SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019 A COMPREHENSIVE GLOBAL AUDIT OF PROGRESS ON AVAILABLE SDG16 INDICATORS

Transcription

1 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019 A COMPREHENSIVE GLOBAL AUDIT OF PROGRESS ON AVAILABLE SDG16 S

2 Quantifying Peace and its Benefits The Institute for Economics & Peace (IEP) is an independent, non-partisan, non-profit think tank dedicated to shifting the world s focus to peace as a positive, achievable, and tangible measure of human well-being and progress. IEP achieves its goals by developing new conceptual frameworks to define peacefulness; providing metrics for measuring peace; and uncovering the relationships between business, peace and prosperity as well as promoting a better understanding of the cultural, economic and political factors that create peace. IEP is headquartered in Sydney, with offices in New York, The Hague, Mexico City and Brussels. It works with a wide range of partners internationally and collaborates with intergovernmental organisations on measuring and communicating the economic value of peace. It works with a wide range of partners internationally and collaborates with intergovernmental organisations on measuring and communicating the economic value of peace. For more information visit

3 CONTENTS Executive Summary 02 Key Findings 04 Introduction 05 Section 2: SDG16+ Progress by Indicators 09 Key Findings 09 Methodology 09 SDG16 - Targets and Indicators 13 SDG16+ - Additional Targets and Indicators 21 Section 3: Positive Peace and SDG Key Findings 28 Overview 28 What is Positive Peace? 30 Summary of Analysis of SDG16+ Indicators 34 Goal16 and Goal Goal16+ and Positive Peace 35 Section 4: Measuring SDG16+ Case Studies 41 Key Findings 41 Overview 41 The Data Collection Challenge 42 Case Studies 44 Appendices 55 Endnotes 63 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

4 Executive Summary This report presents the third in a series of yearly reports, produced by the Institute for Economics & Peace on Sustainable Development Goal 16 (SDG16), which measures peace, justice and strong institutions. Experience from the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) shows that development is hindered by low peace and weak institutions. As such, in the United Nations 2030 Agenda on Sustainable Development, SDG16 is considered fundamental to achievements in many of the other SDGs. Building on previous work, this year s report will focus on SDG16+. It covers the practical aspects of what data is available and what sources can currently be used as proxies. The report looks at the likely timeline for obtaining the missing data and the best mechanisms for collecting the data in ten case studies. SDG16+ extends SDG16 to reflect that creating peaceful, just and inclusive societies requires simultaneous efforts in other interlinked SDGs. The broader measures of SDG16+ combines the original SDG16 targets with an additional 24 targets from seven other SDGs, taking the total number of targets to 36. These additional targets are measured by a total of 33 indicators. The main finding of this report is that although there is a clear conceptual link between SDG16 and the additional SDG16+ targets, the empirical link cannot be clearly established. The lack of data offers a potential explanation for this, if more data were available the link may be more easily shown. IEP has conducted a comprehensive data audit finding that of the additional 33 indicators in SDG16+, there is official data for only 15 of these indicators, with only six of these indicators having coverage for more than 100 countries. To assist in filling gaps in the data, IEP provides a number of measures that can be used as substitutes, until the appropriate official data sources are developed. Of the 18 additional SDG16+ indicators that have no official data source, proxy indicators have been found for eleven. These indicators are robust and have coverage ranging from 34 countries to 146 countries, providing the ability to track progress towards meeting SDG16+ commitments within each country. Third party data providers will play a pivotal role in the SDG16+, as it will be many years before adequate mechanisms are in place to officially measure SDG16+. However, even after the national statistical offices have collected enough relevant data, the third party providers will still be important as they will be able to act as independent benchmarks against official country data to determine inconsistencies or irregularities. To highlight the depth of the problem, only four of the 44 measurable SDG16 and SDG16+ indicators have data for all 163 countries tracked by IEP in its Positive Peace Index. Only two indicators have a trend series of five or more years for the 163 countries. With such a paucity of data, it is expected that even highly developed countries will struggle to collect all the necessary indicators for all the SDGs. Less developed countries will have to prioritise the data that is most important for them. Empirical analysis of the available SDG16+ data from official sources finds that only two indicators showed a high and statistically significant relationship with SDG16, while four had moderate significance and nine showed low or no statistical relationship. It is possible that stronger statistical results linking SDG16+ with SDG16 could be obtained if more data was available. Given that empirical analysis of SDG16+ is hindered by data shortages, this report presents IEP s Positive Peace framework as a useful tool to assess progress in lieu of official data sources. The utility of IEP s Positive Peace framework to SDG16+ is twofold. Firstly IEP s Positive Peace Index has data that covers 163 countries and independent territories, 99.7 per cent of the world s population. Secondly, Positive Peace shows a statistically significant relationship with 12 of the 15 SDG16+ indicators, where data is available. Given this, Positive Peace acts as a good proxy to measure the broader systemic approach that SDG16+ is aiming to capture. It can also act as a good benchmark to verify or capture inconsistencies with official country data. As a practical example, this report also includes ten country case studies from multiple regions, each with varying levels of statistical collection capacity and Positive Peace. It highlights that in many cases, existing survey instruments could be modified or extended to collect data for most of the SDG16+ indicators. 2 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

