5% and total remittances amounting to USD million. This was below the record levels registered in The countries that contributed most to this positive growth were Argentina (23.3%), Paraguay (18.6%) and Ecuador (9.4%), while negative growth rates were observed in Suriname (-77.6%), Venezuela (-6.3%), Chile (-6.5%) and Brazil (-3.8%). In 2016, 75% of the remittances sent to South America were received by the Andean countries (Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela), a figure slightly higher than that observed in In 2015 the Andean sub-region registered a growth rate of 5.6%, higher than that for South America as a whole, with total remittances amounting to USD million. The growth was largely due to increases in remittances received by Ecuador (9.4%) and Peru (5.7%), offset in part by the fall in remittances received by Venezuela (-6.3%). The determinants of remittance flows The changes that have taken place in the amounts of remittances received in the Americas are evidently a function of trends in migration, employment and wages in the main destinations of migrants from Latin America and the Caribbean (United States, Spain and, to a lesser extent, other countries in the region). Furthermore, the economic situation and needs of remittance-receiving families also help to explain the behavior of these flows. Although only a few countries in Latin America and the Caribbean publish information on remittance inflows by country of origin, countries where the intraregional remittances received are relatively more important do so. According to the information available, remittances sent from Spain in 2016 to countries such as Paraguay and Bolivia accounted for 51% and 41%, respectively, of all such inflows, exceeding those received from the United Sates. In the cases of Ecuador and Colombia,

90 60 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 although the proportion of remittances from Spain is very significant, representing 26% and 28%, respectively, most remittances in 2016 still came from the United States (56% and 46%, respectively). In other countries, such as Nicaragua, remittances from Spain are smaller, representing just 9% of all such inflows in the last year. Intraregional remittances continued to be very significant for some countries of the region during 2016 exceeding 20% of the remittances they received (Nicaragua 30%, Bolivia 27% and Colombia 20%). For other countries such as Ecuador, intraregional remittances accounted for just 6% of total inflows. As remittances from Spain decreased in Colombia, Ecuador and Chile from 2012 to 2016, they were replaced by remittances from the United States, while intraregional remittances remained relatively stable. In Paraguay, Bolivia and Nicaragua, decreasing remittances from Spain and the United States were offset by a growth in remittances from neighboring countries. United States In 2016, an estimated 21.4 million 16 migrants from the LAC region were living in the United States, which is 287 thousand (1.4%) more than in the previous year. This may partly explain the increase in remittances received by the region overall in that year. Since 2010, the labor market for Latin American and Caribbean migrants in the United States has shown positive employment growth and declines in unemployment rates, with very few exceptions (between the last quarter of 2010 and the third quarter of 2016). 16 Estimates by Current Population Survey of the U.S. Census Bureau and the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

91 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 61 Figure 18. Intraregional remittances to selected countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, Percent 60% Colombia Ecuador Chile 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Intraregional USA Spain Intraregional USA Spain Intraregional USA Spain % Paraguay Bolivia Nicaragua 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Intraregional USA Spain Intraregional USA Spain Intraregional USA Spain Source: CEMLA elaboration based on information from the Central Banks. Note: For Chile, data is only until 2015.

92 62 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 In addition, the average weekly wage of LAC migrants in the United States in 2016 reached USD 627, the highest figure observed over in the past fifteen years, with a 3.8% annual growth rate compared to the previous year, the highest rate registered since the financial crisis. The growth of migration flows from Latin America and the Caribbean to the United States, as well as improvements in the labor market for migrants in that country, help to explain the increase in remittances observed, especially for origin countries such as Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico and Haiti, whose remittances are mostly from the United States. Spain Spain remains the second source of remittances received by Latin American and Caribbean countries, even if the number of migrants from the region living in that country has fallen significantly in recent years, from 2.8 million in 2009 to 2.4 million in In that year, after several years of decreases in the number of migrants from LAC in Spain, for the first time since the crisis an increase of 4.0% in the number of migrants was observed, which was insufficient, however, to make up for the losses of immigrants over the past years. The labor market in Spain for migrant workers from Latin America and the Caribbean countries has been showing signs of recovery since the end of This can be seen in growth rates during 2016 that reached 2.4% as compared to the previous year, with which the number of migrant workers amounted to just over one million, a figure still below that seen in 2009 when it was around two million. Of the total number of migrants from the region in Spain, 58.6% are employed. It can be inferred from this information that total employment in 2016 recorded a growth rate of 5.7% on the previous year, while the unemployed population decreased by 1.6%. At the Origin Latin America and the Caribbean Exchange rates and inflation in countries receiving remittances affect the purchasing power of the families benefitting from such flows. Given that most of these transfers are used for everyday expenses, it also affects the amounts that migrants decide to send. Remittances are sent in foreign currency (US dollars, Euros or others) and need to be exchanged into local currency 17 before they can be spent by the recipients. Thus, changes in local prices affect the purchasing power of the families receiving these transfers. Now the aggregate value 18 of currencies in Latin America and the Caribbean has depreciated by 10.8%. This, in combination with the growth observed in remittances, allowed beneficiaries to receive remittance amounts in local currency up to 18.2% higher than those received in The largest depreciations were registered in Mexico (19.4%), Argentina (69.9%), Venezuela (41.8%) and Haiti (25.8%). 17 Except in those countries where the dollar is a commonly-used currency. 18 Regional and subregional figures for the deprecation or appreciation of local currencies were calculated by weighting the changes in the value of the local currency in each country by its share of, total regional or subregional remittances.

93 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 63 On the other hand, inflation in the remittance recipient economies decreases the purchasing power of beneficiary families i.e. they can purchase less with the money they receive. In this regard, aggregate inflation 19 across the region was 4.1% in If the impact of inflation is combined with currency depreciation, the purchasing power of remittance recipients is nonetheless 14.1% higher than the previous year. Table 11. Exchange rate and inflation effects in remittances, Remmitances in 2016 (USD millions) Growth rates: In local currency adjusted for inflation Remittances as a proportion of GDP 2016 In local USD currency South America % 11.8% 5.0% 0.4% Argentina % 97.5% 53.6% 0.1% Brazil % -1.3% -9.2% 0.1% Chile % -4.3% -8.0% 0.1% Guyana % 47.0% 47.0% 4.5% Paraguay % 28.9% 24.1% 2.0% Uruguay % 9.0% -0.4% 0.2% Suriname % 82.9% 87.5% 0.0% Bolivia (1) % 2.4% -1.5% 3.4% Colombia % 16.2% 8.3% 1.8% Ecuador % 9.4% 7.7% 2.6% Peru % 11.4% 8.1% 1.6% Venezuela (2) % 35.5% -76.7% 0.0% Central America % 9.9% 8.8% 7.3% Belize % 3.3% 3.3% 4.8% Costa Rica % 1.4% 91.9% 0.9% El Salvador % 7.2% 5.0% 17.2% Guatemala % 13.1% 8.8% 10.5% Honduras % 10.1% 5.7% 18.4% Nicaragua % 11.3% 4.9% 9.4% Panama % -9.9% -10.6% 0.8% Caribbean % 16.0% 9.4% 8.7% Dominican Republic % 8.3% 4.5% 7.4% Haiti % 37.8% 22.3% 29.6% Jamaica % 10.8% 7.1% 16.6% Trinidad and Tobago % 6.7% 2.5% 0.6% Mexico % 28.2% 24.7% 2.6% LAC % 18.2% 14.1% 1.4% Source: CEMLA based on figures from central banks and the International Monetary Fund. Note: Regional and subregional aggregates are calculated by weighting individual percentages by country by their share of total remittances. (1) Plurinational State of; (2) Bolivarian Republic of 19 Regional and subregional inflation figures were calculated by weighting changes in the consumer price indexes of each country by its share of total regional or subregional remittance flows.

94 64 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 At the sub-regional level, Mexico registered the largest growth in the purchasing power of families receiving remittances (24.7%), while in Central America and the Caribbean the growth of remittances combined with the depreciation of their currencies and inflation led to a net increase of 8.8% in purchasing power. In South America the growth of purchasing power was 5.0%. Hence, in countries such as Haiti, Honduras, El Salvador, Jamaica and Guatemala, income from remittances was between 10% and 29% of GDP in In El Salvador and Honduras one in five, respectively, six families receive remittances 20. According to recent observations, the amount of remittances in relation to GDP continues to grow at a slow rate in most of the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. This increase is coherent with the growth observed in such flows, with few exceptions such as Guyana, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Panama, Uruguay and Venezuela, where the weight of remittances in the GDP seems to have decreased slightly. Table 12. Income from remittances in Latin America and the Caribbean LAC Mexico Central America Caribbean South America USD millions Annual Percentage Change Source: CEMLA based on figures from central banks, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. 20 Remittance Recipients in Honduras: A Socioeconomic Profile. Lukas Keller and Rebeca Rouse, MIF 2015.

95 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 65 References OECD (2011). International Migration Outlook: SOPEMI 2011, OECD Publishing. org/ /migr_outlook-2011-en. Marques da Fonseca Neto, João (2009). The Foreign National in Brazil, Legislation and Comments. 4 th edition, EMDOC, São Paulo, Brazil. Passel, Jeffrey S. and D Vera Cohn (2017). As Mexican share declined, U.S. unauthorized immigrant population fell in 2015 below recession level. Pew Hispanic Centre, Washington, D.C. Passel, Jeffrey, D Vera Cohn, Jens Manuel Krogstad and Ana Gonzalez-Barrera (2014). Methodology for Estimating the Size of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population, Pew Hispanic Centre, Washington, D.C. Hoefer, Michael, Nancy Rytina and Bryan C. Baker (2012). Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2010, Office of Immigration Statistics, Policy Directorate, U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Warren, Robert and John Robert Warren (2013). Unauthorized Immigration to the United States: Annual Estimates and Components of Change, by State, 1990 to 2010, International Migration Review 2013 Jun 1; 47(2): OAS/OECD (2015). International Migration in the Americas: SICREMI Organization of American States, Washington and Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris.

96 66 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Annex A1. Using the American Community Survey to track migration flows The American Community Survey (ACS) is an annual survey of about 3.5 million households in the United States which collects detailed household and individual information in the period between censuses. The sample is distributed evenly over the months of the year and is representative of United States addresses on an annual basis. The ACS collects information on the country of birth and the year of entry into the United States of all persons born abroad and in particular, of those who were not United States citizens at birth. This latter group corresponds to the immigrant population, which is the population of interest for our purposes. The ACS surveys available for the analysis in this publication were those for the survey years 2006 to Because of the availability of the data over these 10 years, one can in principle track the size of the immigrant cohort which entered in 2006 for 9 years, that which entered in 2007 for 8 years, etc. Each such cohort should decrease in size over time, because immigrants do not always stay on in the country they emigrate to and some may decease. Thus, a look at cohort sizes over time should provide some information over how well the ACS tracks immigrants who arrived recently and their trajectories in the years after arrival. Figure A1 provides an indication of the results for the regions of the Americas, as well as for Canada and Mexico separately. Note first of all that because the ACS is conducted over the entire year, it will pick up on average only about one half of the immigrants who entered during the survey year. For this reason, the estimate of the number of immigrants who entered during the survey year has been doubled, to more accurately represent the size of the entry cohort. In addition, the data have been pooled over the cohorts to provide a better and more stable picture of the relative size of cohorts in the five years following arrival Figure A1. Immigrants in the United States by years since arrival, arrival cohorts combined, American Community Survey 0 Andean Region Canada Caribbean Central America Mexico Southern Cone Arrival year=100 1 year 2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years Source: American Community Survey, United States Census Bureau.

97 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 67 As is evident from the column charts, only in Canada, Mexico and the Southern Cone does one observe cohort estimates which correspond to expectations. For immigrants from the Andean Region there is only a slight decline in immigrant numbers with time in the country, for the Caribbean region the estimates are relatively stable, while the estimates of immigrants from Central America actually increase as the number of years spent in the country rises. In principle, the first two cases are not impossible, but given that the sample could include temporary migrants and that even permanent migrants do not necessarily stay on, they appear implausible. The third case is clearly impossible, but reflects known problems which household surveys commonly encounter in picking up recent migrants of certain origin groups. The response to surveys of such immigrants tends to improve over time, resulting in the kind of pattern observed for immigrants from Central America, that is, the initial high undercoverage outweighs the fall in numbers which one would observe if the coverage were adequate, but eventually, as coverage improves, one observes the usual expected decline in the size of an immigrant cohort over time. A second element which one needs to take into account when examining ACS estimates over time is the impact which the incorporation of new Census results has on the weighting. Figure A2 shows the net change in the estimated number of immigrants from other countries of the Americas for each year from 2007 to The year 2010 stands out, showing a much larger increase than in any other year. However, this increase is not a real increase in the number of immigrants compared to 2009, but rather reflects the use of new demographic totals obtained from the 2010 census in the ACS weighting procedure, and in particular, new estimates of the population of Hispanic origin. The increase observed actually occurred over the entire period since the previous census, but since prior ACS waves have not been reweighted, it appears here as an increase over a single year, from 2009 to Indeed, if one examines the ACS estimate of the number of immigrants who entered the United States from 2009 to 2010, the number is less than the net change, which in principle is impossible. In the analysis of this chapter, the stock of immigrants for 2010 has therefore been adjusted to ensure that the change in the stocks from 2009 to 2010 and from 2010 to 2011 is proportional to the inflow for the same periods Figure A2. Year-to-year change in the estimated number of immigrants from other countries of the Americas to the United States, , American Community Suvery Source: American Community Survey, United States Census Bureau.

98 68 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Finally, the measures of outflows shown in the chapter are obtained by demographic accounting, as follows: net change in population = inflows outflows, so that outflows = inflows net change. Note that outflows can include both emigration and deaths. Since the objective here is to measure an outflow rate for emigration alone, however, the estimation of outflows has been carried out for a population under 60, in order to minimize the impact of deaths on the estimation of the rate of emigration. Furthermore, with an upper bound on age, net change now needs to be estimated by taking the difference between the population for the upper bound in a given year and that of persons one year younger in the previous year. However, because of the tendency of respondents to round their ages to multiples of 5, net change would be overstated if one took a multiple of five as the upper bound. Thus, to avoid problems related to rounding by respondents, the estimates of outflows were actually calculated for the population 58 years of age and under. All statistics concerning outflows based on the ACS in the chapter work with this restricted population. As noted in the main body of the chapter, the ACS covers in principle all modalities of migration, that is, legal permanent residence, temporary migration and unauthorized entry. However, the ACS does not allow one to determine by which of these modalities an immigrant entered the country or his/her current status. However, it is likely that temporary migrants, in particular those with relatively shorter durations of residence, may not be well covered. The situation of unauthorized immigrants is, a priori, unclear. One might suppose that such migrants would attempt to avoid being interviewed, given their status in the country, but it is at least as and perhaps more likely that they would avoid behavior which draws attention to their possible unauthorized status. Refusing to respond to a government survey or claiming to be just visiting might be construed to be such behaviors. In any event, since the ACS is the principal source for the regularly appearing estimates of the unauthorized immigrant population in the United States, it is clear that many unauthorized immigrants do in fact respond in the ACS. The outflow or departure rates of immigrants presented here will reflect the situation of immigrants who entered by all three modalities, modulo possible undercoverage by immigrants in the three groups. It is likely, however, that the coverage tends to be skewed towards immigrants with longer expected durations, which will tend to depress the estimated departure rates shown in the chapter for the countries shown.

99 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 69 Table A1: Immigration, permanent and temporary, by country of origin and type of migration, top ten countries of origin, 2015 Destination country Share of total migration - top ten origin countries Paraguay Bolivia Peru Colombia Brazil Venezuela Chile Uruguay China United States Argentina Share of total Family migration by Other type Work Other countries All countries Study Guyana Trinidad and Tobago United States Canada Jamaica United Kingdom Saint Vincent India Saint Lucia Nigeria Other countries Barbados Share of total Family migration by Other type Work All countries Study Brazil Peru Colombia Argentina China Spain United States Chile Paraguay Cuba Other countries Bolivia All countries Share of total migration by type Family Other Work Study Haiti United States Colombia Bolivia Argentina China France Italy Portugal Peru Other countries Brazil All countries Share of total migration by type Family Other Work Study

100 70 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Table A1: Immigration, permanent and temporary, by country of origin and type of migration, top ten countries of origin, 2015 (cont.) Destination country Share of total migration - top ten origin countries India Philippines China United States France Mexico Korea United Kingdom Pakistan Iran Other countries Canada All countries Share of total migration by type Family Other Work Study Peru Colombia Bolivia Venezuela Haiti Argentina Ecuador Spain United States China Other countries Chile Share of total Family migration by type Other Work All countries Study Venezuela United States China Spain Mexico India Cuba Nicaragua Ecuador Brazil Other countries Colombia Share of total Family migration by Other type Work All countries Study Nicaragua United States Venezuela China Colombia El Salvador Panama Honduras Mexico Spain Other countries Costa Rica All countries Share of total migration by type Family Other Work Study

101 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 71 Table A1: Immigration, permanent and temporary, by country of origin and type of migration, top ten countries of origin, 2015 (cont.) Destination country Share of total migration - top ten origin countries Dominican Republic Share of total migration by type United States Haiti China Spain Venezuela Cuba Italy Mexico Colombia France Other countries All countries Family Other Work Study Colombia Peru Venezuela Cuba United States Spain China Argentina Chile Brazil Other countries Ecuador All countries Share of total migration by type Family Other Work Study Guatemala United States Honduras Nicaragua Mexico Colombia Spain Costa Rica Brazil Venezuela Other countries El Salvador All countries Share of total migration by type Family Other Work Study United States El Salvador Guatemala Ecuador Nicaragua Mexico Colombia China Italy Costa Rica Honduras Share of total Family migration by type Other Work Other countries All countries Study

102 72 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Table A1: Immigration, permanent and temporary, by country of origin and type of migration, top ten countries of origin, 2015 (cont.) Destination country Share of total migration - top ten origin countries China India United States Cuba Mexico Dominican Republic United Kingdom Trinidad and Tobago Spain Canada Other countries Jamaica All countries Share of total migration by type Family Other Work Study United States Venezuela Colombia Cuba Spain China Argentina Honduras Canada Korea Other countries Mexico All countries Share of total migration by type Family Other Work Study Venezuela Colombia Italy Dominican Republic United States China Mexico Brazil Nicaragua Spain Other countries Panama All countries Share of total migration by type Family Other Work Study Brazil Argentina Spain Uruguay Germany United States Peru Bolivia Cuba Korea Other countries Paraguay All countries Share of total migration by type Family Other Work

103 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 73 Table A1: Immigration, permanent and temporary, by country of origin and type of migration, top ten countries of origin, 2015 (cont.) Destination country Share of total migration - top ten origin countries Colombia United States Spain Venezuela Argentina Chile Ecuador Brazil Mexico China Other countries Peru Share of total Family migration by type Other Work All countries Study China India Mexico Philippines Korea United Kingdom Japan Brazil Dominican Republic Cuba Other countries United States All countries Share of total migration by type Family Other Work Study Source: National administrative data on visas and residence permits. Notes: For the sake of brevity, the following short-hand versions of country names have been used: Bolivia: Bolivia (Plurinational state of) Venezuela: Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Iran: Iran (Islamic Republic of) United States: United States of America Saint Vincent: Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Korea: Korea (Republic of) The other designation for many countries includes movements under free establishment regimes such as MERCOSUR.

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105 PART I Trends in International Migration and Labor Market Outcomes / 75 PART II Country Notes

106

107 PART II Country Notes / 77 Introduction This part of the publication consists of summary notes and statistical tables on each participating country of the Continuous Reporting System on International Migration in the Americas (known as SICREMI, its Spanish acronym). For one country (Honduras), the country note contains a brief history of international migration in the country since the country acquired its independence, as well as a summary of the regulatory framework governing entry and stay in the country, the acquisition of nationality and measures regarding asylum and the recognition of refugee status as well as for the regularization of unauthorized immigrants. For other countries, readers are referred to the previous editions of this publication for similar information. In this issue, the country note for countries which were covered in the previous edition contains an overview of developments in international migration movements and policies since The note for each country is based on a report submitted to the Organization of American States by the SICREMI national correspondent for the country. The country note table contains an overview of statistics related to international migration for the country, including total inflows of immigrants, both permanent and temporary; flows by category of entry, when available; outflows to OECD countries and to countries of the Americas; the number of asylum seekers; components of population growth; the size of the immigrant population; GDP growth and GDP per capita; and labor force characteristics of the emigrant population, both men and women. Sources for the statistics presented in the tables are as follows: Migration inflows the national correspondents of the SICREMI network. Migration outflows to OECD countries and to countries of the Americas the OECD International Migration Database (OECD countries outside the Americas) and the SICREMI database (countries of the Americas). Asylum seekers UNHCR. The asylum seeker statistics are new requests and exclude repeat, reopened and appeal applications. Components of population growth United Nations Population Division: United Nations World Population Prospects: the 2017 Revision. The foreign-born population Trends in International Migration Stock: the 2015 Revision, except for the United States, where Census Bureau statistics were used. Remittances Latin American Center for Monetary Studies (CEMLA for its Spanish acronym). GDP growth and GDP/capita World Bank statistics. The GDP growth figures are based on constant local currency while the GDP per capita is expressed in constant 2011 international dollars. Labor force outcomes in OECD countries the European Labor Force Survey for European countries, the American Community Survey for the United States. More detailed information on statistical sources and on the definitions of the statistics presented can be found in the Statistical Annex of this publication. Multi-year statistics are based on averages of the underlying annual data for the period shown. The abbreviation na means not available, nr not reliable.

108 78 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 The term nationality as used in the country note refers to legal, administrative or passport nationality. It defines the link between a person and a particular legal system. This link of an individual with a State generates rights and reciprocal duties and depends on national legislation. Variants can be summarized in three legal principles: (a) Ius sanguinis: the right of blood, where nationality is transmitted from the parents to their children, even when they are born abroad; (b) Ius soli: the right of soil, where the nationality of a country is obtained on the basis of birth on the territory of the country, regardless of the nationality of the parents; (c) Ius domicili: the right of domicile, where nationality is acquired on the basis of residence after a certain period of time or on the basis of other residence-related ties to the country of nationality (property, work, etc.). For the purpose of this report, the terms citizenship and nationality are used interchangeably.