5 The report on measuring SDG16+ is divided into four sections: Background on SDG16 and SDG16+ Section 1 looks at the importance of SDG16 within the broader SDG context, by examining the role that conflict and violence has played in inhibiting development. It also outlines the SDG16+ framework and the overlap between SDG16+ and IEP s concepts of Negative Peace and Positive Peace. Section 2 gives an overview of the indicators and data availability in the SDG16+ framework. Many indicators have unclear definitions or no available data. In these cases, IEP has used proxy indicators, where appropriate. Section 2 also examines indicator performance, where possible, and gives a brief outline of data trends. Section 3 explores the links between SDG16, the additional targets and indicators in SDG16+, and IEP s concept of Positive Peace. The research finds that IEP s Positive Peace framework could be a useful tool for measuring progress on the SDGs while statistical capacity is still being developed. Section 4 outlines case studies for ten countries across multiple regions, each with varying levels of statistical collection capacity. It highlights that in many cases, existing survey instruments could be modified or extended to collect data for most of the SDG16+ indicators. The SDGs, while being more representative of developing states priorities, almost quadruple the number of indicators that need to be collected, when compared to the MDGs. There is a consensus that even the wealthiest nations will struggle to be able to report on all indicators in a timely fashion. Despite vast amounts of attention paid to measuring and monitoring the SDG16 indicators, little attention has been paid to the practicalities of data collection. With lower statistical capacities, fragile and conflictaffected countries will struggle in obtaining the necessary data to effectively measure SDG16+. SDG16 captures indicators relating to peace, justice and strong institutions. However, there is growing acknowledgment that many of the SDGs are contingent on the success of other goals. In response to this, SDG16+ has been developed as a more complete framework of all targets connected with peace, justice and inclusive societies. SDG16+ adds an additional 24 targets from seven other goals to SDG16. [[ SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

6 Key Findings Data availability remains a significant issue for SDG16+. Just four of the 44 indicators have data available for all 163 countries tracked by IEP in its Positive Peace Index. Only two indicators have a trend series of five or more years for 163 countries. Official data is available for only 15 of the additional 33 SDG16+ indicators. Of the remaining 18 indicators, IEP has identified proxy measures for eleven. Of the ten case study countries chosen by IEP, only two had data for more than 75 per cent of the SDG16+ indicators. Many had data points that had not been updated for up to ten years. Most countries have plans in place to improve data collection. Seven of the ten case study countries are currently implementing or have previously implemented National Statistical Development Strategies (NSDS). IEP estimates that it will be at least five years before data becomes available for many of the missing indicators for many countries, third party data suppliers can act as proxies till National Statistical Office (NSO) collect the necessary data. Third party data suppliers will also act as an independent reference point to NSO data helping to locate inconsistencies. Most countries could collect the majority of extra data using extensions to existing surveys. In particular, Demographic Health Surveys (DHS) could be extended to cover a high percentage of outstanding SDG16+ indicators. Statistical Finding for SDG16+ and Positive Peace Index Despite the conceptual link between SDG16 and the SDG16+ indicators, the empirical link cannot be clearly established. The statistical link between SDG16+ and Positive Peace is much clearer. The overall Positive Peace index correlates with 12 of the 15 SDG16+ indicators where data is available. The strong empirical link between the SDG16+ indicators and Positive Peace reinforces the validity of the SDG16+ framework. It also highlights that progress on Positive Peace is a useful proxy for measuring peaceful, just, and inclusive societies, especially in the absence of adequate data. 4 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

7 SDG16+: An Introduction Key Findings Violence and conflict have frustrated previous attempts to measure development. Low-income, fragile and conflictaffected countries recorded lower levels of Millennium Development Goal (MDGs) achievement. Countries that are fragile and conflict-affected have much lower statistical capacity than all other countries. As a result, they undertake fewer surveys, less frequently and with less methodological rigour. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) position peace as a critical component to achieving sustainable development, recognising the impact that conflict and instability have on inhibiting development. Acknowledging that many of the SDGs are contingent on the success of other goals has resulted in the development of SDG16+. SDG16+ is a more complete framework of all targets connected with peace, justice and inclusive societies. SDG16+ adds an additional 24 targets from seven other goals to SDG16. Five of the 12 targets for SDG16 are not currently being measured by any countries. This increases to 10 for SDG16+. Third party producers of data will be required to fill this gap as these indicators are being developed. This may take many years. On 1 January 2016, the 17 SDGs of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted by the UN Member States in September 2015 officially came into effect. The SDGs attempt to provide an overarching, comprehensive and integrated framework for global action on a vast range of critical issues for the next 15 years. The 17 SDGs include 169 targets and have been agreed to through a collaborative process over several years. Introduction The conclusion of the MDGs in 2015 led to the transition to the SDGs. The transition resulted in a shift away from an exclusive focus on a specific subset of development measures, to a focus on the integrated factors that are integral to development outcomes. The SDGs position peace as a critical component to achieving sustainable development, recognising the impacts that conflict and instability have on inhibiting development. The SDGs and specifically SDG16 aim to promote peace, justice, inclusion, and reduce the consequences of conflict and violence on development. The SDGs are coming into their fourth year and with that, two gatherings of the High-Level Political Forum (HLPF) will take place in The first meeting will take place in July with the focus on Empowering people and ensuring inclusiveness and equality ; six goals will be the primary discussion, one of those six being SDG16. The second meeting will take place in September 2019 to review all 17 SDGs. The SDGs call for a global, integrated approach to development. Acknowledging that many of the SDGs are contingent on the success of other goals. This has resulted in the development of SDG16+ by Pathfinders. 1 SDG16+ aims to develop SDG16 into a more holistic goal in line with the idea that the achievement of SDG16 requires simultaneous efforts to achieve other, interlinked SDGs. The central themes of SDG16 are peaceful, just and inclusive societies. SDG16 cannot be attained without the success of other goals linked to these themes. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