109 PART II Country Notes / 79 ARGENTINA In 2015, permanent and temporary migration inflows as a whole increased 31% over 2014 levels. In particular, temporary migration increased 38%, as the Argentine economy grew by 1.6%, following the 3.5% decline registered for the previous year. Argentina receives more than half its migration in-flows from its neighboring countries, Paraguay (43%) and Bolivia (24%). Nonetheless, there is a growing flow of Colombian migrants, which have almost tripled during period, largely due to the Agreement on Residence for Nationals of States Party to Mercosur, Bolivia and Chile in 2012, which facilitated emigration, whether economic or of persons fleeing civil conflict. Since 2010, the foreign-born population has increased by around 15% and represented 4.8% of the total Argentine population in 2015, seventh in rank in the Americas after Canada, the Bahamas, Belize, the United States, Barbados and Costa Rica. It also has the highest level of inflows in Latin America and the Caribbean. For 2015, Argentinean outflows represented almost a third of the migration in-flows received. Argentinean migration outflows have steadily risen, increasing 31% between 2012 and The main receiving countries were the United States (26%), Spain (10%), Brazil (10%) and Chile (9%). Emigration flows of Argentinians to Chile have grown 35% largely due to the Mercosur agreement and the uneven performance of the Argentinian economy. The outcomes of Argentine migrants in the labor market of Europe and the United States have improved. Both the participation rate and the employment rate of Argentinians abroad have slightly increased, more among women than men from to While the employment rate for women rose nearly 4 percentage points, among men it declined by almost 1. Likewise, the participation rate of men fell 2 percentage points but increased among women by 3 percentage points. In 2015 in Argentina, asylum applications were registered from various origins: Senegal 33%, Cuba 13%, Syria 13%, Haiti 9% and Ukraine 8%. In 2014, the Mercosur Recife Agreement on Integrated Border Control Measures was approved. The agreement establishes technical and operational standards for integrated border controls between Mercosur member countries. Integrated border control means that the customs and immigration control services of neighboring countries operate side by side in a single shared infrastructure. Since the approval of the agreement, Argentina has signed bilateral agreements with Paraguay, Bolivia, Uruguay and Chile related to this. Argentina s humanitarian visa program, also known as the Syrian Program, was extended under Decree DNM No. 4683/2016. The decree introduced changes in its articles that simplify some of the requirements for Syrians and Palestinians to be able to access the program. Under the new decree, there is no need to demonstrate a family link with an Argentinian national. Organizations or institutions can also act as sponsors and commit private funds to provide newly-arrived refugees with accommodation and financial assistance. The program aims to benefit Syrians.

110 80 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Argentina Persons Per Migration inflows (foreign nationals) inhabitants % change by type /2012 Permanent Temporary Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by category of entry Permanent inflows % distribution Temporary inflows % distribution Family Humanitarian International agreements Other Study na na 1 5 Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Paraguay Bolivia (Plurinational State of) Peru Brazil Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC Persons % of total % change and OECD countries Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Spain Brazil Chile Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons (thousands) % change Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Percentages Labor market outcomes of emigrants in European OECD countries and the Men Women Total United States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

111 PART II Country Notes / 81 BARBADOS Barbados was an emigration country after independence in 1962 up until the turn of the century, when the number of persons arriving, mostly from other Caribbean countries and the United Kingdom, began to outnumber those who left. Nonetheless, immigration declined over the period. While permanent migration has been stable, temporary movements, which comprise more than 90% of total immigration to Barbados, dropped by 30% over the period. The decrease in temporary migration is mainly due to a smaller number of CARICOM nationals coming to the country with work and student permits. While the number of CARICOM nationals migrating to Barbados declined by 29% between 2012 and 2015, that of non-caricom nationals fell by 5%. Likewise, there were 45% fewer students coming from CARICOM countries during this period, compared to only 13% fewer non-caricom students. At the same time, the number of people moving under the CARICOM Free Movement of Skilled Persons agreement, which establishes the right of skilled CARICOM nationals to seek work in any of the participating Member States without a work permit, represented less than 2% of all immigrants in 2015, and has also been decreasing. Altogether, outflows from Barbados dropped in the period. In particular, flows to the US and to Canada decreased considerably, by 14% and 21% respectively although these countries are still the preferred destinations for Barbadians. Remittances to the country saw a 31% increase in 2015 (current dollars), after staying flat for three years. This might be related to the improved labor market outcomes of Barbadians abroad, especially in the United States, United Kingdom and Canada, the countries where almost 95% of the Barbadian diaspora live. Participation and employment rates both increased by 5 percentage points during compared to the rates. Among recent developments in immigration policies in Barbados are the Special Entry and Reside Permits (SERPs). These permits were made available to certain qualifying high net worth individuals (HNWI) and their dependents, allowing such persons to enter and reside in Barbados with little or no restrictions. These SERPs may either be granted for an indefinite period for those over 60 years of age, or for a fixed period, depending on a combination of age, assets and/or investment and skills. In order for an individual to qualify as a HNWI, the person must have assets of not less than US $5 million. The HNWI may be required to submit copies of income tax returns and/or audited financial statements of net assets to show that the person continues to meet the USD 5 million threshold. A person may also qualify once they have made an investment in Barbados of USD 2 million or more in either property or other investments, if the investment is funded in foreign currency sourced from outside of Barbados. In January 2016, a bill to amend the Immigration Act, Cap.90, was passed, to incorporate a provision related to the smuggling of persons in accordance with the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime.

112 82 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Barbados Persons Per Migration inflows (foreign inhabitants % change nationals) by type /2012 Permanent Temporary Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by category of entry Permanent inflows % distribution Temporary inflows % distribution Family International agreements Other Study na na Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Guyana Jamaica United Kingdom Trinidad and Tobago Migration outflows (nationals) to Persons LAC and OECD countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Canada United Kingdom Jamaica Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons (thousands) % change Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of Percentages emigrants in European OECD Men Women Total countries and the United States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate nr nr nr nr 8.5 nr

113 PART II Country Notes / 83 BOLIVIA, PLURINATIONAL STATE OF Bolivia s migration profile is still defined by emigration. Total immigration over the 2012 to 2015 period varied between 19 and 27 thousand per year, but outflows of Bolivians were about four to five times this. Argentina remains the main destination country of Bolivians, but flows towards Chile have doubled while those towards Brazil have halved. Indeed, the level of movements towards Chile was seven times larger than that registered during Chile now accounts for 21% of all overall flows, versus 62% for Argentina. While temporary immigration was fairly stable from 2012 to 2015, permanent immigration increased by a factor of almost 4. The level, however, is still low. The entry into force of the Mercosur Residence Agreement in 2009 promoted the growth in temporary migration, since it provides for a two-year temporary visa, which persons can obtain permanent residence. The growth in permanent immigration between 2013 and 2014, on the other hand, may be related to the regularization process in force since late 2013 and implemented through 2014, which concerned largely citizens of Mercosur countries. The nationality of origin of immigrants in Bolivia has also changed recently. Brazil, Peru and Colombia became the main origin countries with 42%, 16% and 12% of immigrants, respectively. The number of nationals from Brazil was 12 times larger than in 2012, and the percentage of Argentinians in Bolivia decreased from 20% in 2012, when it was the main origin country, to 7% in Labor market outcomes for Bolivian emigrants in European OECD and United States deteriorated in when compared to Unlike the trend for emigrants of countries in the region, the unemployment rate increased 3 percentage points for men but decreased 4.5 percentage points for women. Overall, there was a decrease in the participation and employment rates, while unemployment registered a marginal decline from about 21% to close to 20%. During 2014 and 2015, the Government modified the regulation for visitor and tourist visas. The classification of countries in the List of Visa Waiver and Extension was modified during 2014, and the Popular Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Iran went from being part of Group III to part of Group II, which means that citizens of these countries require only a simple consular visa. In contrast, the State of Israel became part of Group III, which requires a visa approved by Bolivian migration authorities. Finally, the State of Palestine was included in Group I, which consists of countries whose citizens require no entry visa. 21 During 2015 the Government implemented a migration regime for visitor and tourist entries by United States citizens. These visas have a ten-year validity with the possibility of multiple entries. 22 IIn late 2016, the Government of Bolivia approved a decree which establishes a new migratory regularization process. This process applies for every foreigner in Bolivian territory with an irregular migration status who can prove a minimum one-year stay in the country prior to the publication of this decree and express the will to stay on the country in a regular manner. The decree establishes that any person who fulfills the requirements may regularize their migration status under the two-year temporary stay permit provided for in current regulations Supreme Decree No Supreme Decree No Supreme Decree No

114 84 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) Persons Per Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by inhabitants % change type /2012 Permanent , Temporary Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by category of entry Permanent inflows % distribution Temporary inflows % distribution Family Humanitarian International agreements Other Study na na 8 3 Unknown Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Brazil Peru Colombia Argentina Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and Persons OECD countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries Argentina Chile Brazil Spain Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons (thousands) % change Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of emigrants Percentages in European OECD countries and the Men Women Total United States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

115 PART II Country Notes / 85 BRAZIL During the period, the total number of immigrants settling in Brazil increased by about 3% to reach , after a decline of about 10% in 2014 relative to There was an increase of more than one third in permanent migration, but this was offset by a significant decline in temporary. The sustained increase in permanent migration flows to Brazil since 2011 is mainly due to Haitians who left their country after the 2010 earthquake. In fact, if one excludes Haitians from the total of permanent residents arriving in Brazil yearly since 2011, the number is lower in 2015 than in Temporary migration also decreased in 2015 despite a steady increase since 2011, the number for 2015 is slightly lower than that for In the period 2011 to 2014, Brazil registered a sharp increase in foreign workers, a result of the country s rapid economic growth during those years. Starting in 2015, however, Brazil plunged into recession with unemployment climbing into double digits, thousands of companies shutting down and per capita GDP decreasing by 4.6%. Most foreign workers are highly educated. Nearly 50% of those recruited in 2015 had a university degree while only 12% of Brazilians do so. Emigration of Brazilians has increased steadily over the recent past, with a 12% increase recorded from 2012 to Although the United States continues to be the main destination country for emigrating Brazilians (38%), movements to Canada and Japan soared by 54% and 57% respectively for the same period. The labor market outcomes for Brazilian emigrants in Europe and the United States have improved considerably in compared to The unemployment rate for men dropped from 11.5% to 7.9%. Women s unemployment also decreased, but much less so and is still almost double that of men. Remittances to Brazil have increased by 24% in current dollars from to 2012 to 2015, reversing the downward trend observed until The total amount reached 2.5 billion dollars in The number of asylum seekers in the country more than tripled compared to 2013, reaching almost Many asylum applicants were nationals of the African continent; they accounted for 55% of all applications for the period. The most common countries of origin, all continents considered, were: Senegal, Syria, Nigeria, Ghana, Lebanon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, Bangladesh, and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. Brazil s asylum applications do not reflect the significant inflow of Haitians, particularly those affected by the 2010 earthquake and subsequent natural disasters. Many of these migrants have received residence permits for humanitarian reasons, since persons displaced due to natural disasters are not considered refugees according to the Geneva Convention. Of the applications for refugee status made by Haitians from 2010 to 2015, Haitians had been granted permanent residence for humanitarian reasons by In April 2017, Brazil s congress approved a new immigration law guaranteeing the same rights to foreign residents as to native-born Brazilians. This law replaces highly restrictive laws covering foreigners implemented in 1980 during Brazil s military regime. Under the new law, immigrants

116 86 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 have the same rights as Brazilians including access to jobs and to social security and the right to own property; they can also join labor unions and participate in strikes or protests. In addition, the law provides for an amnesty for irregular foreigners currently living in Brazil, most of them are from the South American nations that border it. The new law does not change existing legislation covering the granting of visas to foreigners seeking to work in Brazil.

117 PART II Country Notes / 87 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type Brazil Persons Per inhabitants % change /2012 Permanent , Temporary Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by category of entry Permanent inflows % distribution Temporary inflows % distribution Family Humanitarian International agreements Other Study na na Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Haiti China Italy Portugal Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and Persons OECD countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Canada Japan Germany Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration (WPP 2012 revision and WPP 2017 revision [ ]) Percentage of the total population Persons (thousands) % change Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of emigrants Percentages in European OECD countries and the United Men Women Total States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

118 88 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 CANADA In 2015, almost foreign nationals were granted permanent resident status in Canada, the highest admissions level since 2010 but within the planned range in the 2015 immigration plan. Labor migration reached in 2015, a 2% decrease compared with 2014, while spouses and dependents of labor migrants were admitted. Of total economic migrants (and family members) were admitted under the skilled worker program slightly more than in The provincial nominee program was the second largest group at admissions, down from in Live-in caregivers became the third largest group under the economic category, with admissions in The 54% increase in this category is entirely due to the rise in the number of spouses and dependents. Labor migrants and their families mainly originate from Asia; no less than a quarter originate from the Philippines alone. Only 6% of permanent economic migrants are from the Americas. In 2016, a number of policy initiatives aimed at facilitating family migration were introduced. Nearly spouses, partners and dependent children were admitted in 2016 within the planned range, compared to admissions in In February 2016, the cap on applications for sponsorship of parents and grandparents in 2016 was doubled from to , in order to reunite more families. Over parents and grandparents were admitted in The 2017 planning range for family immigrants is to , which is higher than previous years. In parallel, efforts were undertaken to shorten processing times and to reduce the backlog in applications for family migration. About family migrants are from the Americas, representing 19% of the inflows. The majority are from the United States, Jamaica or Mexico. As the first major overhaul of the Express Entry system since its introduction in early 2015, important changes were made in November 2016 to better align the attribution of points for job offers to the situation in the Canadian labor market and to award additional points to international students who complete their studies in Canada. In contrast, the number of points available for a job offer has been significantly reduced. In addition, candidates are given more time to submit an application for permanent residence once they have received an invitation to apply. The biggest increase in permanent migration both in absolute numbers and in proportional terms was in the refugee and protected persons category, which saw over overall admissions in 2016, up from in 2015, and in This is mainly in response to the Syrian refugee crisis, where Canada resettled more than Syrian refugees between November 2015 and January 2017, of whom were already resettled by the end of February Canada also continued to resettle other refugees from around the world as part of a multiyear commitment. In total, Canada resettled over refugees in In 2017, the planned range for the refugee and protected persons category is to , which is higher than in the years before Operation Syrian Refugees in 2016 was put in place. In addition to resettlements, Canada receives asylum demands of persons arriving from abroad or already present in the country. These demands amounted to in 2015 and in In 2016, the number of demands by Haitian nationals doubled compared to 2015 with the end of the ban on deportation from Canada to Haiti on 4 August Demands by Haitian nationals are expected to increase with the expected expiration in January 2018 of the temporary protection granted by

119 PART II Country Notes / 89 the U.S. neighbor to Haitian nationals after the 2010 earthquake. The number of asylum claims lodged in the first seven months of 2017 by foreigners entering Canada from the United States by land ports of entry already exceeds the total number of applications lodged in the full year Most entries occurred in the provinces of Quebec and Ontario and the majority concern Haitian nationals who have been living in the United States. Of asylum seekers who lodged a demand in 2015, persons from other countries of the Americas represent the third contingent behind Asia and Africa; half of them originate from Colombia, Haiti and Venezuela. The first country of origin is China with demands. Hungary is the second country of origin with demands; it was already the first or second country of origin in this migration category in the period Syria is only the seventh country of origin of asylum seekers as most of them arrive in Canada via the resettlement program. A total of temporary residents received their initial permits in 2015, which is a 5% decline over Of these, more than were work permit holders. Inflows of seasonal workers in agriculture are dominated by Mexicans and Jamaicans while other temporary work permits are delivered to a more varied range of nationalities of which citizens from the United States, India, France, the Philippines and China represent about a half. More than students received their initial permits in 2015, which represents an increase of 3% over 2014, and almost twice the number observed in the early 2000s. Two thirds of new international students are from Asia, mainly from China and India, followed by Europe and the Americas. Since 2012, Brazil is the first country of origin in the Americas for international students (4 800 new students in 2015) ahead of the United States, Mexico and Jamaica. No less than one thousand new Jamaican international students arrived in Canada in 2015; ten years earlier, the country was sending less than 200 students annually. In contrast to the situation for students, the number of temporary migrants with initial work permits declined in Initial permit holder numbers dropped in 2014, following a Temporary Foreign Worker program review, and 2015 saw a further 38% drop, to over A Canadian parliamentary committee in September 2016 recommended a number of further changes. As part of the government s initial response, in December 2016, the previous four-year maximum cumulative duration for certain types of temporary foreign workers will no longer apply. Canada s Global Skills Strategy, first announced in November 2016 and officially launched in March 2017, will help access the skills and expertise of talented workers from around the world to enable Canadian firms to compete in the global marketplace. Immigration is considered by the government a key element in strengthening the country s economy and middle class in 2016 and A historically high planned target of new permanent residents to be admitted to Canada has been set for 2017, with the objective of attracting top skills and talent from around the world to help grow innovative businesses. These objectives are balanced with maintaining Canada s stated commitment to offering protection to the displaced and persecuted and focusing on improving family reunification. Canadians emigration to the rest of the Americas and to OECD countries is stable at around annually in the last five years. A third of them head to the United States. The other main destinations are the United Kingdom and Korea (more than each), followed by Germany and Mexico (more than each). Only 13% of Canadian emigration was directed to Latin American countries in

120 90 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI Colombia recently overtook Brazil as the second Latin American destination with 900 entries of Canadians in Employment rates of emigrants from Canada to Europe and the United States are high at 71.4% in They have increased through the double effect of increased participation and a decrease in unemployment rates. Unemployment rates are particularly low, especially for emigrant women (4.8%).

121 PART II Country Notes / 91 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type Canada Persons Per inhabitants Percent change /2012 Permanent Temporary Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by category of entry Permanent inflows % distribution Temporary inflows % distribution Family Humanitarian Other Study na na Work Accompanying family Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Philippines India China Iran (Islamic Republic of) Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and Persons OECD countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America United Kingdom Korea Germany Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of emigrants Percentages in European OECD countries and the United Men Women Total States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate Note: For temporary, in includes all agricultural workers, including initial permits and non-initial permits; data provided by IRCC Canada.

122 92 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 CHILE Inflows to Chile have increased 50% by 2015 compared with the 2012 level, reinforcing a trend which has seen Chile become one of the significant destination countries for Latin America and Caribbean migrants. In 2015, temporary visas were granted, to persons; of the visas granted were renewals or visa changes. Holders of temporary visas were mainly Peruvian (25%), Bolivian (20%), Colombian (20%), and Venezuelan and Haitian nationals (5% each). Compared with 2014, the number of temporary visas issued to Haitians and Venezuelans increased by 144% and 192%. In Chile, persons can receive the right of permanent residence after one or two years in the country on a temporary visa. In other words, all permanent residents are already counted among persons receiving temporary visas, which is why statistics on permanent residents are not separately identified in this publication. Nonetheless, they do figure in national statistics on immigration. The number of persons granted the right of permanent residence rose 88% from 2013 to 2015, reaching Since the average size of an entry cohort between 2011 and 2014 was about , this suggests a retention rate of roughly 64%. This is a high rate, and confirms the largely permanent character of the Chilean migration regime, where virtually every migrant arriving can aspire to permanent residence. The five main countries of origin of migrants receiving the right of permanent residence were Peru (25%), Bolivia (22%), Colombia (19%), Venezuela (3%) and Haiti (2%). Compared with 2014, the number of permanent permits issued to Haitians and Venezuelans increased by 183% and 96%, respectively. Chilean emigration to OECD and Latin America countries increased 17% in 2015 when compared to The main destination countries were the United States of America (29%), Argentina (17%), Spain (7%) and Ecuador (7%). Labor market outcomes of Chilean emigrants in European OECD countries and United States of America markets remained almost unchanged in when compared to , with a slight improvement for men in the unemployment rate (from 16.8% to 14.9%). Asylum applications in Chile increased since 2012, but remain at a low level, with 629 requests in 2015, mostly Colombians. Between 2015 and 2016, Chile made major policy changes with the stated objective of advancing the integration of the migrant population as well as protecting their rights, regardless of immigration status. Migrants in an irregular status with scarce resources have been granted access to health services and children of irregular migrants access to public schools. In 2015 the Syrian Refugee Resettlement Program was drafted, for later implementation. This is oriented towards Syrian refugee families who are under UNHCR protection and assistance. The first Syrian resettled families arrived in Chile in October In 2016 the Civil Registry and the Department of Immigration and Migration implemented a provision to grant Chilean citizenship to children who were born of undocumented parents between 1996 and 2014 and registered at birth as children of transient foreigners. In parallel, the program We are all School granted student visas to children enrolled in schools who have not yet claimed citizenship.

123 PART II Country Notes / 93 Between 2014 and 2017, Chile has signed bilateral cooperation agreements on migration and consular issues with Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Panama, the Dominican Republic and Peru, which are implemented through Binational Commissions of the respective Ministries of Foreign Affairs. Within the framework of engaging with communities abroad, the Program for Strengthening Consular and Migratory Policy was implemented, with the aim to inform, assist and support Chileans who are abroad in vulnerable situations. In 2016 a law was passed that regulates the right to suffrage abroad, allowing Chileans abroad to participate in presidential elections, presidential primaries and national plebiscites, with an electoral roll of people. Likewise, the Second Registration of Chileans Abroad is being carried out, which aims at estimating the number of Chileans living abroad, and documenting their socio-economic, demographic and migratory profile. In 2017, a new Migration Law has been introduced in the National Congress, updating the current regulations. The bill covers, among other things, a declaration of underlying principles; a list of rights and duties of migrants; regulations of entry and stay; immigration categories (tourism, visitor, temporary, permanent and official), based on criteria of residence and non-residence; procedures for administrative sanctions and the creation of a National Migration Policy System, integrating by the Migration Policy Committee, the National Migration Authority, the Migration Authority Abroad and the Migration Control Authority. The bill also establishes equal rights between nationals and foreigners, the principle of nondiscrimination, equal labor rights, access to social security, health and education for immigrants, the right of family reunification and the right to due process, among others.

124 94 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type Chile Persons Per inhabitants Percent change /2012 Permanent and temporary , Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by category of entry Permanent and temporary inflows % distribution Study 2 1 Unknown Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Peru Colombia Bolivia (Plurinational State of) Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and OECD Persons countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Argentina Spain Ecuador Per million inhabitants Average Number of persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Percentages Labor market outcomes of emigrants Men Women Total in European OECD countries and the United States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

125 PART II Country Notes / 95 COLOMBIA Permanent and temporary immigration in Colombia more than doubled from 2013 to This is the result of the implementation in late 2013 of the new migration regime created by Decree 834 of April 2013, which has eased up on migration restrictions for virtually all categories of migration. The improving conditions in the country as a result of the peace process have no doubt played a role as well. The initial strong increase in inflows in 2014 was followed by a decline in 2015 of about 12%, which perhaps reflected less a real decline than an inflation of grants of permits in 2014, as a result of unsatisfied demand under the old migration regime. The main nationalities for issued permits were the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (15%), the United States of America (13%), China (8%) and Spain (6%). Incoming migration flows from neighboring countries account for approximately one quarter of total incoming migration flows, in contrast to most other countries in Latin America, where migration flows from neighboring countries exceed 50% of migration inflows. Emigration of people born in Colombia to OECD countries and Latin America increased 32% in 2015 when compared to The main destination countries were the United States of America (23%), Ecuador (16%), Chile (15%) and Argentina (15%). Although the United States remained the main destination country for people born in Colombia, there was a decrease in the migration flow towards this country (-10.0%). The migration flow of people born in Colombia towards OECD and Latin American countries is greater than the immigration flow into the country, which translates into a negative net migration rate (-0.6 per one thousand inhabitants) in Historically, the population loss to migration has been even greater, with a net migration rate of -1.6 persons per thousand inhabitants in Labor market outcomes of Colombian migrants in European OECD and United States of America remained practically unchanged in when compared to , with a mild recovery women s employment rate (from 60% to 61%) and unemployment rate (from 19% to 17%). Remittances towards Colombia reached million dollars in 2015, 14% higher than the level observed in Colombia has shifted its migration profile in recent years. In addition to being an emigration country, it has become a transit and destination country for migrants. Between January 2012 and August 2016, irregular entrees of migrants were identified. 78% were originally from Haiti and Cuba and their destination was the United States of America (OAS- IOM, 2017). In addition to the reasons cited, immigration flows to Colombia have increased as a result of improvements in security and in economic performance, and integration of Colombia in regional processes such as Mercosur and the Pacific Alliance, among others.

126 96 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Of the main policy implementations in were: a) Consular Registration Card 24 : this is a document stating that a Colombian national was registered at the Consulate of Colombia corresponding to the district where he/she resides. This card grants the Colombian national an identification document recognized by the Government of Colombia abroad. b) Returnee Labor: Within the framework of the implementation of Law 1565 in 2012, during 2014 and 2015, there were applications of Colombians seeking to receive the incentives and benefits provided to persons who return voluntarily. Many were nationals returning to Colombia due to economic, social and political conditions in Venezuela. c) Pacific Alliance s Technical Working Group for Movement of Business Persons and Facilitation of Transit Migration exonerated Mexican and Peruvian Fellows of the Pacific Alliance of the payment of the foreigner identification card. d) Schengen Visa Exemption: A visa exemption for European Union and Colombian citizens who travel to the territory of the other contracting party for short stays and unpaid work was arranged through an agreement between the European Union and the Republic of Colombia. 24 Decree 642 of 2014, document issued by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

127 PART II Country Notes / 97 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type Colombia Persons Per inhabitants Percent change /2012 Permanent and temporary Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by category of entry Permanent and temporary inflows % distribution Family 10 9 Humanitarian 0 0 International agreements 0 5 Other Study 13 8 Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) United States of America China Spain Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and OECD Persons countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Ecuador Chile Argentina Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of emigrants Percentages in European OECD countries and the United Men Women Total States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

128 98 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 COSTA RICA Overall immigration in Costa Rica decreased by 4% in 2015 when compared to 2014 with permanent immigration rising by 9% but temporary immigration falling by 15%. This was due largely to the 21% decrease in temporary immigration of Nicaraguan nationals, who account for approximately 60% of overall temporary immigration in Costa Rica. Some of the main causes for the decrease in Nicaraguan temporary immigration were a decrease in labor demand in the agriculture, construction and domestic services sectors, where most Nicaraguans are concentrated. According to data from the National Institute for Statistics and Census (INEC), by the end of 2015 Nicaraguans unemployment reached a rate of 10.1 % out of a labor force of 159 thousand persons. The main nationalities for permanent permits granted by Costa Rica in 2015 were Nicaragua (74%), United States (7%), Venezuela (3%), Colombia (2%). Over half of permanent permits were granted for work reasons and about a quarter for family-related reasons. Between 2013 and July, 2016, entries of irregular migrants from Cuba, Haiti, Asia and Africa were identified, with an extraordinary increase in 2015 caused mainly by Cuban migrants, who accounted for 85% of the irregular migrants identified during that year (OAS-IOM, 2017). The beginning of the re-establishment of diplomatic relations between Cuba and United States in 2014 represented an imminent end for facilitated migration by Cubans arriving at United States land borders. This resulted in a boost in transit flows of Cubans in South and Central America hoping to reach the United States before the special program for Cubans was cancelled. Because of visa restrictions elsewhere, many departed for Ecuador and Colombia, made their way north through Central America by land and were stranded in Costa Rica when the Nicaraguan border was closed to Cubans. As of December 2016, Costa Rica had granted extraordinary visas to Cuban nationals. In the same month, representatives of Panama, Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Honduras, Mexico and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) agreed to implement a program to allow the transit of stranded Cubans to the United States. Cubans were transferred via El Salvador or directly to Mexico, where they continued overland to the United States border. Meanwhile, Ecuador began requiring tourist visas of Cubans and Cuba agreed to accept those among their nationals who wished to return. Between January and March 2017 when the program expired, Cuban nationals with extraordinary transit visas were transferred to Mexico through 35 flights, (7 of them via El Salvador and 28 direct), allowing them to continue their journey to the United States safely, while another left the country by their own means. Other transit migration was that of Haitians also seeking to reach the United States, because of a downturn in Brazil s economy, a country where Haitians with humanitarian protection reside. Emigration of people born in Costa Rica to OECD and Latin American countries increased 11% in 2015 when compared to 2012, with a total of temporary and permanent permits in The main destination countries in 2015 were the United States (56%), Mexico (8%), Spain (6%) and Germany (4%).

129 PART II Country Notes / 99 The migration flow of people born in Costa Rica to OECD (particularly United States) and Latin American countries is still lower that the immigration flow received by the country. Even if the net migration rate is positive (0.8 per thousand inhabitants) for , there has been a decreasing trend since the maximum level reached by around Labor market outcomes for nationals of Costa Rica in European OECD countries and the United States presented an improvement in when compared to , with a decrease in the unemployment rate (9.3 to 7.5), and a mild increase in the employment rate (68.1 to 69.8) and in the participation rate (75.0 to 75.4). Asylum applications in Costa Rica tripled between 2013 and 2015, reaching applications in 2015, mostly from persons born in Colombia, El Salvador, Cuba and Venezuela. Between 2013 and 2015, through several Government decrees, several migration regularization programs were implemented for workers in the construction, agriculture and domestic services sectors. The decrees implemented the regularization policy outlined in the Regulations of the General Law of Migration, in force since September As a result, approximately agriculture workers (half of them regular and half of them seasonal), domestic service workers and 600 construction workers were regularized. A procedure to grant an identity card called the "Entry permit for comprehensive care" authorizing free transit through the national territory and granting access to health centers for 90 days, was implemented as a response to the increase in irregular migration flows. This is a temporary document which grants no migration status per se but requires that the card-holders during the three-month period opt for one of the following: a. apply to stay via a special decree category, b. request asylum c. agree to be resettled (IOM-UNHCR), or d. voluntarily return. Costa Rica implemented the Action Plan of the National Policy for a Society Free of Racism, Racial Discrimination and Xenophobia , which includes immigrants and refugees among its target groups. It includes specific objectives related to the strengthening of institutions, civil and political rights, the right to education and culture, the right to health and social security, decent work and economic rights, the right to an adequate standard of living and finally, environmental and territorial rights. In 2017 the Integral Migration Policy Action Plan was approved, which covers four areas: Migration Services, Integration and Development, Protection of Human Rights and Groups in Vulnerable Conditions and Institutional Strengthening. These areas address issues such as migratory regularization, information management, Costa Ricans abroad, secure borders, employment, health, education, culture and society, migrant smuggling and human trafficking, among others.

130 100 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type Costa Rica Persons Per inhabitants Percent change /2012 Permanent , Temporary Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by category of entry Permanent inflows % distribution Temporary inflows % distribution Family Humanitarian Other Study na na Unknown Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Nicaragua United States of America Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Colombia Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and OECD Persons countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Mexico Spain Germany Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of emigrants Percentages in European OECD countries and the United Men Women Total States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate nr nr nr nr

131 PART II Country Notes / 101 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC Dominican Republic s First National Immigrant Survey of 2012 (ENI-2012) 25 reported the presence of 524 thousand foreign born individuals in Dominican Republic; 87% of them were born in Haiti. It also reported the presence of 244 thousand individuals born in the Dominican Republic of Haitian parents. Cross-checking this information with civil registry, migration status, social security and labor administrative records, among others, it was found that a high percentage of Haitian migrants (compared to migrants of other nationalities) are irregular migrants. In this context, the National Regularization Plan for Foreigners (PNRE) 26 was implemented, creating a special regime to grant identification documents and stay permits (provisional card) to foreign nationals who reside irregularly in the country, as well as a mechanism to apply for the different migration categories (permanent residency, temporary residency or non-migrants) established in the General Immigration Law No Of the foreigners who registered with the PNRE, (87%) applications were accepted, 98% of which were from Haitian migrants 27. Also 66% of accepted Haitian migrants were men and 46% were between 20 and 34 years of age. PNRE is the second largest regularization program in the Americas, with the largest number of registrations coming from Latin America and the Caribbean. It is second to Argentina s National Program for the Standardization of Immigration Documents, also known as Patria Grande, with registrations. The National Immigration Council 28, through Resolution 01-17, extended the term of validity of the provisional card until August, 2018 to allow time for the presentation of the required documentation with the National Directorate of Migration. As of the original closing date, almost 90% of the applicants had not provided the documentation required for the assignment, renewal or change in their migration category. Even if the number of permanent residency permits increased by ten times as a result of the regularization and temporary ones by 40%, immigration levels remain low. During 2015, according to the nationality of origin, permanent permits were granted mainly to nationals of Haiti (51%) and the United States (45%). 25 ENI-2012, National Statistical Office (ONE) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). Both institutions have announced in 2017 the beginning of the Second National Immigrant Survey (ENI-2017). 26 Decree No. 327 (2013). 27 Annual Bulletin of Migratory Statistics, 2016, Ministry of the Interior and Police and National Institute of Migration. 28 The National Migration Board is composed of the Ministers of Interior and Police, Education, Environment, Health, Tourism, Public Works, Foreign Affairs, Agriculture, also involved the Commission of Interior and Police of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies.

132 102 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Emigration of nationals of Dominican Republic to OECD, Latin American and Caribbean countries increased 8% in 2015 when compared to The main destinations during 2015 were the United States (76%), Spain (9%), Argentina (3%) and Chile (2%). The migration flow of nationals of the Dominican Republic to Latin American and OECD countries is higher than the immigration flow received by the country, which translates into a negative net migration rate (-3.0 per thousand inhabitants) for ; however, there is a decreasing trend since , although admittedly small. Labor market outcomes of migrants from the Dominican Republic in European OECD countries and the United States improved in when compared to , with a decrease in the unemployment rate from 16% to 13%. The unemployment rate decreased for both men and women. Remittances sent to the Dominican Republic amounted to million dollars in 2015, reaching a level 57% higher than the one registered in This was about 7.4% of GDP in that year.

133 PART II Country Notes / 103 Dominican Republic Persons Per Percent Migration inflows (foreign nationals) inhabitants change by type /2012 Permanent Temporary Permanent inflows Temporary inflows Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by % distribution % distribution category of entry Family Humanitarian Other Study na na na 9 Work and accompanying family Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Haiti United States of America United Kingdom Spain Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC Persons and OECD countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Spain Argentina Chile Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of emigrants Percentages in European OECD countries and the Men Women Total United States Participation rate nr Employment rate Unemployment rate nr nr nr nr nr nr

134 104 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 ECUADOR Immigration in Ecuador decreased 4% in 2015 when compared to 2014 due to a decrease in permanent immigration, while temporary immigration remained stable. Immigration in 2015, however, was three times larger than in Temporary migration involves more men (61%) than women, while permanent migration is more balanced (52% men). The main nationalities for permanent permits granted in 2015 were Cuba (40%), Colombia (16%), the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (13%) and the United States (5%). On the other hand, the main nationalities for temporary permits were Colombia (35%), the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (18%), China (13%), Cuba (8%), Peru (6%) and the United States (5%). The strong presence of Colombians in temporary migration is explained by the entry into force of the Mercosur Visa by agreement, which concerns member states but also associate member states such as Colombia. The deteriorating socioeconomic conditions in Venezuela have resulted in an increase in emigration from that country to Ecuador with temporary residence being granted under the Ecuador-Venezuela Permanent Statute, in force since Cuban migration to Ecuador, both permanent and temporary, has increased substantially since This has been stimulated by the normalization of diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States and the anticipated end to the favorable migration regime in the United States regarding Cuban nationals, which required that Cubans arrive in the United States by land. Ecuador saw large inflows of Cubans because it did not require a visa of them. Many entered the country with the intention of making their way north by land to the United States border. Some, however, opted to settle in Ecuador, in particular professionals and specialized technicians. Following a Central American Integration System (SICA) meeting, with the participation of Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador and Mexico, Ecuador began to require tourist visas for the entry of Cuban citizens as of 2015, which reduced the inflow of Cubans into the country. Emigration of Ecuadorians to other OECD and Latin American countries increased 10% in 2015 when compared to The main destination countries were the United States (41%), Spain (15%), Argentina (9%) and Chile (8%). Spain, the second destination country for Ecuadorian emigrants, saw a decrease in flows of 4%. Labor market outcomes for Ecuadorian migrants in European OECD countries and the United States improved substantially in when compared to , due largely to an improvement in Spain s economy. There was a decrease in the unemployment rate (24.1% to 16.1%) for Ecuadorian emigrants and an increase in the employment rate (60.2% to 66.5%). Unemployment affects women (17.0%) more than men (15.3%). Remittances sent to Ecuador reached a level of million (current) dollars in 2015, a level 3% lower than the one registered in 2012, representing 2.4% of GDP in that year.during 2017, Ecuador

135 PART II Country Notes / 105 approved the Organic Law of Human Mobility 29 and its Regulation 30, integrating all regulations on migration, dispersed in different legal instruments since 1970, and incorporating a number of general principles and concepts regarding the right of mobility and the rights of migrants, irrespective of their migratory status. The new law introduces a number of changes to the Ecuadorian migration regime. Aside from family members of Ecuadorian citizens or permanent residents as well as citizens of UNASUR countries, all immigrants wishing to immigrate are now granted a temporary visa and can obtain a permanent visa after 21 months of continuous residence (non-mercosur citizens) or two years of residence (Mercosur citizens). Under the former regime certain persons, in particular persons of independent means, retirees, investors and certain professionals could obtain permanent status upon entry. In addition, there are now clearly identified and separate visas for citizens of Mercosur countries, UNASUR countries and Venezuelans under the Ecuador-Venezuela Permanent Statute. Finally, persons requesting asylum are now granted a special humanitarian visa, which is valid while their request is being examined. 29 Approved by Ecuador National Assembly on January 5, 2017, in force since its publication on the Official State Registry on February 6, Executive Decree No. 111, August 3, 2017.

136 106 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type Ecuador Persons Per inhabitants Percent change /2012 Permanent , Temporary Permanent inflows Temporary inflows Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by % distribution % distribution category of entry Family Humanitarian International agreements Other Study na na 16 4 Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Cuba Colombia Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) United States of America Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and Persons OECD countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Spain Argentina Chile Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of emigrants Percentages in European OECD countries and the United Men Women Total States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

137 PART II Country Notes / 107 EL SALVADOR Total immigration in El Salvador has fluctuated between and persons from 2008 to Immigration levels have remained low and the country is still mainly an emigration country. Emigration has been increasing steadily and the United States is still the main destination for 73% of Salvadorians. However, Peru is becoming an alternative and although still at low levels, El Salvadorians moving to Peru during 2015 were two and a half times more numerous than in 2012, accounting for 8% of emigrants in that year. Remittances show an increasing trend (in current dollars) since 2012, but the amount as a percentage of GDP has remained at 17%, one of the highest in the region following Haiti and Honduras (26% and 18% respectively). Labor market outcomes of Salvadorians in European OECD countries and the United States have continued to improve. The unemployment rate for men reached 4.3% in , lower than the unemployment rate for natives (5.4%). The unemployment rate of women has decreased slightly but remains almost twice that of men. Return migration increased 42% between 2013 and 2014, reaching a level of Salvadorians, mostly from the United States and Mexico, returning mainly because of increasingly strict deportation rules. During 2015, the levels stabilized, with an increase of barely 2% Integration support for returnees has become a challenge for national authorities. Although basic assistance (transport funds, food, medical care, etc.) is provided to more than 90% of returnees upon arrival, long-term support and re-integration services are uncommon. In November 2014, the Special Law Against Human Trafficking was approved. Its objective is the detection, prevention, prosecution and sanction of the crime of trafficking of persons, as well as attention to, protection and restitution of the rights of the victims. The new legislation increased penalties for human trafficking crimes from 4 to 8 years imprisonment to 10 to 14 years imprisonment, which are commensurate with penalties prescribed for other serious offenses, such as rape. Although it prohibits all forms of human trafficking, the law includes a definition of trafficking that is inconsistent with international law, as it treats force, fraud, and coercion as aggravating factors, rather than essential elements of most trafficking crimes. In October 2016, the Regulations of the Special Law against Trafficking in Persons were approved, with the aim to contribute to the detection, prevention and eradication of human trafficking and other related crimes, as well as the protection, integral care and restitution of fundamental rights of the victims. The government drafted a new national action plan to guide its anti-trafficking efforts from , which called for an immediate response team to coordinate victim assistance and referral and formulated a protocol on the care of trafficking victims. 31 In 2012, the number of immigrants plummeted to only to rebound to over the following year, due to modifications in administrative procedures.

138 108 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type El Salvador Persons Per inhabitants Percent change /2012 Permanent Temporary Permanent inflows Temporary inflows Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by category of % distribution % distribution entry Family Other Study na na na 4 Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Guatemala Nicaragua Honduras United States of America Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and OECD Persons countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Peru Mexico Spain Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Percentages Labor market outcomes of emigrants Men Women Total in European OECD countries and the United States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

139 PART II Country Notes / 109 GUATEMALA Both permanent and temporary immigration in Guatemala increased from 2012 to 2015, with 43% and 56% increases, respectively, but levels have remained low and the country is still mainly an emigration country. Emigration flows also show an increasing trend and, during the same period, increased 12%. While United States is the main destination country for 64% of nationals from Guatemala leaving the country, Mexico has become an alternative for one out of ten Guatemalan migrants. Remittances have shown an increasing trend since 2010, increasing 31% (in current dollars) during , in part the result of the increase in the number of migrants. Most Guatemalan nationals living abroad reside in the United States, so the increase may also be related to the favorable economic conditions in that country, which, in turn, are reflected in better wages and more hours of work. Labor market outcomes for Guatemalan emigrants in European OECD countries and the United States showed a 3-percentage point decrease in the unemployment rate in when compared to While unemployment for men decreased to 4%, unemployment for women, even if it also decreased, was at almost 9%. On the other hand, both the employment and the participation rate remained practically constant. The number of Guatemalans returning home from both the United States and Mexico doubled between 2013 and 2015, reaching 106 thousand returnees; 70% arrived from Mexico and 14% were minors. Their reinsertion is sometimes complicated by long years of absence and difficulties in finding work, the same reason that motivated the departure in the first place. After a long process of political negotiations, on April, 2017, the Congress of the Republic approved the Migration Code, which abrogates the 1998 Migration Law (Decree 95-98). The new code incorporates numerous regulations and standards from international agreements into Guatemalan regulations. It also establishes that the State of Guatemala has the obligation to protect the integrity of the person, the life and liberty of all national and foreign persons who are in the national territory, without discrimination. It also specifies that State institutions cannot demand identification documents or impose any other requirement, in order to provide services required by the requestee. The new law also creates the Guatemalan Migratory System, which is composed of state institutions that work on migration, namely the National Migration, Authority the newly created Guatemalan Migration Institute and the National Council for Guatemalans abroad. Regarding changes in migratory categories, these include: Temporary residence: migrant workers who have been authorized to perform legal paid activities may apply for temporary residence, under the supervision and direction of an employer for a period of one to five years. Currently, temporary residence is granted for a maximum period of two years. Investors may be granted temporary residence for a period no longer than five years. Permanent residence: the law grants permanent residence to persons who have been temporary residents for five years; to persons who have been married or been in a civil union with a

140 110 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Guatemalan for over a year; to relatives to the degree established by law, of Guatemalans who hold a different nationality; to people born in other countries of Central America who have been temporary residents for one year and to rentiers and pensioners.

141 PART II Country Notes / 111 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type Guatemala Persons Per inhabitants Percent change /2012 Permanent Temporary Permanent inflows Temporary inflows Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by % distribution % distribution category of entry Family Humanitarian Other Study na na 3 2 Unknown Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and OECD Persons countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Canada Mexico Spain Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of emigrants Percentages in European OECD countries and the United Men Women Total States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

142 112 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 HONDURAS Overview of the history of international migration Throughout its history as an independent nation, Honduras has not attracted large immigrant contingents. The population censuses show that the percentage of foreigners in the country has never been larger than 5% of the total population. The highest percentages were reached during the decades of 1920 and 1930 and, more recently, during the sixties. The latest population census in 2013 showed that the number of immigrants did not attain even 1% of the total population. The number of foreign-born nationals in Honduras has ranged, over the country s history, from to In short, Honduras is not a significant receiver of migration flows. Rather, it is a country of origin for migrants directed, mostly, towards the United States, but also to other countries in the region, and, during the last decade, to Spain (INE Honduras, 2015, Flores, 1990). The migration profile of Honduras has unique characteristics that differentiate it from other countries of origin of migrants in the region. Before the nineties, emigration was not a relevant phenomenon for Hondurans. While Nicaragua, Guatemala and Ecuador suffered the turmoil of armed conflict which, among other consequences, forced tens of thousands of citizens to leave their countries, Honduras became a place of refuge, hosting persons displaced by war across its different borders. When the peace processes concluded in the late eighties, Central American countries had significant diasporas, especially in the United States, while Honduran emigration was just beginning. The Peace Agreements in Central American countries led to a decrease of northwards migration movements (ILO, 2012, UNDP, 2006). Nevertheless, despite the end of the armed conflict in the nineties, with natural disasters, persistent economic and political volatility, violence and drug trafficking, abetted by the transnational diaspora, thousands moved across borders towards the United States. Two decades later half a million Honduran citizens were living abroad. Because of its geographic location, during the last decades, Honduras has become a transit zone for migration. The destinations for transit migration are, mainly, the United States, Canada and, recently but to a lesser degree, Mexico. Immigration Soon after its Independence from Spain in 1821, Honduras issued the first laws on migration, which included incentives to attract North Americans and Europeans to reside in the country. In 1887, when the first census was conducted, there were approximately immigrants living in the country, of which 76% were from Central America and 23% from Europe and North America. Englishmen, established along the North Atlantic Coast of Honduras, accounted for almost 17% of all immigrants (Flores, 1990). At the end of the 19 th century, liberalism attracted foreign investment focused on mining and, later, on banana plantations, which, in turn, attracted immigration.