8 Therefore, SDG16+ is a more complete framework of all targets connected with peace, justice and inclusive societies. SDG16+ adds an additional 24 targets from seven other goals to SDG16. The result is SDG16+, a goal that contains 36 targets that if achieved will better promote peace, justice, inclusion and sustainable development. The approach of SDG16+ to measure violence, drivers of violence, governance, equality and justice are highly compatible with IEP s research, which addresses both Negative and Positive Peace. SDG16+ is a measure of key aspects of both Negative Peace, which is defined as the absence of violence or the fear of violence, as well as some aspects of Positive Peace, which is defined as the attitudes, institutions and structures that create and sustain peaceful societies. IEP has been studying both Negative and Positive Peace since 2008 and measures them in the Global Peace Index and the Positive Peace Index respectively. Unlike the SDGs, which were derived through consensus, IEP s Positive Peace framework has been developed through rigorous statistical analysis and can be viewed as a broad framework to enable an environment conducive to the development of the SDGs. Why SDG16? Since the MDGs were agreed upon in the year 2000, there has been a shift in the thinking about measuring development, away from an exclusive focus on development outcomes to factors that are integrally related to development. In particular, there is greater recognition of the role that violence, conflict and insecurity plays in constraining development. The 2011 World Development Report by the World Bank acknowledged that insecurity and conflict is a major development challenge and can set back many development gains. 2 Higher levels of violence greatly affect economic development by reducing foreign direct investment and the broader macroeconomic environment. This affects poverty, economic development, life expectancy and education outcomes, as well as indicators which are essential for longer-term development such as infant mortality and access to services. Everyday interpersonal violence, which SDG16+ also measures, affects all countries and has detrimental social and economic impacts. Even in high income countries interpersonal violence severely impacts human wellbeing and socio-economic progress. This underscores the universality of the SDG16+ and its applicability to all countries and the other SDGs. Low socio-economic development can support the conditions for violence, but it is also a consequence of violence. The two are mutually affective, forming either a virtuous cycle of improvement or a vicious cycle of deterioration. Losses from armed conflict alone in 2017 were estimated by IEP to be nearly US$1.02 trillion in PPP terms. The cost of violence to the global economy was estimated by IEP to be $14.8 trillion or 12.4 per cent of global gross domestic product (GDP). BOX 1.1 Understanding the SDG16+ Indicators There are 36 targets for SDG16+, which become 56 indicators in total. However, and are measured globally and not disaggregated by country. These indicators are therefore omitted. Removing and allows for 54 indicators that are measured at the national level. Of these 54 indicators, 10 have no official data or suitable proxy. As a result, 44 indicators are reviewed in this report. Why Measure Peace? The Effect of Conflict & Violence on Achieving the MDGs A major finding from reviewing MDG progress was the role that violence and conflict had in severely impacting development progress in many countries. 3 Low-income fragile and conflictaffected countries recorded lower levels of MDG achievement. Through SDG16, the SDGs recognise the long-reaching consequences of conflict and violence on development outcomes. At the conclusion of the MDGs, 33 states had been identified as fragile or in conflict situations by the World Bank. This included countries currently in conflict such as Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria. It also included countries that are fragile, but not in conflict. However, they have had conflicts historically, or are politically unstable, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cote d Ivoire and Kosovo. 4 These fragile and conflict-affected countries achieved significantly less progress than other developing countries in the MDGs, as shown in Figure 1.1. On average, only 16 per cent of these countries met or made progress on their MDG targets whereas all other countries, on average achieved over 40 per cent. Fragile and conflict-affected countries were off target or had no data on average for 22 of the 33 countries. 6 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