143 PART II Country Notes / 113 The liberal governments wanted to steer the economy into expanding mining operations, and introduced measures to attract foreign companies. With the presence of foreign companies, mainly North American but also British and French citizens of these countries arrived in Honduras to engage in other activities, not related to the economic activities of the companies. The governments of this period also counted with the support of immigrants from other Central American countries and from Cuba. In the case of Cubans, with the defeat in the independence war against Spain, most of the nationalist leadership moved to Honduras and occupied senior positions in the liberal governments (Guerra, 2006, Flores, 1990). With liberalism, Spaniards arrived in the country, among them officers who organized the military academy, professors who revitalized the university, the teachers college, the arts and crafts school, and the State printing office. In addition, the Spanish helped tobacco cultivation in the west of the country flourish. At the end of the 19 th century and the beginning of the 20 th century the silver market developed, and foreign investment sought a new direction in Honduras, leading to a boom in agriculture, especially of banana plantations. Between 1896 and 1903 banana exports doubled, and Honduras became the first banana-based economy worldwide. The North American expansion included not only agricultural and related activities, like the railway, but also other activities, like the production of beer, vegetable fats, footwear, etc. (Guerra, 2006, Flores, 1990). During this period, the country also received immigrants from the Middle East, among them Palestinians, Arabs and Turks, who engaged in urban trade (Guerra, 2006, Flores, 1990). The expansion in banana tree cultivation led to economic growth in the region of La Ceiba, the main port of departure of fruit, which, jointly with the investment in railways to transport the product from the interior of the country to the port area, generated a great demand for labor. Besides attracting nationals from neighboring countries, immigrants from Italy and from some countries in the Balkans, like Bulgaria, also settled in the country, mainly in Atlántida and Yoro (ILO, 2012). During the decades of 1930 and 1940, the immigrant population reached a significant share of the total population. The 1926 and 1930 censuses showed that foreigners represented 5% of the total population, and in the 1935 and 1940 censuses they represented around 4% of the total population. Even if Central American nationalities predominated, Europeans and Americans represented more than one fourth of the share (INE, 2015). During the 1950s the country started a prosperous period, in which agricultural development was accentuated, particularly with regard to sugar, coffee, cotton, sesame and banana crops, accompanied by an extension of the highway network. Salvadoran immigration increased over the period, composed mainly of agricultural workers and small basic grain producers. In 1961 the census registered a record level of immigrants in the country, 75% (38 000) of whom were from El Salvador (ILO, 2012). By the end of the 1970s, the armed conflicts in the neighboring countries worsened, resulting in the arrival of thousands of nationals from Nicaragua and El Salvador, most of them seeking asylum. Central America in the eighties was characterized by population displacements, both internal and

144 114 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 international, the product of political tensions that triggered civil wars. Although there were no armed conflicts in Honduras, internal displacements and trans-border movements of thousands of citizens occurred (UNHCR, 2000). By 1981 the intensification of combat in El Salvador had pushed Salvadorans to continue fleeing into Honduras. According to data from UNHCR, the number of refugees reached persons. By 1986, UNHCR reported that Honduras was a country of shelter for around persons, of them were nationals from Nicaragua, from El Salvador, and a small number from Guatemala (UNHCR, 2000). After the peace processes in Central American countries, the number of immigrants in Honduras returned to its historical levels, and, since then, has decreased as a share of the total population, reaching 0.3% in The main countries of origin are El Salvador, Nicaragua and the United States. Emigration Honduras, as all countries in Central America, went through changes in its economic structure after the eighties crisis, a process which accelerated during the next decade. During this period, the region experienced structural changes which, on one hand, led to the definitive extinction of the traditional agricultural export model and, on the other, promoted the development of a model which prioritized the secondary and tertiary sectors (ILO, 2012, Segovia, 2004, Rosa, 2008). This change implied a restructuring of labor markets, generating a drop in real wages and the lack of opportunities for low-skilled workers who were previously employed in agriculture (ILO, 2012, Segovia, 2004). Emigration of nationals from Honduras accelerated during this period. Between 1980 and 1990, the number of Hondurans in the United States, which received more than 80% of the flows, increased 163%. Natural disasters, such as Hurricane Mitch in 1998, were instrumental in magnifying the dimensions of the exodus. By 2000, almost Hondurans were living in the United States. More than 5% of the population was living abroad. Since most Honduran immigrants arrived in the United States after the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 was approved, leading to the legalization of almost 3 million immigrants, the proportion of unauthorized Honduran immigrants is larger than that of any other Central American group in the United States. Only 18% of the almost Hondurans living in the United States in 2015 arrived before 1990 (UNDP, 2015 estimations). After Hurricane Mitch, Hondurans became eligible for the Temporary Protected Status (TPS), offering provisional protection against deportation and conferring eligibility for work authorization. Currently, more than Honduran citizens hold the TPS, which has been renewed until The country has experienced events that have influenced migratory changes, including contextual factors of a demographic, economic, social, political, cultural and environmental nature, which continue to drive migration. This situation, along with the search for family reunification, is the reason for the large number of unaccompanied minors and adolescents arriving at the border between

145 PART II Country Notes / 115 Mexico and United States. In 2014, more than unaccompanied minors were intercepted by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection, though the number decreased in 2015 (CBP) (MPI, 2015). To serve this population of children and adolescents, Honduras implemented an Educational Assistance Program for Returning Migrant Children and Adolescents, which provides returned migrant children and adolescents an educational program to prepare them for their entry or reentry into the National Education System. It also contributes to their permanence and school performance considering their particularities due to the experiences lived as migrants (journeys to and from destination country). Furthermore, it guarantees the right to education of returned migrant children, through an official instruction to all educational institutions to ensure access to registration and reception of all returned migrant children, with no restrictions (such as documentation or entry or reentry requirements), with the commitment of the parents or caregivers to provide the requested supporting documentation throughout the school year. With the consolidation of the Honduran community abroad, the amount of remittances sent to the country has acquired economic relevance as the main source of foreign exchange income. By 2015, remittances amounted to 18% of the GDP. In 2015 there were return migrants from Mexico and United States, according to the Consular and Migratory Observatory. In response to the challenges posed by the arrival of this population, the Government is implementing policies to tend to their needs. Among other actions, it has created three Centers of Attention to the Returned Migrant in the Department of Cortés, that provide returned Hondurans a dignified, orderly, quick and safe return to their country. Some of the services provided include shelter for up to 48 hours, food, medical and psychological care, information on job opportunities and training, information about public social programs, free telephone calls, Interpol for special cases, and transportation to their place of origin. As a result, the Honduran government has strengthened the institutional structure to develop policies and programs for reception, provision of services and reintegration of returnees. 32 In August 2015, the Secretariat for Consular and Migratory Affairs was created under the Secretariat of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation through an Executive Decree, in order to implement programs based on the Law for the Protection of Honduran Migrants and their Families. The policy for the protection of Hondurans abroad and assistance to returned migrants is regulated by the Law on the Protection of Migrant Hondurans and their Families, approved in February 2014, 33 which created the General Directorate for the Protection of Honduran Migrants. The Law also created the Solidarity Fund for the Honduran Migrant (FOSHMI) which guarantees an annual amount of not less than five million US dollars through a trust fund of the Central Bank of Honduras, in order to cover the aid for Hondurans abroad in need and to finance the reception, care and reintegration programs in Honduras. 32 Executive Decree No. PCM Decree No

146 116 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 The Government of Honduras has implemented programs and projects for the integral reintegration of the returned migrant population with special emphasis on children and adolescents, as well as the family unit, through inter-institutional efforts to create five Municipal Units of Attention to the Returned (UMAR), located in the departments with the highest exit rates of Honduran migrants such as: Central District, San Pedro Sula, Choloma, Tocoa and La Ceiba. Likewise, 11 more Municipal Units are being installed in order to cover the entire Honduran territory. Legal framework Governing International Migration The Immigration and Foreign Nationals Act regulates migration policy in the country, the entry and exit of national and foreign persons, the stay of foreigners in Honduran territory and the issuance of migration documents. The current legal framework in migration is embodied in the following instruments: Immigration and Foreign Nationals Act (approved by Decree N , on December 12, 2003 The regulation for the Immigration and Foreign Nationals Act The Regional Procedural Manual for Migration Procedures CA4-VUCA On an international level, international conventions and agreements to which Honduras subscribes include: 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees 1967 Protocol to the 1951 Convention 1984 Cartagena Declaration on Refugees 1954 Convention on Asylum 1954 Convention on Statelessness Convention on Migrants Rights International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families Maritime Labor Convention American Convention on Human Rights Every agreement and disposition approved by the Central American Commission of Migration Directors, OCAM Regulations Governing Entry and Stay The regulation for the entry and permanence of migrants in Honduran territory is conducted through the application of the Immigration and Foreign Nationals Act, its Regulation, the Regional Procedural Manual for Migration Procedures CA4-VUCA and the dispositions on special regulations. Article 20 of the Immigration and Foreign Nationals Act establishes a stay of up to 90 days, extendable to up to 120 days, for foreigners in a temporary visit for reasons of tourism, business, conventions, sports, official trips, commercial affairs, health, and others, according to Articles 116 and 117 of the Regulation of the Act.

147 PART II Country Notes / 117 Entry categories Temporary visa Among the entry categories established in the Immigration and Foreign Nationals Act for foreigners holding a temporary visa, there are: a) Tourists b) Transit travelers c) Commercial representatives and delegates and traveling agents d) Sport, official mission, health, conventions, conferences and special events travelers e) Artists in public performances f) Special visitors g) Cross-border workers h) International transportation crew Foreigners on a temporary visit to Honduras enjoy an initial stay of up to ninety (90) days, extendable to a maximum stay of up to 120 days according to the Articles 116 and 117 of the Regulation of the Immigration and Foreign Nationals Act. Once the 120 days of temporary stay have gone by, the foreigner must leave the CA4 Region 34 (if from outside the region), or Honduran territory if they are nationals of the CA4 Region (Salvadorians, Guatemalans and Nicaraguans). Nevertheless, if the foreigner in Honduras wishes to stay in the country in a temporary or permanent manner and, for such reason, applies for a special stay permit or a permanent residence permit, then the foreigner can remain in the CA4 Region. The necessary extensions of stay are issued while the case is considered and the foreigner is registered in the National Register of Foreigners maintained by the National Institute of Immigration. Permanent residence The entry categories established in the Immigration and Foreigner Nationals Act for foreigners wishing to obtain the right of permanent residence are: a) Investors b) Rentiers c) Pensioners d) Family relationships e) Marital relationship or de facto union f) Definitive residence or immigration g) Partners and dependent children h) Other non-specified cases The stay of foreign nationals with permanent residence is determined through a resolution issued by the Human Rights, Justice, Governance and Decentralization Secretariat, in which the appropriate migration status is specified. Foreigners with permanent residence are obliged to renew their residency card, avoid unlawful activities, comply with the law and respect public authorities. 34 Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua.

148 118 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Temporary residence The categories established in the Immigration and Foreign Nationals Act for temporary residence include: a) Students b) Refugees c) Statelessness d) Asylees e) Migrant workers f) Social service g) Clergy h) Humanitarian services i) Commercial activities or public performances j) Employees of natural or legal persons k) Employees of international organizations l) Employees of government institutions m) Scientifics n) Professionals o) Athletes in different disciplines p) Hired technical personnel q) Businessmen r) Managerial staff s) Partners and dependent children of the above Special stay permits (temporary residence), authorized by the National Institute of Immigration, in the different categories specified in the law, are issued to allow for the temporary stay of foreigners in the national territory. The resolution of the National Institute of Immigration as well as the identification card of the foreigner, must be renewed or extended when applicable. Likewise, foreigners are obliged to comply with the conditions established in the resolution, to comply with Honduran law and to respect public authorities. Acquisition of Nationality and Citizenship A citizen s eligibility for Honduran nationality by birth can arise from either the right of blood (Ius sanguini) or the right of soil (Ius soli), without regard to race or other limiting conditions. Likewise, the State of Honduras recognizes the right of nationality via adoption if the adopting parents are both Honduran by birth. Once the right of blood or the right of soil are established, the parents, legal tutors, or the relevant authority in special cases, proceed to register the person concerned in the National Registry of Persons, the institution responsible for civil registrations of Hondurans and foreigners and for the identification of every Honduran by birth or naturalization. The Regulation for the Law on the National Registry of Persons establishes the requirements and procedures for the civil registration of persons. Eligible foreigners for Honduran nationality by naturalization must fulfill the following requirements:

149 PART II Country Notes / Possess civil capacity according to Honduran law; 2. Possess assets, a profession or trade or a lawful activity or industry, that will provide a means of livelihood; 3. Prove good behavior during their stay in the country; 4. Pass an exam of general knowledge on the history, geography and the Constitution of the Republic of Honduras; 5. Comply with the requirements and procedures established in the Constitution, the Immigration and Foreign Nationals Act and its Regulation. Requirements for the acquisition of nationality by naturalization: 1. Central Americans by birth who have legally resided for one year in the country; 2. Spaniards and Ibero-americans by birth who have legally resided for two consecutive years in the country; 3. Other foreigners who have legally resided for more than three years in the country; 4. Any person holding a naturalization card granted by the National Congress for the provision of extraordinary services to Honduras; 5. Immigrants who, being part of selected groups admitted by the government for scientific, agricultural and industrial ends, fulfill the legal requirements after a year of residence in the country; and, 6. Foreigners married to a Honduran by birth. The State of Honduras, through the President, can grant, deny or cancel Honduran nationality by naturalization. Foreigners who have lawfully resided in the country for the time required according to their nationality, as established in the Constitution, and who fulfill the corresponding requirements may opt for Honduran nationality by naturalization. Asylum, refugees and complimentary protection Article 15 of the Constitution establishes that Honduras subscribes to the principles and practices of international law that define a framework for human solidarity, respect for peoples self-determination, non-intervention, and the strengthening of universal peace and democracy. Honduras proclaims the validity and obligatory execution of international arbitral and judicial awards. In this sense, the State of Honduras is signatory of several international agreements, treaties and conventions, including the 1954 Convention on Asylum. In 1991, the State of Honduras signed the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and ratified the Convention in Likewise, the State of Honduras recognizes the obligations established in the 1967 Protocol and in the 1984 Cartagena Declaration. The Immigration and Foreign Nationals Act covers the subject of international protection and treatment of persons who apply, before the State of Honduras, for the recognition of refugee status.

150 120 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 References ECLAC (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean) (1993), El impacto económico y social de las migraciones en Centroamérica, ECLAC Studies and Reports N 89, LC/G P, Santiago de Chile. ECLAC (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean) (1999), Honduras: Evaluación de los daños ocasionados por el huracán Mitch, 1998: sus implicaciones para el desarrollo social y económico y el medio ambiente, LC/MEX/L. 367, ECLAC Mexico. ECLAC (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean), Honduras, SERIES Seminars and conferences No Flores Fonseca, Manuel, La inmigración en Honduras, Working Paper No.17, Honduras, Faculty of Economic Science, Autonomous National University of Honduras, Guerra, Alejandra, Los movimientos sociales en el periodo independiente en Honduras, htm ILO Investigación Flujos Migratorios Laborales Intrarregionales - Informe de Honduras Lorena Suazo, Martha, Estudio Migratorio de Honduras, Estudio comparativo de la legislación y políticas migratorias en Centroamérica, México y República Dominicana Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Honduras, Política Nacional de Emigración, MPI 2015: Migrants Deported from the US and Mexico to the Northern Triangle A statistical and socioeconomic profile. MPI 2016: Trends in Unaccompanied Child and Family Migration from Central America. National Forum on Migration in Honduras, Informe de la semana del migrante, Observatorio Consular y Migratorio de Honduras CONMIGHO Segovia, Alexander (2004). Centroamérica después del café: el fin del modelo agroexportador tradicional y el surgimiento de un nuevo modelo. Revista Centroamericana de Ciencias Sociales 2 (1), December. FLACSO. Costa Rica. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Informe sobre Desarrollo Humano, Honduras - Hacia la expansión de la ciudadanía, UNHCR, The state of the world s refugees, 2000.

151 PART II Country Notes / 121 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type Honduras Persons Per inhabitants Percent change /2012 Permanent Temporary Permanent inflows Temporary inflows Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by category % distribution % distribution of entry Family Humanitarian Other Study na na Unknown Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries United States of America El Salvador Nicaragua Guatemala Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and OECD Persons countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Spain Mexico Canada Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers and refugees Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Percentages Labor market outcomes of emigrants Men Women Total in European OECD countries and the United States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

152 122 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 JAMAICA Jamaica was and remains a country of expatriation with immigration levels varying around 9 thousand between 2012 and 2015, while outflows were about five times as large over the same period. The composition of immigration into Jamaica is unusual among LAC countries, in that China and India are the principal countries of origin, accounting for 26% and 11% respectively of all immigrant entries. There is an established community of Chinese and Indians in Jamaica that undoubtedly help pave the way for newcomers. Citizens of the United States and Cuba account for a further 7% and 5 % of immigrants, respectively. Fully 60% of immigrants to Jamaica are labor migrants and another 11% arrive to study, mostly at the University of the West Indies, a center for post-secondary education in the Caribbean. It is currently not possible to disaggregate the immigration statistics for Jamaica according to whether the immigrants are permanent or temporary. In almost all countries, however, family migration tends to be the major component of permanent migration and labor of temporary migration, with study a significant second component if the country draws students from abroad, as is the case for Jamaica. Jamaica was an immigration country before independence in 1962 but began losing population to emigration thereafter, with persons leaving for destinations outside the Caribbean, essentially the United States of America (USA), Canada and the United Kingdom (UK). To date, these are the preferred destinations of Jamaican emigrants, accounting for fully 97% of all emigrants. The 45 thousand emigrants leaving Jamaica every year, permanently or temporarily, represent more than one and one-half percent of its population. With outflows strongly outnumbering inflows, the country s net migration rate has been negative, at around per thousand persons in the population since the mid-1990s. Labor market outcomes for Jamaican emigrants, mostly in the United States, have continued to improve in recent years, with the unemployment rate for women and men combined reaching 9%, down from 11.7% in The employment rates for the two genders are similar, at about 73-74%, but the unemployment rate of men at 10.8% exceeds that of women by almost 2.5 percentage points. Remittances to Jamaica have grown steadily both in absolute amounts (in current dollars, that is, including inflation) and as a percentage of GDP. Relative to 2012, remittances increased by 9.5% in 2015, and represented in value the equivalent of 16% of GDP, which is among the highest in the region, exceeded only by Haiti, Honduras, and El Salvador (25%, 18% and 17%, respectively). Jamaica s immigration, nationality and citizenship legislation has not changed over the recent past. However, a National Policy and Plan of Action on International Migration and Development, aimed at enhancing the development impacts of migration, has been developed and published as a white paper in April of This initiative has been taken in the context of a large Jamaican diaspora, similar in size to the current population of Jamaica and of the realization that high out-migration is likely to continue. Some of the measures to be implemented in the short to medium-term include, among others, the reduction of the costs of remittances, international agreements to facilitate labor migration, the regulation of recruitment bodies, bilateral agreements to ensure the portability and transferability of pensions, and incentives for investments in Jamaica by the diaspora.

153 PART II Country Notes / 123 Jamaica Persons Per Percent Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by inhabitants change type /2012 Permanent and temporary Permanent and temporary inflows Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by category of entry % distribution Family na 29 Other na - Study na 11 Work na 60 Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries China na India na United States of America na Cuba na Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and Persons OECD countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Canada United Kingdom Barbados Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of emigrants Percentages in European OECD countries and the Men Women Total United States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

154 124 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 MEXICO Immigration to Mexico has increased sharply over the past two decades. The inter-censal survey conducted in 2015 indicated that the stock of foreign-born population reached the unprecedented level of one million, twice that of 2000, but still less than 1% of the total population. Despite growing inflows, Mexico remains mainly an emigration and transit country. This increase needs to be seen in perspective. Indeed, close to three quarters of the foreign-born population in 2015 was born in the United States, many of them descendants of Mexican emigrants holding US citizenship. These migrants are concentrated in the Northern States of Baja California or Chihuahua. Other migrants originate mainly from Guatemala, Spain, Colombia and Venezuela and close to half of them live in Mexico City, Chiapas and State of Mexico. In 2015, foreigners were issued a new permanent residence permit. These figures are low compared to the peaks observed in 2013 and 2014 following the legislative changes in 2012 that made it easier for temporary residents to obtain permanent residence, but they remain well above the levels of preceding years. In 2015, permanent permits were delivered on family grounds, twice the number of permits delivered in Half of these permits were delivered to nationals of Cuba, Colombia, Venezuela, the United States, Honduras and Guatemala. Second in rank in 2015 as a reason to permanently migrate to Mexico was work, with permits delivered, a 35% increase compared to Although 60% of the work permits were delivered to nationals of countries of the Americas in 2015, the country with the largest number of recipients was China with permits. Another permits were delivered under other grounds, namely to persons of independent means, more than two thirds of which went to nationals of the United States or Canada. The number of permits delivered on humanitarian grounds exceeded 600 in 2015, a 73% annual increase mainly explained by the rise in the number of Salvadoran nationals receiving protection status. In total, close to three quarters of permanent immigrants are from the American continent, 21% of them from the United States. Permanent entries of Cubans, Venezuelans and Chinese immigrants to Mexico have increased in the last five years and exceed those of Colombians or Guatemalans. The share of the foreign population living in Mexico naturalized every year is relatively low at about 0.8%. In 2015, first temporary permits were granted. Of all categories of temporary migrants, those who entered Mexico on humanitarian or family grounds were more likely to come from the Americas than labor migrants or international students. Migrants from Asia or Europe each received a quarter of the temporary work permits delivered in This represents a substantial rise for Asian migrants who were receiving only about of these permits at the beginning of the decade. Inflows of international students are down to in 2015 from in Colombia, France, the United States and Germany together account for more than a third of the inflows. Temporary permits were granted to persons for humanitarian reasons in In March 2016, the National Institute of Migration arranged for the transfer of Cuban migrants who had been stranded in Costa Rica and Panama since December Those migrants received temporary humanitarian permits to reach the Mexican Northern border and request a permit to enter the United States.