9 PROPORTION OF COUNTRIES FIGURE 1.1 Average progress in MDGs for fragile and conflict countries vs developing countries Fragile and conflict-affected countries were less likely to meet MDG targets or not have data compared to the global average of all other countries 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Off target or no data Some progress Met target or progress Fragile and conflict affected countries Source: World Bank, IEP calculations Off target or no data Some progress Met target or progress Other countries MDG indicators for which the majority of fragile and conflictaffected countries recorded the poorest results, were those that addressed child mortality, maternal health and environmental sustainability. No conflict-affected country achieved the goal of reducing by two-thirds the under-five mortality rate between 1990 and Additionally, many of the fragile and conflictaffected countries have difficulty in maintaining the necessary systems to adequately capture the data. This can lead to poor quality data, resulting in situations appearing worse or better than what they are. The MDG process demonstrated the difficulties related to building capacity to capture relevant data for the goals, as shown in Figure 1.2. The first MDG aimed to halve the proportion of people whose income is less than $1.25 a day by However, in 2015 half of all countries did not have the minimum of two data points required to assess progress across time. As well as conflict, interpersonal violence has a large impact on development outcomes. For example, the economic impact of homicide in 2017 was approximately $2.45 trillion constant 2017 PPP. Countries that are fragile and conflictaffected have much lower statistical capacity than all other countries. This means they undertake fewer surveys, less frequently and with less methodological rigour as shown in Figure 1.2. FIGURE 1.2 Statistical capacity in conflict, fragile, and stable countries Countries that are fragile and conflict-affected have much lower statistical capacity than all other countries Measurement challenges The SDGs whilst being more representative of developing states priorities, almost quadruple the number of indicators compared to the MDGs. There is a consensus that even the wealthiest nations will be unable to report on all indicators in time. 5 STATISTICAL CAPACITY SCORE High Capacity Low Capacity Conflict countries Source: World Bank, IEP calculations Fragile countries Non-conflict or Fragile countries The Global Partnership for Sustainable Development Data s recommendation for data collection highlights the high volume of surveys and census data needed to accurately track the progress of the SDGs. Three tiers have been developed by the Inter-agency and Expert Group (IAEG), based on their methodological development and data availability: Tier I indicators are conceptually clear, have an internationally established methodology and the data is regularly produced by countries for at least 50 per cent of countries. Tier II indicators are conceptually clear, have an internationally established methodology and standards available, but data is not regularly produced by countries. Tier III means there is no internationally established methodology or standards yet available for the indicator, but methodologies and standards are being, or will be, developed or tested in the future. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

10 It was expected that by the end of 2017 the methodological work for many Tier III indicators would be completed. However, there are still 41 indicators still classified as Tier III at the time of writing this report. In total, there are 232 indicators to measure the 17 SDGs. 6 The Tier III indicators make up less than 20 per cent of all SDG indicators. It will take some countries many years to implement these methodologies within their data collection systems. Five of the 12 SDG16 targets are classified as Tier III. This increases to ten Tier III targets for SDG16+ as displayed in Figure 1.3. Third party producers of data will be required to fill this gap as these Tier III indicators are being developed. This is particularly true in lower income countries where national statistics offices have lower levels of statistical capacity. FIGURE 1.3 Tier distribution for SDG16+ targets Ten targets from SDG16+ have no internationally established methodology or standards Tier I Tier II Tier III Number of targets relevant Source: IEP 8 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

11 SDG16+ Progress by Indicator Key Findings Data is available for 44 of the 56 indicators in SDG16+. Of those 44, 24 have officially recognised data sources. IEP has identified proxy variables for the remaining 20. On average, each SDG16+ indicator has 98 countries that report data. For SDG16 indicators, this number increases to 106 countries. Nine indicators had data for less than 50 of the 163 countries monitored in this report. Nine of the 44 indicators have only one year of data, therefore progress or trends cannot be calculated. Data availability remains a significant issue for SDG16+. Just four of the 44 indicators have data available for all 163 countries tracked by IEP. Of these, only two indicators have a trend series of five or more years for 163 countries. Methodology The purpose of this section is as follows: To audit the existing stock of data and note where comparable national statistics office (NSO) data is not available. Propose proxy data can be used to fill this gap. To rate country performance on each indicator relative to other countries and to set appropriate benchmarks for performance in future years. To track the trends for each indicator where time series data exists, in order to see if countries are moving towards or away from the targets mentioned above. To source data from civil society organisations to act as a check against official NSO data. Indicators 16.8 and 10.6 measure the Proportion of members and voting rights of developing countries in international organisations. As these do not apply at the national level, but globally, they are excluded in this analysis. BOX 2.1 Source selection Where possible, IEP has used data sources identified by the IAEG and the Global SDG Indicators Database on SDG indicators. However, the IAEG and Global SDG Indicators Database only identified data sources and methodologies for 24 of the 44 indicators that are contained within SDG16+. Where an IAEG or Global SDG Indicators Database source was not identified, IEP used sources identified either by the SDG Data Initiative or from a review process carried out by the IEP research team. For each of these unofficial sources, the focus was on finding a proxy variable that most closely matched the SDG indicator description, balanced against finding an indicator with comparable data for a meaningful amount of countries. Overall, IEP can report on 44 of 56 indicators sourced either from IAEG and the Global SDG Indicators Database or by proxy. Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 summarises the level of data availability for each indicator. IEP has omitted 12 indicators due to lack of comparable data, the indicator is a global measure, or no suitable proxy based on the criteria mentioned above. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