155 PART II Country Notes / 125 The number of asylum seekers reached a historical peak (3 400) in 2015 and more than doubled in 2016 (8 800). Most petitioners were from Honduras, El Salvador and to a lesser extent from Guatemala and Venezuela and include a growing share of unaccompanied minors. In 2015, an estimated Central American migrants transited through Mexico en route to the United States. It is estimated that persons crossed the southern border of Mexico irregularly in 2015 (7.0% of the total crossings of that border). Between October 2014 and September 2015, non-mexican undocumented migrants were apprehended by the United States Border Patrol at the border with Mexico, down from one year earlier. About 20% of them are minors, of whom more than half were unaccompanied. A growing number of transcontinental migrants from Asia and Africa hoping to make an eventual asylum application at the United States border were apprehended by the Mexican authorities: in 2015 versus in In the first half of 2016, Cubans entered Mexico, compared to for all of Most had taken direct flights from Havana to Ecuador, which did not require a visa of them, before continuing their journey through Colombia and Central America. Also, an increasing number of Haitians entered Mexico; however, the number is not precise because of confusion regarding their origins. Some are given a 20-day special documentation from the Mexican authorities in order to regularize their situation or failing that, leave the country. It is estimated that Haitians or Africans entered Mexico in the first half of 2016 with the purpose of reaching the United States, and that reached their destination. US authorities only allow 110 persons per day through the Calexico and San Isidro ports, with the result that thousands of immigrants are being stranded in the northern Mexican cities of Tijuana and Mexicali. Recent policy initiatives concerning immigrants include a working holidaymakers agreement (the Holidays and Work Program) signed by Mexico and France (April 2016). In addition, entry into Mexico has been facilitated for visitors from certain countries, in particular those who have their permanent residence or a valid visa to stay in Canada, Chile, Colombia, Japan, Peru, the United Kingdom, the United States or a country of the Schengen area (August 2016). In July 2016, an agreement was signed between the Secretariat of the Government (SEGOB), the Mexican Commission of Support to Refugees (COMAR) and the Secretariat for Social Development (SEDESOL) to ensure that refugees can benefit from programs directed to populations in a situation or at risk of poverty or marginalization. A Protocol to ensure the respect of the principles and protection of the rights of the children in administrative migration procedures came into force in August Different policy initiatives directed toward Mexican emigrants took place in In order to encourage participation in the electoral process, any Mexican embassy or consulate abroad can issue voting cards. As part of the I m Mexico Program, an agreement was signed with United States authorities in June 2016 to facilitate the recognition of US birth certificates in Mexican civil registration offices. It was estimated that more than children are eligible. This recognition will ease the access to health or education or to naturalization of the children of return migrants in Mexico. The Build on your land Program was put in place in June 2016 to assist Mexicans living in the United States to acquire property in Mexico. Around 12 million Mexicans resided abroad in 2015 according to the Institute for Mexicans Abroad, 97% in the United States. Following the economic crisis, permanent emigration from Mexico to the United States dropped, even irregular emigration may have done so as seems to indicate the sharp

156 126 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 fall in the number of apprehensions of Mexicans at the US Southern border to in 2014, a level not seen since At the same time, the number of deportations from the United States remained high in the last decade: it increased since 2005 to reach in 2013 after decreasing slightly in the two subsequent years to reach in According to the National Survey of Demographic Dynamics 2014, 14% of the population who returned to Mexico after living in the United States in the year 2009 cited deportation as the reason for their return. Six in ten return migrants cited family reunification as the main reason. The Pew Research Center has argued that these developments may lead to a decline in the Mexican population living in the United States 35. However, the number of legal permanent entries of Mexicans into the United States stopped declining in 2014: in 2015 it grew by 18% but the number of persons becoming lawful permanent residents remained below the pre-crisis level. Legal temporary entries, however, have increased steadily since In 2015, the total number of Mexicans becoming lawful permanent residents or entering as authorized temporary migrants was one third higher than in Emigrants from Mexico to the United States have largely benefited from the improvements in the US labor market and their employment rate gained 3.7 percentage points between and Labor market outcomes of Mexican emigrants living in the United States or European OECD countries differed substantially between men and women in : Mexican men record one of the highest employment rates (83.5%) compared to emigrant men from other countries of the Americas while Mexican women have the lowest employment rates (52.2%). 35 Pew Research Centre, More Mexicans leaving than coming to the U.S., 2015.

157 PART II Country Notes / 127 Mexico Persons Per Percent Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by inhabitants change type /2012 Permanent , Temporary Permanent inflows Temporary inflows Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by % distribution % distribution category of entry Family Humanitarian Other Study na na Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries United States of America Cuba Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) China Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and Persons OECD countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Canada Germany Spain Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of emigrants Percentages in European OECD countries and the United Men Women Total States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

158 128 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 PANAMA Immigration into Panama (both permanent and temporary) doubled its level in 2015 when compared to , as the Panamanian economy continued to grow at high rates (close to 6%), with movements being driven by work on large infrastructure projects but also by the arrival of many Venezuelans (46% of all permanent arrivals) on work permits for professionals. It is expected that infrastructure related movements will continue, with a number of new large projects going ahead (the second stage of Panama s Metro, Colon Urban Renovation and highway expansion). A significant portion of the infrastructure-related increase is concentrated among employees of multinationals and among nationals of Italy arriving under a bilateral agreement. The number of permanent permits granted to Venezuelans increased by almost twelve times when compared to 2012 levels; when 57% were granted to professionals. Of all temporary and permanent residence permits granted 55% were granted to men and 45% to women. As in other countries in Central America and South America, Panama experienced a strong increase in irregular migration flows of persons in transit to United States. The number of migrants from Cuba, Haiti, Asia and Africa identified as irregular was five times larger in 2014 than in 2015, reaching a level of irregular migrants mostly from Cuba (84%), Asia (11%) and Africa (4%) (OAS-IOM 2017). Irregular migrants from Asia are mainly from Nepal and Bangladesh, while those from Africa are mainly from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The presence of these migrants has affected a number of communities along the Pan-American Highway (among them Lajas Blancas, Sanson, Nicanor and Las Peñitas). Migrants identified by the Border Service (SENAFRONT) are assessed by the Panama Migration Services and oriented by migration category to a number of stations where they are provided medical care, food and shelter. Migrants who apply for asylum are directed towards the ONPAR (National Office for Attention to Refugees), which delivers a decision on the request. If the person is admitted as a refugee, he or she is given a Temporary Humanitarian Permit for a maximum period of six years; and after three years, refugees can obtain the right of permanent residence if they satisfy the requirements. Emigration of Panama nationals to OECD and Latin American countries increased 31% in 2015 when compared to 2012, reaching a level of temporary and permanent migrants s in The main destination countries were the United States (57%), Costa Rica (9%), Spain (7%) and Mexico (4%). 36 The statistics presented here on permanent immigration for Panama do not include persons who receive permanent residence permits. The objective of the harmonized statistics on immigration is to measure permanent migrants at the time of entry. In Panama, all persons who wish to become permanent residents must first obtain a 2-year provisional permit and can apply for permanent residence at the end of the two-year period. In other words, persons who obtain the right of permanent residence have already been counted as permanent residents in the year they receive their provisional permit.

159 PART II Country Notes / 129 The emigration flow of Panama nationals to OECD countries (particularly to the United States) and Latin American countries is lower than the immigration flow received by the country. Panama had a positive net migration rate (1.5 per thousand inhabitants) during and has shown an upward trend since , with Panama becoming a migration destination country over the period. Nevertheless, the flow of nationals from Panama to OECD countries (particularly the United States) and Latin American countries increased 31% between 2012 and Labor market outcomes of Panamanians emigrants in European OECD and United States registered a decrease in the unemployment rate in when compared to , from 9.0% to 7.1%. Both the employment and participation rates of Panamanians remained about the same. Asylum seeker applications in Panama more than doubled in 2015 when compared to 2013, reaching a level of applications, submitted mostly by nationals of Colombia, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Cuba and El Salvador. The special subcategory Permanent Resident as Foreign National of Specific Countries that have friendly relations, professional, economic and investment relations with the Republic of Panama was created within the category of Permanent Resident, to facilitate migration of persons from designated countries (49 at last count) wishing to exercise an economic activity in Panama. The assessment and recognition of Diplomas or College Degrees in Technical Careers, and Bachelor s, Graduate, Master s and Doctoral Degrees of foreign nationals applying for a permanent resident permit as a foreign professional are carried out by the University of Panama and the Technological University 37. The General Migration Regulation Procedure was implemented, abolishing the previous regularization decree and establishing a regular regularization process, subject to a numerical limit to be fixed each year by the National Migration Service. 38 An extraordinary regularization program was nonetheless introduced for nationals of the People s Republic of China who were in an irregular migratory status in In 2016 a total of 4642 people were regularized, mostly from China, Venezuela, Colombia, Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic. 37 Resolution No of May 7, Executive Decree No. 167 of June 3, Executive Decree No. 168 of June 3, 2016.

160 130 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type Panama Persons Per inhabitants Percent change /2012 Permanent , Temporary Permanent inflows Temporary inflows Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by % distribution % distribution category of entry Family Humanitarian International agreements Other Study na na Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Colombia Italy Dominican Republic Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and Persons OECD countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries United States of America Costa Rica Spain Mexico Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of emigrants Percentages in European OECD countries and the United Men Women Total States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate 10.0 nr Note: The regularization carried out over the period are not included in the inflows.

161 PART II Country Notes / 131 PARAGUAY Paraguay s migration profile is defined by emigration. Even if outgoing migration flows decreased 14% in 2015 when compared to 2012, more than 100 thousand Paraguayans sought residence in a different country. Argentina still receives 90% of such migrants, with Spain and Brazil taking 4% and 2%, respectively. Flows of Paraguayans to Spain have shown no signs of recovery. The level before the crisis, in 2007, was 24 thousand; in 2015 it was barely one fifth of the 2007 level. The arrival of migrants into the country also decreased in The number of Brazilians was down by a half but Argentinians up by a quarter. Overall immigration decreased by 24%. The foreign-born population in Paraguay still shows a decreasing trend. According to data from the United Nations, the share of the total foreign population fell by almost half between 1990 and Data on remittances sent to Paraguay during 2015 continued a persistent downward trend. During the decrease amounted to 43% (current dollars). Considering that more than 80% of Paraguayan migrants reside in Argentina, it is probable that the adverse economic situation in the country has contributed to the decrease in remittances. Labor market outcomes of Paraguayan migrants in European countries and the United States have improved. However, the unemployment rate for men is still high despite its decrease by more than 10 percentage points. For men and women combined, the unemployment rate fell by 3.4 percentage points during In November 2015, the Government approved, by decree, the new Migration Policy, which outlined a roadmap for the Migration Law and described the plan for migratory management in operational and technological terms. 40 The reform of current regulations, dating from 1996, is to focus on aligning national legislation to the international agreements and treaties subscribed to and ratified by Paraguay. The new migration policy is to move away from the current security focus in the legislation to take on a inclusive and human rights perspective. The new policy outlines the basic guiding principles for a new migration law covering a broad range of issues related to migration, such as internal migration, Paraguayan communities residing abroad, the return and repatriation of Paraguayans abroad, and displacements due to climate change, natural disasters and internal conflicts, in line with the current migration profile of the country. 40 Decree No

162 132 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type Paraguay Persons Per inhabitants Percent change /2012 Permanent , Temporary Permanent inflows Temporary inflows Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by category % distribution % distribution of entry Family International agreements Regularisation Other Unknown Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Brazil Argentina Spain Uruguay Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and OECD Persons countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries Argentina Spain Brazil United States of America Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Percentages Labor market outcomes of emigrants Men Women Total in European OECD countries and the United States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

163 PART II Country Notes / 133 PERU Peru has had a net negative rate of migration in the last few decades. Nonetheless, while permanent and temporary migration inflows have steadily increased 10% per year since 2010 reaching a 31% increase on average in the period, outflows decreased by 13% over the same period. Historically, population loss to migration has been high, peaking in the period with a net migration rate of -4.7 persons per thousand inhabitants, but has declined sharply since, to a net rate of -1.6 per thousand inhabitants in the period. Over the period there has been a drastic increase in the immigration of Venezuelans and Colombians, at 148% and 84% respectively, followed by citizens from Spain to a lesser degree (28%). It is possible that the marked increase in Venezuelans is related to the deteriorating political and socio-economic situation that the country has faced in the last couple of years, while for Colombians, it is likely linked to the signing of the Mercosur residence agreement. In 2015, Peruvian emigration was four times higher than the inflows of immigrants. Of the total number of Peruvian nationals who emigrated, 77% went to another country of the Americas, of which, 31% to neighboring countries (Chile and Ecuador), and 29% to Argentina. Overall labor market outcomes of Peruvian emigrants in European OECD countries and the United States improved slightly from to Employment and unemployment rates improved for Peruvian men by 2 and 4 percentage points, respectively. Employment rates for Peruvian women remained constant while their unemployment rate decreased by 2 percentage points. Despite the decline in outflows, remittances remained stable between 2012 and After Colombia, Peru was the second largest recipient of remittances in South America; altogether they represented around 1.4% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). At the beginning of 2017, Peru approved new legislation on migration. With the Legislative Decree No. 1350, effective March , the Peruvian government organized its immigration into two categories, Temporary and Resident. The Decree also established the conditions and requirements of visas and permits, and created one new migratory category. Below are the changes affecting foreign nationals. New Status Type Temporary (Temporal) The category of temporary visas includes both business and short-term work visas, with the following changes: Business Visa The period of stay for business (non-productive work) activities has been increased from 30 days to 183 days within a year, with the possibility of renewal. Temporary Worker Visa The period of stay for productive work activities, where the employee is under a foreign employment contract or service agreement, has been increased from 30 days to 183 days within a year, with the possibility of renewal.

164 134 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Other Visas The current visas for persons in the arts, sports, journalism, temporary training and research, and visas under international agreements remain unchanged under the current rules. New Status Type Resident (Residente) Designated Worker Visa Visas for productive work activities, where the employee is working long-term under a local or foreign employment contract or service agreement, will be granted for an initial period of stay of up to a year, with the option to renew. Noteworthy is that foreign nationals under this category may be employed in either the private or public sector, whereas prior to this law they could work only in the private sector. Training Visa (New Category) A new category has been created for study in basic and higher education institutions, including exchange programs. However, holders of this visa may not engage in work or other gainful activity without obtaining authorization. Permanent Residence The residency period required to apply for permanent residence has increased from 2 years to 3 years, and a new condition has been added which prohibits remaining outside Peru for more than 365 consecutive days without losing permanent residence status. Other Visas Other residence visas, such as those for investors, long-term research, international conventions, and non-employment based residence remain unchanged under the new legislation. Additionally, a foreign national s current immigration status will be automatically extended while their application for an extension or a change of status is in progress with the Peruvian authorities.

165 PART II Country Notes / 135 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type Peru Persons Per inhabitants Percent change /2012 Permanent and temporary Permanent and temporary inflows Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by category of entry % distribution Family Humanitarian 0 0 Other 1 0 Study 3 1 Work Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Colombia United States of America Spain Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and OECD Persons countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries Argentina Chile United States of America Ecuador Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of emigrants Percentages in European OECD countries and the United Men Women Total States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

166 136 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA The total foreign-born population residing in the United States in totalled 43.3 million, or 13.3% of the U.S population. Persons born in Mexico accounted for 27% of the foreign-born population, followed by India (5.5%), the People s Republic of China (4.8%), and the Philippines (4.6%). These four countries accounted for approximately one-third of all persons granted Lawful Permanent Resident (LPR) status over the past decade. The total number of persons granted (LPR) status increased 3.4% from in 2014 to in 2015, of which more than half adjusted status from temporary to permanent from within the country. The shares of immigrants from both the Americas and from Asia among those granted LPR status increased over the last decade, more rapidly for Asians than for immigrants from the hemisphere. Family-sponsored immigrants accounted for 65% of all persons granted LPR status in 2015, while 14% were employment-based including accompanying family members, and 14% were granted refugee status or asylum. The diversity visa program accounted for 5% of LPRs. The number of refugees adjusting to LPR status increased 23% between 2014 and 2015, primarily due to an increase in the number of Cubans adjusting in 2015 who had entered in prior years. The numbers of immigrants in other visa categories were comparable to 2014 levels. Among the new permanent migrants from the Americas in 2015, more than three quarters migrated on family grounds (77%), 12% for humanitarian reasons, 6% for work and 5% for other reasons. A total of 69,933 refugees were resettled in Fiscal Year 2015; in addition, individuals already present in the United States were granted asylum in 2015, down 12% compared to The first continent of origin of the permanent humanitarian migrants is Asia (45%). Nearly one third are from Cuba ( persons or 32%). Almost nine out of ten (88%) Cubans granted permanent residence in the United States in 2015 did so on humanitarian grounds. In 2015, the United States issued 7% more non-immigrant temporary visas than in The leading categories were international students ( admissions), temporary workers and their families ( ), and family visitors ( ). More than half of the new international students are from China ( admissions) or India (75 700) and only from the Americas. Asian and American temporary workers entered the United States in equal numbers ( ), Mexicans making up 81% of the inflows from the Americas followed by Brazil and Jamaica (4% each). A total of persons filed petitions to become US citizens in These petitions led to naturalizations, similar to the decadal average, but up 12% from Mexican nationals had the most applications for naturalization granted ( ), followed by Indians (42 200), Filipinos (40 800), Chinese (31 200), nationals from the Dominican Republic (26 700), and Cubans (25 800). The percentage of the foreign population who obtained US citizenship in 2015 is relatively high at about 6.4%. The number of asylum seekers in the United States progressed rapidly in the recent years: the applications lodged in 2015 represent a 43% increase compared to 2014 and 2.5 times the numbers recorded in the previous decade. The progression was driven by the rise in requests 41 All references to years in this note are to fiscal years. Fiscal year 2015 began 1 October 2014 and concluded 30 September 2015.

167 PART II Country Notes / 137 for asylum by nationals of four major American countries of asylum seekers: El Salvador (+87%), Guatemala (+80%), Honduras (+110%) and Venezuela (+136%). More recently, the number of Haitian asylum seekers has increased. Some Haitians present in the country are currently protected from deportation by their Temporary Protected Status, established following the 2010 earthquake. However, on November 20, 2017, the Department of Homeland Security announced it would terminate Haiti s designation for this status effective July 22, The number of asylum applications by Haitians nearly doubled in 2016 with applications filed in 2016 compared to in In 2014, a sharp rise of families and unaccompanied children from the non-contiguous countries of Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador (the Northern Triangle ) arrived in the United States through the Southwest border and the Rio Grande Valley sector in particular. This happened while apprehensions across the Southwest border were near historic lows. The unaccompanied minors intercepted by the US Border and Customs Protection who are not from Canada or Mexico are generally issued a notice to appear before an immigration judge in the Department of Justice s Executive Office for Immigration Review and placed in removal proceedings. They can claim asylum or humanitarian relief and cases of potential victimization are verified. Between 2012 and 2015, the decision of immigration judges led to returns of unaccompanied minors to their countries of origin, among them from Guatemala, from Mexico, from Honduras, and 700 from El Salvador. The number of unaccompanied minors and other migrants from the Northern Triangle countries apprehended in the United States decreased in 2015 but remains higher than for the years prior to During its second mandate, the Obama Administration announced a number of immigration policy changes through the Department of Homeland Security. These administrative actions included the proposed expansion of the 2012 Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program and the proposed Deferred Action for Parents of Americans and LPRs (DAPA) program, both of which were blocked by a federal court. The termination of the original DACA program was initiated on 5 September The two year permits will remain in force but no renewals will be granted after 5 March Other administrative actions introduced through the Department of Homeland Security included granting work eligibility to the spouses of certain temporary workers, extending postgraduation employment opportunities for certain foreign students, clarifying eligibility rules for intra-company transferees, and permitting greater employment mobility in certain circumstances for those with pending LPR applications. Some of these actions are under challenge in federal court and the Department of Homeland Security is currently reviewing the prudence and lawfulness of all of these administrative actions. One last decision taken by the Obama administration regarding migration was to put an end to the wet foot dry foot policy for Cuba on 12 January 2017, in the context of the reestablishment of diplomatic ties between the two countries. Cuban migrants who anticipated this decision and arrived in increasing number at the southwest border in recent years are no longer admissible at land ports of entry as they used to be. A one-time cap exemption was made by Congress in Fiscal Year 2016 for the H 2B non-agricultural temporary worker program: the cap for the H-2B program remained at , as in previous years, but an exemption was made for returning workers who had participated in the H 2B program in the three previous fiscal years. This exemption has since expired.

168 138 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 In 2017, a number of executive orders affecting immigration policy were issued. These include orders with the stated objective of strengthening border security, strengthening enforcement of the immigration laws, and improving the screening of foreign nationals seeking admission to the United States. Slightly more than US citizens emigrate on a permanent or temporary basis to other American or OECD countries and this figure has been fairly constant over the last decade. One fifth of these emigrants go to Canada and another fifth to Korea or Japan. Germany, Mexico and the United Kingdom receive annually between and United States citizens. A marked increase in emigration to Colombia in the years 2014 and 2015 made it the seventh country of destination of emigration of US citizens, before Brazil, even though the numbers remain low (900 persons). Emigrants from the United States living in European OECD countries record low unemployment rates but relatively low participation rates as well, at least for men less than 79% participate in the labor force in compared to other emigrants from the Americas.

169 PART II Country Notes / 139 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type United States of America Persons Per inhabitants Percent change /2012 Permanent ,016, Temporary Permanent inflows Temporary inflows Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by % distribution % distribution category of entry Work and accompanying family Work Study na na Other Humanitarian Family Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration /2012 All countries Mexico China India Philippines Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and Persons OECD countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries Canada Korea Japan Germany Per million inhabitants Number of Average persons Asylum seekers Inflows of asylum seekers Per inhabitants Components of population growth Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change (thousands) Foreign-born population / Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change Remittances / Annual growth in % Average annual growth Level Macroeconomic indicators Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Percentages Labor market outcomes of emigrants Men Women Total in European OECD countries Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate nr nr nr nr 6.4 nr

170 140 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 URUGUAY Despite the slowdown of Uruguay s economy since 2014, temporary and permanent immigration in Uruguay more than tripled in 2015 when compared to 2012 levels. This increase reflects mainly an increase in permanent migration in 2015, which reached a historically high level of persons. The main countries of origin were Argentina (38%), Brazil (16%), Venezuela (12%) and Peru (7%) 42. Permanent residencies issued to nationals of Venezuela and Colombia increased significantly in this period, which is noteworthy since immigrants from these countries have had, historically, a minor presence in Uruguayan territory. By contrast, temporary migration decreased by 60% in 2015 compared to 2013, partly because of unfavorable economic conditions in Uruguay. 43 Emigration of people born in Uruguay to OECD and Latin American countries increased 17% in 2015 when compared to 2012 levels. There were notable increases in migration to Brazil (35%), Spain (26%) and Argentina (14%), while there was a decrease in emigrants to the United States of America (-9.0%). The out-flow migration of Uruguayans to other countries is greater than the inflow received by the country, reflecting a negative net migration rate (-1.8 per one thousand inhabitants) for Labor market outcomes of Uruguayan migrants in European OECD countries and in the United States improved overall between and Their unemployment rate decreased from 23.8% to 19.5% while the employment rate increased from 63.3% to 65.7%. Even if the evolution of these rates was positive for both men and women, there remains a significant difference between the two in the employment rates (59.2% for women vs 71.8% for women). Their unemployment rates, however, differ by much less (20.8% vs 18.4%). Asylum applications in Uruguay remain at low levels, amounting to only 87 applications in 2015, submitted mostly by Cubans, Colombians, and Syrians. Law No , passed in 2014, grants permanent residency to foreign-born relatives (spouses, parents, siblings and grandchildren) of Uruguayan nationals or of nationals of member and associate states of Mercosur 44. The direct effect generated by the implementation of this law was a significant increase in permanent residencies for citizens of Mercosur countries. 72% of the applications received between August 2014 and October 2016 were made by Mercosur nationals, while 28% were made by relatives of persons born in Uruguay Non-definitive data. Annual distribution by nationality estimated on the basis of official data on the total number of residences granted from October 2014 to January Data on residence permits granted distinguishes between temporary and permanent categories since Mercosur and associated States includes: Argentina, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Management Report Law Permanent Residences - Nationals of States Parties and/or MERCOSUR Associates and Relatives of Uruguayans.

171 PART II Country Notes / 141 In 2015, law No was passed, providing for the granting of citizenship to children of a Uruguayan mother or father born outside the national territory. In 2016, the Framework Document on Migration Policy in Uruguay, was accredited by Presidential Resolution Number 576 and approved by the National Migration Board. This document establishes the general principles, objectives and strategic guidelines of Uruguay s migration policy. The general policy principles are: a) the recognition and full respect for the rights of all migrants; b) equal rights between nationals and foreigners; c) the principle of non-discrimination; d) sociocultural integration; e) respect for diversity and cultural identity; f) gender equality; g) comprehensive protection for groups of migrants in vulnerable situation such as victims of trafficking, unaccompanied children, women victims of gender violence and asylum seekers. The document also establishes policy guidelines for various population groups, among them a) people living in Uruguay with high migration propensity (Retention Policy); b) foreigners who arrive in Uruguay with the purpose of establishing themselves in the country in a temporary or permanent manner (Immigration Policy); c) repatriated persons and returnees (Return Policy); d) Uruguayan citizens residing in foreign countries, with or without the possibility of return (Engagement Policy).

172 142 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by type Uruguay Persons Per inhabitants Percent change /2012 Permanent , Permanent and temporary Temporary Permanent and temporary inflows Migration inflows (foreign nationals) by % distribution category of entry Family 15 na Humanitarian 0 na Other 3 na Study 7 na Work 76 na Total Migration inflows (foreign nationals) Persons % of total % change Permanent migration 2012 (P+T) /2013 All countries Argentina Brazil Venezuela na na Peru na Migration outflows (nationals) to LAC and Persons OECD countries % of total % change Permanent and temporary migration /2012 All countries Argentina Brazil United States of America Spain Per million inhabitants Average Number of Asylum seekers persons Inflows of asylum seekers Components of population growth Per inhabitants Total Natural increase Net migration Percentage of the total population Persons % change Foreign-born population (thousands) / Remittances Millions of dollars (current) % of GDP % change / Annual growth in % Average Macroeconomic indicators annual growth Level Real GDP GDP/per capita (2011 dollars) Labor market outcomes of emigrants Percentages in European OECD countries and the United Men Women Total States Participation rate Employment rate Unemployment rate

173 PART III Statistical Annex / 143 PART III Statistical Annex

174

175 PART III Statistical Annex / 145 Introduction The statistics in this annex come from two main sources, namely the countries of the Americas, on the one hand, and OECD countries, on the other. There is some overlap in the two groups, namely Canada, the United States, Mexico and Chile. The objective of the annex is to provide statistics on two aspects of international migration with regard to countries of the Americas, namely immigration into those countries and emigration from the same countries to OECD countries. The latter evidently does not cover all emigration from countries of Americas to the rest of the world, but certainly a significant proportion of it. The immigration / emigration dichotomy provides a natural structuring of the tables in this annex, for which a lettering system has been defined. The table-lettering system The tables in this annex have been lettered systematically, to make it simpler to remember their content when referencing them. The first letter is either an I (for immigration) or an E (for emigration). The tables labeled I are those for which the statistics come from the countries of the Americas and concern immigrants into those countries. For those labeled E, the statistics come from OECD countries and countries of the Americas, to which persons who are citizens of the Americas are emigrating or have emigrated in the past and of which they are or were residents. The second letter of the lettering system is either an a (for aggregate) or d (for detailed). Tables labeled a give totals for certain characteristics for each country of the Americas in a single table. Tables labeled d provide detail for each country of the Americas on the countries of origin of immigrants or of destination of emigrants for the American country in question, as appropriate. There is a separate table for each country of the Americas. The exact nature of the country-level detail (whether it is country of birth, country of residence, country of nationality, etc.) depends on the nature of the table. Tables on immigration, for example, give entries of immigrating persons by country of nationality, whereas tables of the foreign-born population will give statistics disaggregated by country of birth and tables on acquisition of nationality by country of previous nationality or by country of acquired nationality, depending on the table. Finally, the third part of the lettering system gives a 2-letter acronym which serves as a reminder of the precise table content. The acronyms used thus far are the following: fl, for flows, which can refer to inflows (for the I tables) or outflows (for the E tables); as, for asylum seekers; fb, for the foreign-born population; an, for acquisitions of nationality, by country of previous nationality (I tables) or of acquired nationality (E tables); em, for the employment-to-population ratio, also referred to as the employment rate; un, for the unemployment rate; pr, for the labor force participation rate. Table I.a.fb., for example, describes a table giving the total foreign-born population for each country of the Americas (for which data are available) in a single table. Table E.d.an., on the other hand, refers to a set of tables, one for each country of the Americas, containing the number of citizens of that country having obtained a nationality in an OECD country or another country of the Americas, by the country for which the nationality was obtained.

176 146 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Note that not all possible tables of the lettering system are present in this statistical annex. For example, there are as yet no E.a.as. or E.d.as. tables, which would provide statistics on asylum seekers from countries of the Americas who have made requests for asylum in OECD countries. The tables this year include for the first-time series on labor market outcomes of emigrants from the Americas in the United States and European countries. The tables to be found in this annex are as follows: Immigration I.a.fl. Inflows of legal immigrants of foreign nationality. I.d.fl. Inflows of legal permanent immigrants, by country of nationality. I.a.as. Inflows of asylum seekers. I.a.fb. The foreign-born population. I.a.an. Acquisitions of nationality. I.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality, by country of previous nationality. Emigration to American and OECD countries E.a.fl. Outflows of migrants to OECD countries and other countries of the Americas. E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to OECD countries, by country of destination. E.a.fb.US. The population born in the Americas living in the United States of America. E.A.fb.SP. The population born in the Americas living in Spain. E.a.an. Acquisitions of nationality in OECD countries and other countries of the Americas. E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in OECD countries, by country of acquired nationality. E.a.em. The employment rate of emigrants from the Americas in the United States and Europe. E.a.un. The unemployment rate of emigrants from the Americas in the United States and Europe. E.a.pr. The participation rate of emigrants from the Americas in the United States and Europe. Sources and definitions Flows Data on outflows of citizens of the Americas to OECD countries are obtained from the official statistics of the latter countries provided to the OECD. These statistics are based on national definitions and are not standardized. Although the OECD produces a set of standardized statistics on permanent immigration, the statistics of these series are not yet available by nationality of the immigrant. Hence the recourse to official national statistics provided to the OECD by its member countries. Note, however, that the statistics of immigration for OECD countries of the Americas, namely Canada, Chile, Mexico and the United States, are collected independently of the formal OECD data collection. They include both temporary and permanent immigrants and are thus generally more complete than are those of other OECD countries. The coverage of the national statistics from OECD countries outside of the Americas can vary considerably across countries. The statistics for Australia and New Zealand, for example, cover persons who receive the right of permanent residence. Those for Germany, on the other hand, cover persons who have arrived from abroad, live in a private dwelling, intend to stay in Germany for

177 PART III Statistical Annex / 147 more than a certain period of time (which varies by Land (province) but is no more than 3 months), who have registered themselves in a municipal population register and are either citizens of the European Union or have a residence permit of duration compatible with their intended stay period. The immigration statistics for Germany evidently have a much broader coverage than those of Australia or New Zealand, because they include entries of many persons for short-term, temporary reasons, including, for example, seasonal workers, trainees, international students. Such statistics also exist for Australia and New Zealand but are not commonly included with those of immigrants, which represent the official new permanent residents of Australia and New Zealand. In practice, this means that the statistics on emigration of citizens of the Americas towards OECD countries shown in this publication are partial and do not necessarily include all emigrants in all destination countries. However, the coverage for the two most important destination countries for emigrants from the Americas, namely the United States and Spain are complete for the former country and reasonably complete for the latter, excluding only movements for less than six months. Nonetheless, care should be exercised in interpreting the statistics on emigration to OECD countries. The statistics presented are indicative and do not present a complete picture of outmigration from countries in the Americas to OECD countries and other countries of the Americas. The reader is referred to the metadata regarding tables E.a.fl. and E.d.fl. for a description of the sources and definitions of the immigration statistics in OECD countries. Data on inflows of immigrants into countries of the Americas are based on the statistics of the destination countries supplied to the Organization of American States. The data collected are, as for OECD countries, national statistics, but an attempt has been made to present them according to a common definition. In almost all cases, the data come from administrative sources on residence permits and/or entry visas. The data for a number of countries have been revised since the previous edition of this publication (2015). This has occurred because of changes in the provision of national data, of a better understanding of national visa and permit systems or of the implementation of new immigration laws which have created series breaks and have required a re-examination of national statistics and concepts. Among the countries for which this has occurred are Chile, Brazil, Ecuador and Peru. For the purposes of harmonization of the immigration statistics, the underlying concept is that of permanent as opposed to temporary migration. A permanent migrant in this publication is not necessarily someone who has received the right of permanent residence, but rather someone who upon entry receives a permit which is either permanent or is (more or less) indefinitely renewable, even if some conditions may need to be satisfied in order for the permit to be renewed, such as the holding of a job. Persons who receive permits which are not renewable or only renewable on a limited basis are temporary migrants. The latter include such persons as seasonal workers, international students, service providers, performing artists, etc. In many countries, temporary migrants may be allowed to change status under certain conditions, that is, to move to a permanent migration track, which allows them to stay in the country indefinitely. Persons who do not fall into either of these categories are those such as tourists, persons in transit, business visitors, that is, persons whose objective is neither to establish a residence, whether temporary or permanent, in the country nor to exercise an economic activity nor to study. Also excluded are diplomats and their families and crew members of vessels or aircraft carrying persons or goods into the country.

178 148 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Diplomats and their families can be included if they request permission to stay on after the end of their assignments, in which case then enter into the normal statistics of immigration. Most countries of the Americas, like the United States, grant permanent permits to persons arriving who want to settle indefinitely and satisfy the required criteria or who, after arriving as temporary migrants, would like to stay on, apply to do so and are deemed to satisfy the necessary conditions. This makes it relatively easy, in principle, to standardize the national statistics along the permanent / temporary dimension. In a number of cases, however, certain categories are not explicitly identified as permanent or temporary and judgment was exercised on their classification. These are identified in the metadata tables. In addition, it has not always been possible to fully harmonize the statistics provided by participating countries, because the statistics are not always sufficiently disaggregated by category of migration. It is expected that the process of standardization will improve over time, as more and more information becomes available on the categories of migration and on the different types of residence permits. For a number of countries, however, there are some significant deviations from the standard permanent/ temporary distinction or in the coverage of the data. These are Chile, Colombia, Jamaica and Peru. The concepts underlying the statistics for these countries are specified in the metadata on inflows. The terms flow or entry used in connection with immigration or emigration phenomena in this publication do not necessarily reflect an actual cross-border movement, but rather an entry into the official statistics as residents, which or may not coincide in time with the year when the movement occurred. In some cases, this may simply reflect the interval between the movement and its registration. In other cases, however, in particular with respect to permanent migration, the registration may not be of the entry but rather of the passage from a temporary to a permanent status. The objective of the statistics is to identify the permanent / temporary status of the migrant when the entry occurred but also to allow for situations when someone initially identified as temporary at the time of entry applies for and is allowed to change to permanent status. Asylum seekers, refugees, the foreign-born population, acquisitions of nationality Statistics for these three groups are more straightforward than are those for inflows or outflows. Asylum-seekers are persons who have applied for asylum or refugee status (according to the 1951 Geneva Convention), but who have not yet received a final decision on their application. The statistics given in this publication only cover persons who made their request during the specified reference year or years. Refugees, on the other hand, are persons who have been resettled from refugee camps oversees or whose claim to asylum to has been formally recognized. The definition of a foreign-born person is self-explanatory. Note, however, that the country of birth is defined on the basis of current geographic boundaries, not those in existence at the time of the immigrant s birth. In addition, the foreign-born population covers persons who are de jure residents, that is, persons who happen to be in the country at the time of the census and are not usually resident are not counted. In practice the population covered may include persons born abroad as nationals of the current country of residence. Persons in this group would not normally be considered immigrants of their country of residence. Series on the foreign-born population from the Americas living in OECD countries are given only for Spain and the United States, the two

179 PART III Statistical Annex / 149 principal countries of destination. Data for other countries are too partial to construct an aggregate series covering all OECD countries. The statistics on the acquisitions of nationality include acquisitions on the basis of different criteria or regimes, such as by marriage, adoption, right, descent or naturalization. In cases of descent, the persons concerned are not necessarily residents of the country of acquired nationality. In practice, the statistics shown do not distinguish between these various cases, which are aggregated together to yield a total for the reference year. The term nationality refers to legal or passport nationality and not to membership of a particular ethnic group.

180 150 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 I.a.fl. Inflows of legal immigrants of foreign nationality Country of residence Argentina Barbados Bolivia (1) Brazil Canada Permanent (P) or temporary (T) P T P T P na na T na na P na na T na na P T Chile P/T Colombia P/T Costa Rica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala Honduras P T P T P na na na na na T na na na na na P na na T na na P na na T na na P T Jamaica P/T Mexico P T

181 PART III Statistical Annex / 151 I.a.fl. Inflows of legal immigrants of foreign nationality (cont.) Country of residence Panama Paraguay Permanent (P) or temporary (T) P na na na na T na na na na P T Peru P/T na na na United States Uruguay P T P T Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of

182 152 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Argentina I.d.fl. Inflows of legal permanent immigration, by country of nationality Country of nationality Paraguay Bolivia (1) Peru Colombia Brazil Uruguay China Chile Venezuela (2) Dominican Republic Ecuador Spain United States of America Mexico Cuba Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of; (2) Bolivarian Republic of

183 PART III Statistical Annex / 153 Barbados I.d.fl. Inflows of legal permanent immigration, by country of nationality (cont.) Country of nationality Guyana Jamaica United Kingdom Trinidad and Tobago Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Canada United States of America Saint Lucia India Grenada Nigeria Cuba Dominica Italy Antigua and Barbuda Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Belize Country of nationality China United States of America El Salvador Guatemala Honduras India Nigeria Nicaragua Haiti Canada Mexico United Kingdom Lebanon Jamaica Other countries Total na na na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

184 154 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 I.d.fl. Inflows of legal permanent immigration, by country of nationality (cont.) Bolivia, Plurinational State of Country of nationality Brazil Peru Colombia Argentina Paraguay Chile Spain Germany United States of America Mexico China Cuba Korea (1) Canada Italy Other countries Total na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Republic of. Brazil Country of nationality Haiti China Italy Portugal Argentina Bolivia (1) France Spain Colombia Angola United States of America Syrian Arab Republic Japan Paraguay Bangladesh Other countries Total na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of.

185 PART III Statistical Annex / 155 Canada I.d.fl. Inflows of legal permanent immigration, by country of nationality (cont.) Country of nationality Philippines India China Iran (2) Pakistan Syrian Arab Republic United States of America France United Kingdom Nigeria Korea (2) Iraq Egypt Jamaica Bangladesh Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Islamic Republic of; (2) Republic of.

186 156 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Chile I.d.fl. Inflows of legal permanent immigration, by country of nationality (cont.) Country of nationality Peru Colombia Bolivia (1) Venezuela (2) Haiti Argentina Ecuador Spain United States of America Brazil China Dominican Republic Mexico Paraguay Cuba Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of; (2) Bolivarian Republic of Colombia Country of nationality Venezuela (1) United States of America China Spain Mexico India Cuba Nicaragua Ecuador Brazil Peru Argentina France Italy Germany Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of

187 PART III Statistical Annex / 157 Costa Rica I.d.fl. Inflows of legal permanent immigration, by country of nationality (cont.) Country of nationality Nicaragua United States of America Venezuela (1) Colombia China Canada Panama El Salvador Honduras Dominican Republic France Italy Cuba Spain Argentina Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of Dominican Republic Country of nationality Haiti United States of America United Kingdom Spain Venezuela (1) Canada Italy Colombia Iraq France Switzerland Guatemala Mexico China Chile Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of

188 158 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Ecuador I.d.fl. Inflows of legal permanent immigration, by country of nationality (cont.) Country of nationality Cuba Colombia Venezuela (1) United States of America China Spain Peru Italy Haiti Chile Mexico France Argentina Germany Canada Other countries Total na na na na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of El Salvador Country of nationality Guatemala Nicaragua Honduras United States of America Mexico Spain Colombia Brazil Costa Rica Cuba Argentina Italy Dominican Republic Panama Korea (1) Other countries Total na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Republic of

189 PART III Statistical Annex / 159 Honduras I.d.fl. Inflows of legal permanent immigration, by country of nationality (cont.) Country of nationality United States of America El Salvador Nicaragua Guatemala China Colombia Cuba Mexico Spain Italy Canada Peru Dominican Republic Chile Costa Rica Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Jamaica Country of nationality China India United States of America Cuba Mexico Dominican Republic United Kingdom Trinidad and Tobago Spain Canada Nigeria Philippines Ireland Myanmar Haiti Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

190 160 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Mexico I.d.fl. Inflows of legal permanent immigration, by country of nationality (cont.) Country of nationality United States of America Cuba Venezuela (1) China Colombia Honduras Canada Guatemala Spain Argentina El Salvador France Italy Peru Brazil Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of Panama Country of nationality Venezuela (1) Colombia Italy Dominican Republic United States of America China Nicaragua Spain El Salvador Mexico Costa Rica Peru Cuba India Ecuador Other countries Total na na na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of

191 PART III Statistical Annex / 161 Paraguay I.d.fl. Inflows of legal permanent immigration, by country of nationality (cont.) Country of nationality Brazil Argentina Spain Uruguay Germany United States of America Cuba Korea (1) Bolivia (2) Peru Chile Colombia Japan Italy France Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Republic of; (2) Plurinational State of Peru Country of nationality Colombia United States of America Spain Venezuela (1) Argentina Chile Ecuador Brazil Mexico China Bolivia (2) Cuba Germany Italy United Kingdom Other countries Total na na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of; (2) Plurinational State of

192 162 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 I.d.fl. Inflows of legal permanent immigration, by country of nationality (cont.) United States of America Country of nationality Mexico China India Philippines Cuba Dominican Republic Viet Nam Iraq El Salvador Pakistan Jamaica Colombia Korea (1) Haiti Bangladesh Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Republic of Uruguay Country of nationality Argentina Brazil Venezuela (1) Peru Colombia Chile Paraguay Bolivia (2) Spain United States of America Germany France Italy United Kingdom Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of ; (2) Plurinational State of

193 PART III Statistical Annex / 163 Metadata related to Tables I.a.fl. and I.d.fl. Inflows of legal immigrants of foreign nationality Country Types of migrant recorded in the data Other comments Source Argentina Barbados Belize Bolivia (1) Brazil (1) Plurinational State of The statistics include both 1) filings ( radicaciones ) of persons already present in the country and 2) permits to enter, granted to persons abroad. Permanent and temporary refers to residence rights. The right of permanent residence can be granted to persons applying either from abroad or from within the country. Permanent immigrants are CARICOM skilled nationals, persons with immigrant status, persons granted permanent residence upon entry and persons joining or marrying permanent residents or citizens. All persons on work permits except CARICOM skilled nationals in wageand-salary employment are temporary as well as self-employed CARICOM nationals. Also included among the temporary are students, persons in training and person on special entry permits. Permanent immigrants are those granted the right of permanent residence after one year of presence in the country. Permanent immigrants are persons wishing to settle and who are investors and self-employed professionals and technicians; persons who have a Bolivian degree; pensioners with sufficient income and persons of independent mean; persons with Bolivian children; investors, professionals, industrial or agricultural technicians and skilled labor; spouse and children of these. Permanent immigrants: Spouses of Brazilians, non-expellable spouses and children, family reunification migrants, humanitarian migrants, investors, executives and managers, Mercosur migrants wanting to settle, persons changing status to permanent. Temporary migrants: Temporary workers, Mercosur migrants, students, artists and performers. The permanent group includes some changes in status, that is, persons who initially had a temporary permit but later changed to permanent. Persons on visitor s visas, or on single or mutiple entry visas are excluded. The statistics on temporary migrants in this publication only include those arriving for temporary employment. All other permit and visa categories are deemed to be temporary, with the exception of courtesy permits or visas, permit or visa renewals and tourist visas, which are considered out-of-scope. Border workers from neighbouring countries are excluded. Statistics are work permits, except for non-labor and temporary Mercosur migrants, for which the statistics are from the Federal Police Register. National Migration Directorate, Ministry of the Interior. Barbados Immigration Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade. Statistical Institute of Belize. General Directorate for Consular Affairs, Ministry of Extenral Relations. Department of Foreigners, Ministry Justice; Federal Police Department and International Migration Observatory.