12 TABLE 2.1 SDG16 indicators, coverage, and source Target/ Indicator Title Official Indicator IEP Proxy No Official Indicator or Proxy 2018 Report # Countries 16.1 REDUCE ALL FORMS OF VIOLENCE Intentional Homicide Conflict Related Deaths Victims of Violence Safe Walking Alone END ALL FORMS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN Violence Against Children Human Trafficking Sexual Violence Against Young People PROMOTE ACCESS TO JUSTICE THE RULE OF LAW Underreporting of Violence Unsentenced Prisoners REDUCE ILLICIT FINANCIAL AND ARMS FLOWS Illicit Financial Flows Arms Tracking REDUCE CORRUPTION AND BRIBERY Corruption (Citizens) Corruption (Business) DEVELOP EFFECTIVE, ACCOUNTABLE AND TRANSPARENT INSTITUTIONS Responsible Budget Spending Satisfaction with Public Services RESPONSIVE, INCLUSIVE, AND REPRESENTATIVE DECISION-MAKING Representative Politics Inclusive Decision Making COUNTRY REPRESENTATION IN THE GLOBAL INSTITUTIONS Country Voting Rights in International Organisations PROVIDE LEGAL IDENTITY FOR ALL Birth Registration PUBLIC ACCESS TO INFORMATION AND PROTECT FUNDAMENTAL FREEDOMS Violence Against Journalists Public Access to Information A STRENGTHEN INSTITUTIONS TO PREVENT VIOLENCE 16.a.1 National Human Rights Institutions B PROMOTE NON-DISCRIMINATORY LAWS AND POLICIES 16.b.1 Discrimination SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

13 TABLE 2.2 SDG16+ indicators, coverage, and source, plus indicators only Target/ Indicator Title Official Indicator IEP Proxy No Official Indicator or Proxy 2018 Report # Countries 1.b CREATE SOUND PRO-POOR AND GENDER-SENSITIVE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES 1.b.1 Social Spending ELIMINATE EDUCATION DISPARITIES Parity Indices for Education PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Education on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedom 0 4.a ENSURE INCLUSIVE AND EFFECTIVE EDUCATION FACILITIES 4.a.1 Education Access and Facilities END ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST FEMALES Non-discrimination Against Females ELIMINATE ALL FORMS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST FEMALES Women Subjected to Violence by a Current or Former Intimate Partner Women Subjected to Violence by Persons Other Than an Intimate Partner ELIMINATE HARMFUL CHILD PRACTICES Child Marriage Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN Gender Equality in Gender Equality in Managerial Positions 70 5.c THE PROMOTION OF GENDER EQUALITY 5.c.1 Monitoring of Gender Equality FULL, FAIR AND PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYMENT Wages of Female and Male Employees Unemployment Rate ERADICATE FORCED LABOUR, MODERN SLAVERY AND HUMAN TRAFFICKING Child Labour SAFE AND SECURE WORKING ENVIRONMENTS 8.8.1a Fatal Occupational Injuries b Non-fatal Occupational Injuries Higher Levels of Economic Productivity Through Diversification, Technological Upgrading and Innovation SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL INCLUSION OF ALL Social, Economic and Political Inclusion of All ENSURE EQUAL OPPORTUNITY AND REDUCE INEQUALITIES OF OUTCOME Ensure Equal Opportunity and Reduce Inequalities 24 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