194 164 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Metadata related to Tables I.a.fl. and I.d.fl. Inflows of legal immigrants of foreign nationality (cont.) Country Types of migrant recorded in the data Other comments Source Canada Permanent migrants: Inflows of persons who have acquired permanent resident status (including onshore). Temporary migrants: Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Chile Colombia Inflows (first entries) of people who are lawfully in Canada on a temporary basis under a temporary resident permit. Temporary residents include foreign workers (including seasonal workers), foreign students, refugee claimants, people allowed to remain temporarily in Canada on humanitarian grounds and other individuals entering Canada on a temporary basis who are not under a work or student permit and who are not seeking protection. All migrants are given a temporary visa at the time of entry.there are three general types of visas: student, temporary and subject to contract. Persons can apply for permanent residence after one or two two years (or after the completion of studies in the case of students, depending on the entry category. It is not generally possible to identify the permanent/temporary nature of a migration from the initial visa granted. Chilean statistics in this publication count only the initial temporary visas, which are considered to cover both permanent and temporary migration. Investors and parents of Colombian nationals are granted the right of permanent residence upon entry. Spouses and parents of Colombian nationals can received the right of permanent residence after three years of continuous residence with a temporary permit; all others eligible for permanent residence must demonstrate at least five years of continuous residence. Since temporary and permanent migrants cannot generally be distinguished from each other at the time of entry, they are combined in the statistics in this publication. Thos receiving the right of permanent residence after three/five years of residence, as appropriate, are not counted as immigrants. No permanent permits are granted at entry into the country. Diplomatical personnel, their families and foreign employees, persons on courtesy visas, persons on business visas and crew members are excluded. None of the above migrants are eligible for permanent residence, nor are students, persons arriving for medical treatment or administrative or judicary processes, volunteer workers of NGOs, persons arriving for adoption procedures, and persons on temporary assignments such as journalists, conference speakers, artists, persons coming for interviews, etc. Register of permits of residence granted, Chile Sistema B3000, Department of Foreigners and Migration, Ministry of the Interior. Migration Colombia, Ministry of External Relations.

195 PART III Statistical Annex / 165 Metadata related to Tables I.a.fl. and I.d.fl. Inflows of legal immigrants of foreign nationality (cont.) Country Types of migrant recorded in the data Other comments Source Costa Rica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala Permanent migrants are refugees, family members of Costa Rican nationals and temporary migrants and their immediate family after three years of residence. All others are temporary migrants. Pensioners, persons of independent means and investors have been categorised as permanent in the statistics presented in this publication. Investors, pensioners, retirees and persons of independent means can obtain the right of permanent residence upon entry. All others may request it after five years of temporary residence. Because it is not generally possible to distinguish permanent from temporary migrants at the time of entry except in the special cases noted above, the statistics of inflows presented here cover both permanent and temporary migrants combined. Permanent migrants include family members of permanent residents; investors; persons of independent means; persons taking on administrative, technical or specialised functions in permanent jobs; professionals and persons in technical occupations. All other are temporary except for those explicitly excluded (see next column). Permanent migrants are spouses and children of citizens; Central Americans and Panamanians; and persons entering to engage in a profession, trade of occupation. Temporary migrants are persons entering for up to one year for a sporting, cultural or scientific activity, for technical or specialised work or for any other legal activity of a temporary nature. Also persons fleeing persecution. A temporary migrant is a person entering the country for up to two years to engage in a legal temporary activity. Permanent migrants include pernsioners, persons of independent means and investors and their immediate family; family members of Guatemalan nationals; persons having demonstrated outstanding performances in the fields of science, technology, arts and sports. Persons with non-resident visas are excluded. The following groups are considered non-residents: tourists, business visitors, crew members, persons in transit. and foreigners entering the country to carry out the formalities to become residents. Also excluded are cross-border residents engaged in street selling, serviceproviders, sports persons, artist, academics and certain temporay and seasonal workers ( temporeros ); such persons would normally be considered as temporary migrants, but are not identified in the statistics provided. Excluded are diplomatic staff, their families and employees; persons in transit; crew members; visitors for less than 3 months; daily bordercrossers. All other persons fall under the general rubric of tourists and are not allowed to change status except under special circumstances. Changes in status from temporary to permenent are allowed by law. General Directorate for Migration and Foreigners. General Directorate for Migration, Ministry of the Interior and of Police. Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Human Mobility. General Directorate for Migration and Foreigners, Ministry of Justice and Public Security. General Directorate for Migration, Ministry of the Interior.

196 166 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Metadata related to Tables I.a.fl. and I.d.fl. Inflows of legal immigrants of foreign nationality (cont.) Country Types of migrant recorded in the data Other comments Source Honduras Jamaica Mexico Panama Permanent residents are foreigners who enter the country with the intention to establish themselves definitively. This category is also extended to direct family members. Temporary residents are known as Special permits of residence, and are those that enter the country to perform an activity for a determined period (up to five years) and include researchers, professionals, students, business persons, clergy, asylum seekers, etc. Immigrants are persons granted work permits and their dependents, international students, foreign nationala and Commonwealth citizens of working age who are married to Jamaican nationals and/or who are exempted from a work permit, and Caricom skilled migrants. The permanent/temporary nature of the migration cannot generally be determined from the permit; all migrants are therefore grouped under a common rubric. Temporary migrants are persons having links to Mexicans or resident foreigners, persons with a proven job offer, approved self-employed persons, persons with an invitation from a recognised institution to perform an activity that is not remunerated in Mexico, persons of independent means to cover a stay (extended) in Mexico, and investors. Permanent migrants are refugees and other humanitrian migrants, persons with links to Mexicans or permanent foreign residents, retirees, persons accepted under a point system, persons who have been temporary migrants for four years, close relatives (second degree) of Mexican nationals and persons who have been tempory migrants for two years and in a free union with a Mexican national or permanent resident. Permanent immigrants are persons who receive a provisional residence permit of two years, granted to persons who wish to settle in Panama. After this period, they can request permanent status. Temporary migrants are persons granted a temporary residence permit ( permiso residente temporal ) as well as persons under the protection of the Republic of Panama. The following groups are considered non-residents: tourists, travelers in transit, crew members, temporary migrant workers; cross-border workers, artist, and foreigners traveling on sports, official mission, health, conventions, conferences. Diplomats are excluded. Excluded are tourists, persons in transit, border visitors. Tourists, persons in transit, crew members and persons entering with an offer to join a shipping crew. National Institute of migration in Honduras. Planning Institute of Jamaica. Migration Policy Unit of Internal Affairs Ministry Department of Analysis, National Migration Service.

197 PART III Statistical Annex / 167 Metadata related to Tables I.a.fl. and I.d.fl. Inflows of legal immigrants of foreign nationality (cont.) Country Types of migrant recorded in the data Other comments Source Paraguay Peru United States Uruguay Permanent migrants are investors, pensioners, retirees, persons of independent means and their family members; family members of Paraguayan citizens including parents; and persons apt to contribute to the development of Paraguay, whether the immigration is spontaneous, assisted or with capital. All others are temporary migrants, except for those categories specifically excluded (see next column). Permanent migrants ( Residente ) are persons entering as family members of residents, refugees, persons of independent means, pensioners, and investors / journalists / professionals / other workers intending to settle. Temporary migrants are asylum seekers, students, artists, persons with special permits, and investors / journalists / professionals /other workers on temporary assignments or not intending to settle. Permanent migrants: Issues of permanent residence permits ( green cards ). Temporary migrants: Data refer to non-immigrant visas issued, including family members. Permanent residents are foreigners who enter the country with the intention to establish themselves definitively. This category is also extended to direct family members. Temporary residents enter the country to perform an activity for a determined period and include migrant workers, researchers, professionals, students, business persons, journalists, artists, clergy, and asylum seekers. In the statistics provided by national authorities, permanent and temporary migrants are confounded. Excluded are tourists, perfomers, crew members, persons in transit, border workers, journalists and other media workers paid from outside the country, potential investors, and persons arriving for medical treatment. Excluded are tourists, short-term business visitors, crew members and persons in transit. Includes among the permanent, persons already present in the United States who changed status. Data cover the fiscal year (October to September of the year indicated). Excluded from the temporary are visitors and transit passengers (B and C visas), crew members (D visas), diplomats, their families and employees (A visas), employees of international organisations (G visas) and of NATO and their families (NATO visas). Excluded are tourists; persons in transit; crew members; sports persons, performers and correspondents entereing for specific events; business visitors; persons arriving for medical treatment. General Directorate for Migration, Ministry of the Interior. National Institute of Statistics and Informatics US Department of Homeland Security and Bureau of Consular Affairs, United States Department of State. National Statistical Institute.

198 168 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 I.a.as. Inflows of asylum seekers Argentina Bahamas na na na na Barbados na na na na na na na 2 na na Belize Bolivia (1) Brazil Canada Chile na Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Ecuador na na na na El Salvador na na Dominican Republic Grenada na na na na 3 na na na na 1 Guatemala Haiti na na 15 Honduras Jamaica na na na na na na 1 4 na 5 Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Lucia na 1 na na 1 na 2 Suriname na na na na 7 4 na Trinidad and Tobago na United States Uruguay Venezuela (2) na na na na Source: UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Note: For the United States, figures from 2004 onwards refer to affirmative claims submitted with the Department of Homeland Security (number of cases) and defensive claims submitted to the Executive Office for immigration review. na: not available (1) Plurinational State of; (2) Bolivarian Republic of

199 PART III Statistical Annex / 169 Metadata related to Tables I.a.as. and I.d.as. Inflows of asylum seekers Sources for all countries: Governments, compiled by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Population Data Unit. Totals in Table I.a.as. may differ from the tables by nationality (Tables I.d.as.) because the former totals get revised retroactively while the origin breakdown does not. Data for Table I.a.as. generally refer to first instance/new applications only and exclude repeat/review/appeal applications while data by origin (Tables I.d.as.) may include some repeat/review/ appeal applications. Comments on countries of asylum: United States: Data for are a combination of the United States Citizenship and Immigration Service (USCIS - number of cases) affirmative asylum applications, and of the Executive Office for Immigration Review (EOIR - number of persons) defensive asylum applications, if the person is under removal process.

200 170 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 I.a.fb. The foreign-born population Number of persons % of total population Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia (1) Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela (2) Source: United Nations Population Division, International Migration Stock Revision. Note: UNPD estimates of the international migration stock for non-oecd countries are calculated by extrapolating from the most recent data point (generally a census value) on the basis of an assumed exponential growth rate in the foreign-born population estimated for a recent period (generally, between the two previous census years). Actual movements may be affected by changes in immigration laws, by unauthorised migration and by political, economic or natural upheavals in the country or in countries of origin. (1) Plurinational State of; (2) Bolivarian Republic of

201 PART III Statistical Annex / 171 Metadata related to Table I.a.fb. The foreign-born population All statistics shown here were obtained from Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2015 Revision - Migrants by Age and Sex, Population Division, United Nations, New York. The statistics in this table may include persons born abroad who were citizens of their current country of residence at birth. As such, they may not always agree with national statistics on the foreign-born population, which tend to exclude this group. In addition current estimates are based on extrapolations using growth rates observed in the recent past. I.a.an. Acquisitions of nationality Country Barbados Belize na na na na Bolivia (1) na na na Canada Chile Colombia na na Costa Rica na na Dominican Republic na na na na na na na 344 na na Ecuador na na na na na na El Salvador na Guatemala na na Honduras na na na na Jamaica na na na na na na na na Mexico Paraguay na na 8 Peru United States Uruguay na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of

202 172 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Barbados I.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality, by country of previous nationality Country of previous nationality United Kingdom United States of America Canada Guyana Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago Saint Lucia Jamaica Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Note: Statistics are by country of birth rather than nationality. Belize Country of previous nationality Guatemala na na na na Honduras na na na na Other na na na na China na na na na El Salvador na na na na United States of America na na na na Nicaragua na na na na India na na na na Mexico na na na na Canada na na na na Other countries na na na na Total na na na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

203 PART III Statistical Annex / 173 I.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality, by country of previous nationality (cont.) Bolivia (Plurinational State of) Country of previous nationality Peru na na na Brazil na na na Cuba na na na Paraguay na na na Colombia na na na Argentina na na na Spain na na na United States of America na na na Italy na na na France na na na Chile na na na Ecuador na na na Kuwait na na na Mexico na na na Other countries na na na Total na na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Canada Country of previous nationality Philippines India China Iran (1) Pakistan United States of America United Kingdom Morocco Korea (2) Algeria Iraq Colombia Egypt France Nigeria Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Islamic Republic of; (2) Republic of

204 174 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Chile I.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality, by country of previous nationality (cont.) Country of previous nationality Peru na na na na na na Colombia na na na na na na Other na na na na na na Cuba na na na na na na Ecuador na na na na na na Bolivia (1) na na na na na na Argentina na na na na na na Venezuela (2) na na na na na na China na na na na na na India na na na - - na na na Dominican Republic na na na - - na na na Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of; (2) Bolivarian Republic of Colombia Country of previous nationality Venezuela (1) na na Cuba na na Ecuador na na 8 14 Russian Federation na na 8 11 China na na 7 11 United States of America na na 3 10 Other countries na na Total na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of

205 PART III Statistical Annex / 175 Costa Rica I.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality, by country of previous nationality (cont.) Country of previous nationality Nicaragua na na Colombia na na El Salvador na na United States of America na na China na na Cuba na na Peru na na Dominican Republic na na Panama na na Honduras na na Venezuela (1) na na Guatemala na na Ecuador na na Mexico na na Canada na na 9 20 Other countries na na Total na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of Dominican Republic Country of previous nationality Cuba na na na na na na na 81 na na Spain na na na na na na na 37 na na United States of America na na na na na na na 36 na na Colombia na na na na na na na 27 na na China na na na na na na na 22 na na Russian Federation na na na na na na na 20 na na France na na na na na na na 12 na na Venezuela (1) na na na na na na na 11 na na Italy na na na na na na na 11 na na Other countries na na na na na na na 87 na na Total na na na na na na na 344 na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of

206 176 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Ecuador I.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality, by country of previous nationality (cont.) Country of previous nationality Colombia na na na na na Cuba na na na na na United States of America na na na na na Spain na na na na na Venezuela (1) na na na na na Peru na na na na na Pakistan na na na na na Italy na na na na na Chile na na na na na Nigeria na na na na na Iran (2) na na na na na China na na na na na France na na na na na Bolivia (3) na na na na na Canada na na na na na Other countries na na na na na Total na na na na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of; (2) Islamic Republic of; (3) Plurinational State of Honduras Country of previous nationality Colombia na na na na Cuba na na na na Guatemala na na na na Nicaragua na na na na Spain na na na na El Salvador na na na na Other countries na na na na Total na na na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

207 PART III Statistical Annex / 177 Guatemala I.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality, by country of previous nationality (cont.) Country of previous nationality Ecuador na na New Zealand na na Mexico na na Egypt na na Guatemala na na Other countries na na Total na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Jamaica Country of previous nationality Cuba na na na na na na na na Nigeria na na na na na na na na United Kingdom na na na na na na na na United States of America na na na na na na na na China na na na na na na na na India na na na na na na na na 7 12 Other countries na na na na na na na na Total na na na na na na na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

208 178 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Mexico I.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality, by country of previous nationality (cont.) Country of previous nationality Venezuela (1) Colombia Cuba Spain United States of America Argentina Peru Honduras El Salvador Dominican Republic Ecuador Guatemala Bolivia (2) China Nigeria Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of; (2) Plurinational State of Peru Country of previous nationality Colombia Spain Venezuela (1) Cuba United States of America Argentina Bolivia (2) Italy France Brazil Mexico Ecuador Dominican Republic Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of; (2) Plurinational State of

209 PART III Statistical Annex / 179 I.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality, by country of previous nationality (cont.) United States of America Country of previous nationality Mexico India Philippines China Dominican Republic Cuba Viet Nam Colombia El Salvador Jamaica Iraq Korea (1) Haiti Pakistan Peru Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Republic of Uruguay Country of previous nationality Peru na na Argentina na na Cuba na na Colombia na na Brazil na na Venezuela (1) na na Other countries na na Total na na Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Bolivarian Republic of

210 180 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Metadata related to Tables I.a.an. and I.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality Country Comments Source Barbados Belize Data refer to country of birth, not to country of previous nationality. Barbados Immigration Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade. Department of Immigration. Bolivia (1) General Directorate for Consular Affairs, Ministry of External Relations. Brazil National Association of Immigrants and Foreigners in Brazil. Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Jamaica Mexico Paraguay Peru United States Uruguay Data refer to country of birth, not to country of previous nationality. Persons who acquire Canadian citizenship may also hold other citizenships at the same time if this is allowed by the country of previous nationality. The data cover both naturalisations and nationalisations, that is, grants of nationality to citizens of Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua who are resident in El Salvador and declare their desire to become Salvadorans. Data refer to country of birth, not to country of previous nationality. Data by country of birth refer to fiscal years (October to September of the year indicated). Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Register of residence permits (Sistema B3000), Department of Foreigners and Migration, Ministry of the Interior. Migration Colombia, Ministry of External Relations. Supreme Elections Tribunal. General Directorate for Migration, Ministry of the Interior and of Police. Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Human Mobility. General Directorate for Migration and Foreigners, Ministry of Justice and Public Security. General Directorate for Migration, Ministry of the Interior. National Institute of migration in Honduras. Planning Institute of Jamaica. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (SRE). Supreme Court of Justice. General Directorate for Immigration and Naturalisation. US Department of Homeland Security. Electoral Court of Uruguay. (1) Plurinational State of

211 PART III Statistical Annex / 181 E.a.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries by country of nationality Nationality Antigua and Barbuda Argentina The Bahamas (1) Barbados Belize Bolivia (2) Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States of America Uruguay Venezuela (3) Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Commonwealth of; (2) Plurinational State of; (3) Bolivarian Republic of

212 182 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination Antigua and Barbuda Country of destination United States of America Canada Barbados Jamaica Japan Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Argentina Country of destination United States of America Spain Brazil Chile Mexico Uruguay Ecuador Bolivia (1) Paraguay Peru Colombia Germany Italy New Zealand Canada Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of

213 PART III Statistical Annex / 183 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) The Bahamas, Commonwealth of Country of destination United States of America Canada Jamaica Barbados United Kingdom Germany Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Barbados Country of destination United States of America Canada United Kingdom Jamaica Germany Colombia France Japan Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Belize Country of destination United States of America Mexico Canada Jamaica Barbados United Kingdom Costa Rica Japan Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

214 184 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) Bolivia, Plurinational State of Country of destination Argentina Chile Brazil Spain United States of America Peru Ecuador Mexico Italy Colombia Germany Japan Paraguay France United Kingdom Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Brazil Country of destination United States of America Canada Japan Germany Paraguay Spain Bolivia (1) Italy Argentina Portugal France United Kingdom Mexico Netherlands Colombia Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of

215 PART III Statistical Annex / 185 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) Canada Country of destination United States of America United Kingdom Korea Germany Mexico Japan Australia New Zealand France Netherlands Switzerland Colombia Brazil Spain Belgium Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Chile Country of destination United States of America Argentina Spain Ecuador Peru Germany Brazil Canada Bolivia (1) Mexico Colombia New Zealand United Kingdom France Uruguay Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of

216 186 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) Colombia Country of destination United States of America Ecuador Chile Argentina Spain Brazil Mexico Canada Peru Germany Bolivia (1) Panama United Kingdom Australia France Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of Costa Rica Country of destination United States of America Mexico Spain Germany Canada Colombia Ecuador Panama Brazil El Salvador Chile France Japan United Kingdom Switzerland Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

217 PART III Statistical Annex / 187 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) Cuba Country of destination United States of America Mexico Ecuador Spain Colombia Brazil Italy Canada Bolivia (1) Peru Germany Argentina Chile Jamaica France Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of Dominica Country of destination United States of America Canada France Spain Italy Barbados Germany Jamaica Japan Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

218 188 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) Dominican Republic Country of destination United States of America Spain Argentina Chile Italy Canada Mexico Panama Germany France Switzerland Jamaica Colombia Brazil United Kingdom Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Ecuador Country of destination United States of America Spain Argentina Chile Colombia Peru Mexico Brazil Italy Germany Canada Bolivia (1) United Kingdom Switzerland Belgium Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of

219 PART III Statistical Annex / 189 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) El Salvador Country of destination United States of America Mexico Spain Canada Italy Costa Rica Argentina Colombia Panama Honduras Germany Ecuador Chile Japan Brazil Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Grenada Country of destination United States of America Canada Barbados United Kingdom Jamaica Japan Germany Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

220 190 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) Guatemala Country of destination United States of America Canada Mexico Spain El Salvador Costa Rica Colombia Argentina Honduras Panama Ecuador Germany Bolivia (1) Brazil Chile Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of Guyana Country of destination United States of America Barbados Canada France United Kingdom Jamaica Brazil Netherlands Japan Colombia Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

221 PART III Statistical Annex / 191 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) Haiti Country of destination Brazil United States of America Chile Canada France Dominican Republic Argentina Mexico Colombia Ecuador Jamaica Belgium Germany Spain Japan Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Honduras Country of destination United States of America Spain Mexico Canada Costa Rica El Salvador Italy Argentina Germany Brazil Ecuador Colombia Panama Japan Chile Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