14 10.4 ADOPT FISCAL, WAGE AND SOCIAL PROTECTION POLICIES Labour Share of GDP IMPROVE THE REGULATION AND MONITORING OF FINANCIAL MARKETS Regulated Financial Markets COUNTRY REPRESENTATION IN THE GLOBAL INSTITUTIONS Country Voting Rights in International Organisations FACILITATE ORDERLY, SAFE, AND RESPONSIBLE MOBILITY OF PEOPLE Recruitment Cost Well-managed Migration Policies ACCESS TO SAFE AND AFFORDABLE HOUSING AND BASIC SERVICES Population Living in Slums ACCESS TO SAFE, AFFORDABLE, ACCESSIBLE AND SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT SYSTEMS Access to Public Transport INCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE URBANIZATION Inclusive and Sustainable Human Settlement Planning and Management Civil Society Participation in Urban Planning ACCESS TO SAFE, INCLUSIVE AND ACCESSIBLE PUBLIC SPACES Access to Safe, Inclusive and Accessible Public Spaces STRENGTHEN DOMESTIC RESOURCE MOBILIZATION TO IMPROVE DOMESTIC CAPACITY Total Revenue as a Proportion of GDP Domestic Budget Funded by Domestic Taxes PROMOTE MULTILATERAL TRADE Worldwide Weighted Tariff Average 155 RATINGS Where possible for each indicator, IEP has divided the range of possible values into three ratings: good, fair, and poor. The rating bands for each indicator were set based upon a review of the variance of the data, as well as a review of the appropriate academic literature on each target area. Where possible trend data has been assessed by looking at the period 2005 to 2018 and taking the earliest and latest available data points for each country. 12 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

15 SDG16 Targets and Indicators TARGET Intentional Homicide Number of victims of intentional homicide per 100,000 population, by sex and age. Source: UN Office on Drugs and Crime s International Homicide Statistics database (UNODC), World Bank database Definition: Intentional homicides is characterised by three components: 1. The killing of one person by another person 2. The perpetrator intends to kill or seriously injure the victim 3. The intentional killing is against the law. 100% 77% All 163 countries monitored by IEP have at least one intentional homicide data point between 2005 and 2017, with 162 having at least two data points which facilitates trend analysis, and 133 (approximately 82 per cent) having five or more data points. Since 2005, 125 countries have reduced the number of intentional homicides. Only 37 countries have had an increase in their homicide level Conflict-Related Deaths Conflict-related deaths per 100,000 population, by sex, age and cause. Source: Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP)/ Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) Armed Conflict Database. Definition: As there is no official data source for this indicator, IEP has used internal conflict deaths from the UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Database, v18.1. A conflict is defined as the use of force between two armed parties that results in at least 25 battle-related deaths in a year. There are some outstanding issues relating to differentiating between an intentional homicide and a conflict-related death, particularly in countries with protracted civil unrest that borders on open conflict. 100% 10% Owing to the rarity of open civil conflict, the vast majority of countries recorded no deaths from conflict in the past decade. In 2017, 32 countries recorded conflict-related deaths, a decrease from 34 in Since 2005, 16 countries have decreased the number of conflict-related deaths, whereas 28 countries increased the number of conflict-related deaths. Of the 163 countries monitored, 119 countries recorded no change in the number of conflict-related deaths since Victims of Violence The proportion of the population subjected to physical, psychological or sexual violence in the previous 12 months. Source: Afrobarometer Definition: As there is no official source of data, IEP used a question from the Afrobarometer survey. The full wording of the Afrobarometer question is: During the past year, have you or anyone in your family: Been physically attacked? This question does not include psychological or sexual violence, both of which are part of the official indicator definition. Finding comparable violent crime or victimisation data is particularly difficult, owing to differences in the definition of violent crime and the way it is collected across the world. Survey data is one alternative. However, differences in the wording of questions related to victimisation makes comparison difficult, as does cultural differences relating to the interpretation and honesty of answers. There is an international crime victimisation survey. However, it is sporadically updated and the number of countries covered is quite low. IEP chose to use the Afrobarometer survey data as it provides the best comparable data on violent crime victimisation, albeit only for African nations. It is likely that many more countries have appropriate victimisation data. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