222 192 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) Jamaica Country of destination United States of America Canada United Kingdom Barbados Japan Germany Brazil Netherlands Colombia France Switzerland Mexico Australia Belgium New Zealand Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Mexico Country of destination United States of America Canada Germany Spain Colombia Argentina Brazil Ecuador Peru France United Kingdom Japan Chile Bolivia (1) Netherlands Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of

223 PART III Statistical Annex / 193 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) Nicaragua Country of destination Costa Rica United States of America Spain Colombia Mexico Panama Canada El Salvador Germany Honduras Japan Ecuador Argentina Brazil Chile Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Panama Country of destination United States of America Costa Rica Spain Mexico Colombia Argentina Ecuador Japan Germany Canada Peru Chile Brazil Jamaica El Salvador Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

224 194 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) Paraguay Country of destination Argentina Spain Brazil United States of America Bolivia (1) Chile Japan Germany Uruguay Colombia Mexico Ecuador Peru Italy France Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of Peru Country of destination Argentina Chile United States of America Ecuador Spain Bolivia (1) Brazil Italy Colombia Mexico Japan Germany Canada Uruguay France Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of

225 PART III Statistical Annex / 195 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) Saint Kitts and Nevis Country of destination United States of America Canada Jamaica Barbados United Kingdom Japan Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Saint Lucia Country of destination United States of America Canada Barbados France United Kingdom Jamaica Japan Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Country of destination Canada United States of America Barbados United Kingdom Jamaica Japan Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

226 196 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) Suriname Country of destination France Netherlands Belgium United States of America Jamaica Brazil Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Trinidad and Tobago Country of destination United States of America Canada Barbados Jamaica United Kingdom Colombia Japan Australia Brazil Germany France Netherlands Mexico Spain Ecuador Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

227 PART III Statistical Annex / 197 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) United States of America Country of destination Canada Korea Japan Germany Mexico United Kingdom Colombia Brazil Spain Netherlands France Ecuador Argentina Australia New Zealand Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Uruguay Country of destination Argentina Brazil United States of America Spain Chile Mexico Paraguay Ecuador Colombia New Zealand Peru Bolivia (1) Germany Canada Israel Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of

228 198 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries, by nationality and by country of destination (cont.) Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Country of destination United States of America Spain Colombia Chile Mexico Panama Argentina Ecuador Canada Peru Costa Rica Brazil Uruguay Germany Italy Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

229 PART III Statistical Annex / 199 Metadata related to Tables E.a.fl. and E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries Country Types of migrant recorded in the data Other comments Source American countries Australia Austria Belgium Canada Chile Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Includes persons who arrive from overseas and are entitled to stay permanently in Australia (Settler Arrivals) and persons who while already in Australia on a temporary basis are granted permanent residence status. Settler arrivals include holders of a permanent visa, holders of a temporary (provisional) visa where there is a clear intention to settle and persons otherwise eligible to settle. Foreigners holding a residence permit and who have actually stayed for at least 3 months. Foreigners holding a residence permit and intenting to stay in the country for at least 3 months. Total number of people who have been granted permanent or temporary resident status in Canada. Temporary residence permits granted, excluding renewals and changes in category. Foreigners holding a permanent or a long-term residence permit (visa over 90 days) or who were granted asylum in the given year. Foreigners who live legally in Denmark, are registred in the Central population register, and have been living in the country for at least one year. Foreigners expecting to stay in the country for at least 12 months. Foreign nationals with a residence permit valid for more than one year. Data based on the first permanenttype permits delivered. Include status changes from a temporary-type permit to a permanent-type permit. Data refer to the fiscal year (July to June of the year indicated). Table B.1 presents the inflow of permanent migrants. From 2014, figures inferior to 5 individuals are not shown. Until 2001, data are from local population registers. Starting in 2002, they are from the central population register. The data for were revised to match with the results of the register-based census of Outfolws include administrative corrections. From 2012, asylum seekers are included in the data. Country of origin refers to country of last permanent residence. Country of origin refers to country of last permanent or temporary residence. Excludes asylum seekers and all those with temporary residence permits. Excludes asylum seekers and persons with temporary residence permits. See metedata related to Tables I.a.fl. and I.d.fl. Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Population Registers, Statistics Austria. Population Register, Directorate for Statistics and Economic Information (DGSIE). Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. Register of residence permits, Department of Foreigners and Migration, Ministry of the Interior. Register of Foreigners, Czech Statistical Office. Central Population Register, Statistics Denmark. Statistics Estonia. Central Population Register, Statistics Finland. Ministry of the Interior.

230 200 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Metadata related to Tables E.a.fl. and E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries (cont.) Country Types of migrant recorded in the data Other comments Source Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Israel Foreigners who had previoulsy no registered address in Germany and intending to stay at least one week in the country. Until 2007, initial issuance of residence permits. From 2008, estimation by the Hellenic Statistical Authority. Foreigners expecting to stay in the country for at least 90 days. Foreigners expecting to stay in the country for a period of at least 12 months. Figures are derived from the quarterly National Household Survey (QNHS) series. All figures are based on May to April of the year indicated. Data refer to permanent immigrants by last country of residence. Includes asylum seekers living in private households. Excludes inflows of ethnic Germans (Aussiedler). In 2008, local authorities started to purge registers of inactive records. As a result, higher emigration figures were reported from this year. Italy Transfers of residence. Excludes seasonal workers. Administrative corrections are made following censuses (the last census took place in 2011). Japan Foreigners who entered the country, excluding temporary visitors and reentries. Central Population Register, Federal Statistical Office. Ministry of Interior and Administrative Reconstruction; Hellenic Statistical Authority. Population Register, Office of Immigration and Nationality, Central Statistical Office. Register of Migration Data, Statistics Iceland. Central Statistics Office. Population register, Central Bureau of Statistics. Administrative Population Register (Anagrafe) analysed by ISTAT. Ministry of Justice, Immigration Bureau. Korea Latvia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Data refer to long-term inflows (more than 90 days). Foreigners holding a residence permit and intending to stay in the country for at least 12 months. Until 2012, number of foreigners who are issued an immigrant permit for the first time ("inmigrante" FM2) and 2012 also include new and former refugees who obtained immigrant status ("inmigrado"). From 2013 on, number of foreigners who are issued a permanent residence card or a temporary permit. Foreigners holding a residence permit and intending to stay in the country for at least four of the next six months. The sharp increase in the numbers of 2013 is explained by administrative changes with the implementation of the 2011 Migration Act. Most of these "new residents" are foreigners already in the country on a temporary status. Inflows exclude asylum seekers who are staying in reception centres. Ministry of Justice. Population Register, Central Statistical Office. Central Population Register, Central Office of Statistics and Economic Studies (Statec). National Migration Institute, Unit for Migration Policy, Ministry of Interior. Population Register, Central Bureau of Statistics.

231 PART III Statistical Annex / 201 Metadata related to Tables E.a.fl. and E.d.fl. Outflows of migrants to American and OECD countries (cont.) Country Types of migrant recorded in the data Other comments Source New Zealand Permanent and long-term arrivals to Statistics New Zealand. live in the country for 12 months or more. Norway Foreigners holding a residence or work permit and intending to stay in the country for at least 6 months. Asylum seekers are registered as immigrants only after having settled in a Norwegian Central Population Register, Statistics Norway. municipality following a positive outcome of their application. An asylum seeker whose application has been rejected will not be registered as an immigrant, even if the application process has taken a long time and the return to the home country is delayed for a significant period. Poland Number of permanent and "fixedterm" residence permits issued. Office for Foreigners. Portugal Slovak Republic Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom United States Data based on residence permits. Includes continuous regularisation. Includes permanent, temporary, and tolerated residents. Number of first temporary residence permits. Changes in regular residence for at least 12 months declared by foreigners. Foreigners holding a residence permit and intending to stay in the country for at least one year. Foreigners holding a permanent or an annual residence permit.holders of an L-permit (short duration) are also included if their stay in the country is longer than 12 months. Residence permits issued for the first time to foreigners intending to stay 12 months or more in the country. Lawful Permanent Residents (LPRs) ("green card" recipients) and temporary residents. Data correspond to Migration Statistics estimates that are based on the number of registrations and cancellations in the Municipal Registers by all foreigners, irrespective of their legal status. Excludes asylum seekers and temporary workers. Immigration and Border Control Office (SEF); National Statistical Institute (INE). Register of Foreigners, Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic. Central Population Register, Ministry of the Interior, and National Statistical Office. Municipal Population Registers (Padron municipal de habitantes), National Statistical Institute (INE). Population Register, Statistics Sweden. Register of Foreigners, Federal Office of Migration. General Directorate of Security, Ministry of the Interior. National Insurance numbers (NINo) Office of Immigration Statistics, Department of Homeland Security; Citizenship and Immigration Services, Department of Homeland Security.

232 202 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.a.fb.US. The population born in the Americas living in the United States Country of birth Argentina Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Belize Bolivia (1) Brazil Barbados Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Honduras Haiti Jamaica Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Mexico Nicaragua Panama Peru Paraguay Salvador Trinidad and Tobago Uruguay Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Venezuela (2) Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of; (2) Bolivarian Republic of

233 PART III Statistical Annex / 203 E.a.fb.SP. The population born in the Americas living in Spain Country of birth Argentina Bolivia (1) Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Guatemala Honduras Mexico Nicaragua Panama Peru Paraguay Salvador Uruguay United States Venezuela (2) Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of; (2) Bolivarian Republic of Metadata related to Tables E.a.fb.US. and E.a.fb.SP. The population born in the Americas and living in the United States and Spain Country Comments Source Spain Population register. Foreign-born recorded in the Municipal Registers irrespective of their Municipal Registers, National Statistics Institute (INE). legal status. Reference date: 31 December. United States Includes persons who are naturalised and persons who are in an unauthorised status. Excludes children born abroad to US citizen parents. American Community Survey, Census Bureau.

234 204 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.a.an. Acquisitions of nationality in OECD countries and other countries of the Americas Country of previous nationality Antigua and Barbuda Argentina The Bahamas (1) Barbados Belize Bolivia (2) Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States of America Uruguay Venezuela (3) Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Commonwealth of (2) Plurinational State of; (3) Bolivarian Republic of

235 PART III Statistical Annex / 205 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality Antigua and Barbuda Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada United Kingdom Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Argentina Country of acquired nationality United States of America Spain Canada Germany Australia France United Kingdom Mexico Switzerland New Zealand Uruguay Bolivia (1) Sweden Chile Peru Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1)Plurinational State of The Bahamas, Commonwealth of Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

236 206 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) Barbados Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada United Kingdom Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Belize Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada United Kingdom Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Bolivia, Plurinational State of Country of acquired nationality Spain United States of America Canada Sweden France United Kingdom Germany Switzerland Chile Mexico Peru Australia Netherlands Belgium Costa Rica Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

237 PART III Statistical Annex / 207 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) Brazil Country of acquired nationality United States of America Portugal Canada Spain Germany Australia France United Kingdom Switzerland Netherlands Sweden New Zealand Belgium Norway Bolivia (1) Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of Canada Country of acquired nationality United States of America Australia United Kingdom France Korea Switzerland New Zealand Barbados Sweden Netherlands Germany Belgium Canada Mexico Costa Rica Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

238 208 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) Chile Country of acquired nationality United States of America Spain Canada Sweden Australia France Germany Switzerland New Zealand United Kingdom Norway Mexico Netherlands Belgium Bolivia (1) Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of Colombia Country of acquired nationality United States of America Spain Canada Australia France Costa Rica United Kingdom Mexico Germany Switzerland Sweden Netherlands Chile Belgium Peru Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

239 PART III Statistical Annex / 209 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) Costa Rica Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada Spain Germany Mexico Switzerland France United Kingdom Australia Netherlands Sweden Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Cuba Country of acquired nationality United States of America Spain Canada Mexico Germany France Chile Switzerland Costa Rica Sweden Bolivia (1) Colombia Jamaica Portugal United Kingdom Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of

240 210 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) Dominica Country of acquired nationality United States of America France Canada United Kingdom Germany Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Dominican Republic Country of acquired nationality United States of America Spain Canada Germany Switzerland France Netherlands Costa Rica Mexico United Kingdom Belgium Austria Norway Sweden Peru Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

241 PART III Statistical Annex / 211 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) Ecuador Country of acquired nationality Spain United States of America Canada Belgium Germany France United Kingdom Switzerland Chile Mexico Sweden Netherlands Australia Costa Rica Portugal Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. El Salvador Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada Spain Costa Rica Mexico Australia Sweden France Switzerland 7 12 Germany Belgium Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

242 212 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) Grenada Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada United Kingdom Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Guatemala Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada Mexico Costa Rica Germany France United Kingdom Netherlands Sweden Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Guyana Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada United Kingdom Barbados France Netherlands Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

243 PART III Statistical Annex / 213 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) Haiti Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada France Switzerland Germany Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Honduras Country of acquired nationality United States of America Spain Canada Mexico Costa Rica Germany Switzerland United Kingdom France Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Jamaica Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada United Kingdom Germany Australia Barbados Sweden Switzerland France Belgium Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

244 214 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) Mexico Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada Spain Germany France United Kingdom Australia Switzerland Netherlands Sweden Belgium Norway Costa Rica New Zealand Peru Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Nicaragua Country of acquired nationality United States of America Costa Rica Spain Canada Sweden Germany Mexico Netherlands France Switzerland 5 11 Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

245 PART III Statistical Annex / 215 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) Panama Country of acquired nationality United States of America Costa Rica Canada Spain Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Paraguay Country of acquired nationality Spain United States of America Canada Bolivia (1) France Switzerland Germany Sweden Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of

246 216 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) Peru Country of acquired nationality United States of America Italy Spain Canada France Australia Germany Bolivia (1) Sweden Switzerland Chile United Kingdom Mexico Netherlands Costa Rica Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. (1) Plurinational State of Saint Kitts and Nevis Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Saint Lucia Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada United Kingdom France Barbados Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

247 PART III Statistical Annex / 217 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada United Kingdom Barbados Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Suriname Country of acquired nationality Netherlands France United States of America Belgium Canada Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Trinidad and Tobago Country of acquired nationality United States of America Canada United Kingdom Barbados Australia France Sweden Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

248 218 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) United States Country of acquired nationality Canada United Kingdom Australia Korea Germany France New Zealand Sweden Switzerland Netherlands Costa Rica Barbados Belgium Mexico Norway Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata. Uruguay Country of acquired nationality United States of America Spain Canada New Zealand Australia Mexico France Germany Sweden Costa Rica Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

249 PART III Statistical Annex / 219 E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in American and OECD countries, by country of previous nationality and country of acquired nationality (cont.) Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Country of acquired nationality United States of America Spain Canada Mexico Australia United Kingdom Germany France Colombia Switzerland Costa Rica Portugal Norway Netherlands Peru Other countries Total Sources and definitions: See Introduction to Statistical Annex and Metadata.

250 220 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 Metadata related to Tables E.a.an. and E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in OECD countries and countries of the Americas Country Comments Source American See metedata related to Tables I.a.an. and I.d.an. countries Australia Data from 2005 to 2010 are based on the former Reporting Assurance Section. Data from 2011 are sourced from Citizenship Programme Management. From 2014, figures inferior to 5 individuals are not shown. Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Austria Belgium Data refer to persons living in Austria at the time of acquisition. Data refer to all acquisitions of Belgian nationality, irrespective of the type of procedure. Data only take into account those residing in Belgium at the time of the acquisition. Statistics Austria and BMI (Ministry of the Interior). Directorate for Statistics and Economic Information (DGSEI) and Ministry of Justice. Canada Data refer to country of birth, not to country of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. previous nationality. Persons who acquire Canadian citizenship may also hold other citizenships at the same time if allowed by the country of previous nationality. Chile Register of residence permits. Department of Foreigners and Migration, Ministry of the Interior. Czech Republic Denmark Acquisitions of nationality by declaration or by naturalisation. The decrease in 2013 can be explained by the change in the naturalisation conditions that year. Ministry of the Interior. Statistics Denmark. Estonia Acquisitions of citizenship by naturalisation. Police and Border Guard Board. Finland Includes naturalisations of persons of Finnish origin. Central Population Register, Statistics Finland. France Data by former nationality for naturalisations by Ministry of the Interior and Ministry of Justice. anticipated declaration is unknown for the years 2006 and Germany Figures do not include ethnic Germans (Aussiedler). Federal Office of Statistics. Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Data refer to all possible types of citizenship acquisition: naturalisation, declaration (for Greek descents) or adoption by a Greek. Person naturalised in Hungary: naturalisation (the person was born foreign) or renaturalisation (his/her former Hungarian citizenship was abolished). The rules of naturalisation in Hungary were modified by the Act XLIV of The act introduced the simplified naturalisation procedure from 1 January 2011, and made it possible to obtain citizenship without residence in Hungary for the foreign citizens who have Hungarian ancestors. This data refer only to those new Hungarian citizens who have an address in Hungary. Includes children who receive Icelandic citizenship with their parents. From 2005 on, figures include naturalisations and Post nuptial citizenship figures. Ministry of Interior and Administrative Reconstruction. Central Office Administrative and Electronic Public Services (Central Population Register), Central Statistical Office. Statistics Iceland. Department of Justice and Equality. Ministry of the Interior. Ministry of Justice, Civil Affairs Bureau.

251 PART III Statistical Annex / 221 Metadata related to Tables E.a.an. and E.d.an. Acquisitions of nationality in OECD countries and countries of the Americas (cont.) Country Comments Source Korea Ministry of Justice. Latvia Acquisition of citizenship by naturalisation including Office of Citizenship and Migration Affairs. children who receive latvian citizenship with their parents. Luxembourg Excludes children acquiring nationality as a Ministry of Justice. consequence of the naturalisation of their parents. Mexico Ministry of Foreign Affairs (SRE). Netherlands Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). New The country of origin refers to the country of birth if Department of Internal Affairs. Zealand birth documentation is available. If not, the country of origin is the country of citizenship as shown on the person s passport. Norway The statistics are based on population register data. Statistics Norway. Poland Data include naturalisations by marriage and acknowledgment of persons of Polish descent, in addition to naturalisation by ordinary procedure. Office for Repatriation and Aliens. Portugal Slovak Republic Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom United States Acquisition of nationality by foreigners living in Portugal. Until 2007, data exclude acquisitions of nationality due to marriage or adoption. Data refer to persons living in Slovak Republic at the time of acquisition. Include all grounds on which the citizenship was obtained. Includes only naturalisations on the ground of residence in Spain. Excludes individuals recovering their former (Spanish) nationality. The large increase in the number of naturalisations in 2013 is due to the Intensive File Processing Nationality Plan (Plan Intensivo de tramitación de expedientes de Nacionalidad) carried out by the Ministry of Justice. The increase in 2009 is partly due to the processing of a backlog of applications filled prior to Data by country of birth refer to fiscal years (October to September of the year indicated). Institute of registers and notarial regulations, Directorate General for Justice Policy (DGPJ). Ministry of the Interior. Internal Administrative Affairs, Migration and Naturalisation Directorate, Ministry of the Interior. Ministry of Employment and Social Security, based on naturalisations registered by the Ministry of Justice. Statistics Sweden. Federal Office of Migration. Ministry of Interior, General Directorate of Population and Citizenship Affairs. Home Office. Department of Homeland Security.

252 222 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.a.em. Employment rates of emigrant workers from the Americas in the United States and the European OECD countries by country of birth and gender, 2008 to 2015 Country of birth Percentages Men Women Antigua and Barbuda nr nr 71 nr nr nr Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela Sources: European OECD countries: European Labor Force Surveys (Eurostat); United States: American Community Surveys. Notes: Data refer to the population aged For the United States, the persons aged 15 were not asked about their employment status; they are considered here as inactive. nr: not reliable

253 PART III Statistical Annex / 223 E.a.un. Unemployment rates of emigrant workers from the Americas in the United States and the European OECD countries by country of birth and gender, 2008 to 2015 Country of birth Percentages Men Women Antigua and Barbuda nr nr nr nr nr nr nr nr Argentina Bahamas nr nr nr nr nr nr nr nr Barbados 9 nr nr nr nr nr nr nr Belize nr nr nr nr nr nr nr nr Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica 4 nr nr nr 7 nr nr nr Cuba Dominica nr nr nr nr 11 nr nr nr Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada nr nr nr nr nr nr nr nr Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama 7 nr 10 nr 6 nr 8 8 Paraguay 12 nr nr Peru Trinidad and Tobago United States 6 nr nr nr 7 nr nr nr Uruguay Venezuela Sources: European OECD countries: European Labor Force Surveys (Eurostat); United States: American Community Surveys. Notes: Data refer to the active population aged For the United States, the persons aged 15 were not asked about their employment status; they are considered here as inactive. nr: not reliable

254 224 / INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS SICREMI 2017 E.a.pr. Participation rates of emigrant workers from the Americas in the United States and the European OECD countries by country of birth and gender, 2008 to 2015 Percentages Country of birth Men Women Antigua and Barbuda nr nr nr nr Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica nr Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela Sources: European OECD countries: European Labor Force Surveys (Eurostat); United States: American Community Surveys. Notes: Data refer to the population aged For the United States, the persons aged 15 were not asked about their employment status; they are considered here as inactive. nr: not reliable

255 PART III Statistical Annex / 225 Metadata related to Tables E.a.em., E.a.un., and E.a.pr. Labor force outcomes of emigrants from the Americas in the United States and Europe Country Defintions Source United States Europe Definitions are based on the definitions of the International Labor Organisation. American Community Survey, United States Census Bureau. European Union Labor Force Survey, Eurostat.

256 17th Street and Constitution Ave., N.W. Washington, D.C., U.S.A This is the fourth annual report of the Continuous Reporting System on International Migration in the Americas (SICREMI, for its acronym in Spanish). The report collects data from diverse sources (censuses, surveys, administrative records, etc.) in order to process and disseminate information regarding the magnitude, trends, and characteristics of international migration in the countries that participated in this report: Argentina, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, United States and Uruguay. The methodology of this report is based on the Permanent Observation System on Migration (or SOPEMI) of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), adjusted to the needs of the region in accordance with a participatory process involving the countries through a network of national correspondents and the participation of national and international organizations working in the field of migration. SICREMI is an initiative of the Organization of American States (OAS) that aims to contribute to the promotion and development of public policies that lead to improved migration management in the Americas through the facilitation of dialogue, cooperation, institutional strengthening and access to information. This publication is available at

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