16 77% TARGET % 44% Afrobarometer has conducted multiple rounds of this survey question. The latest round was in 2017 in which Afrobarometer surveyed 24 countries. Since the asking of this question in 2006, 34 countries in total have been surveyed. In total, 34 countries have two or more years of data. However, no country has five or more years worth of data. The trend analysis shows that 15 countries have improved whereas 18 countries have worsened Safe Walking Alone Proportion of people that feel safe walking alone around in the area they live. Source: Gallup World Poll Definition: As there is no official suggested source of data for this indicator, IEP has used a question from the Gallup World Poll (GWP) that most closely matches the indicator question. The full wording of the GWP question is: Do you feel safe walking alone at night in the city or neighbourhood where you live? Violence Against Children The proportion of children aged 10% one to 17 years who experienced any physical punishment and/or psychological aggression by caregivers in the past month. Source: UNICEF global databases based on Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) and Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) and other nationally representative surveys. Definition: While the official definition looks at children aged from one to 17 years, the official data source has data for children aged two to 14 years. The definition of physical and/or 21% psychological aggression 44% includes yelling and screaming at a child, belittling them and attempting to cause physical pain and discomfort, but not injuries. 43% 96% 3% 34% 54% 96% 34% PERFORMANCE 54% Out of the 163 countries monitored by IEP, 156 have data for this indicator, with 153 having at least two years of data, and 132 countries having five or more years of data in the past decade. This level of data coverage allows for meaningful trend analysis of perceptions of safety and security across the world. The trend analysis shows that 85 countries have improved, while 63 countries have worsened and 34 per cent of countries with data are rated as having a good rating for this indicator, meaning that over 70 per cent of people feel safe walking alone at night in their city or neighbourhood. There are nine countries with poor rating for this indicator, meaning that less than 40 per cent of respondents felt safe. Data is available for 70 countries monitored by IEP. Only two countries have more than one year of data. Both of the countries have reduced their level of violence against children Human Trafficking Number of victims of human trafficking per 100,000 population, 43% by sex, age and 3% form of exploitation. Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Definition: The indicator measuring human trafficking uses data from the UNODC on the number of victims of human trafficking, recorded in the country where their status was detected, rather than their country of origin. 60% 33% Data is available for 97 of the 163 countries, with 88 of those countries having at least two years of data and 33 countries having five or more years of data between 2005 and Since 2005, 32 countries have lowered their levels of human 28% 24% trafficking while 27 have seen increased levels. 14 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

17 Sexual Violence Against Children The proportion of young women and men aged between 18 and 29 years who experienced sexual violence by age 18. Source: UNICEF Definition: Although the official indicator description looks at those aged between 18 and 29 who experienced sexual violence by age 18, the only available data for this indicator looks at lifetime prevalence of sexual abuse for young men and women aged 15 to 19. Data is available for both men and women, but owing to the fact that data for men was only available for four countries, the data reported here is only for women aged 15 to % 24% As the data for this indicator is collected through MICS or DHS, there is relatively poor coverage, with only 46 countries having comparable data. The most recent data for this indicator comes from 2016, and only 13 countries have two or more data points. Comparing the trend of the available 13 countries shows that 11 countries have improved and two countries have worsened. 20% 19% 0% PERFORMANCE Data is available for 32 African countries with only a single year of data during 2013 available. As a result, trend analysis cannot be conducted. Of those countries with data, only six had a good rating, meaning that more than 60 per cent of incidents were reported to the police. Six countries also received a poor rating for this indicator, meaning that 30 per cent or less of all violent incidents were reported to the police Unsentenced Prisoners Unsentenced detainees as a proportion of the overall prison population. Source: UNODC Definition: The indicator measuring unsentenced prisoners looks at the percentage of total detainees who have not yet been sentenced. This does not include those who have been sentenced, but are currently appealing their sentence. It does not take into account the length of pre-trial detention and at this stage cannot be disaggregated by age or gender. TARGET % 21% 62% Underreporting of Violence Proportion of victims of violence in the previous 12 months who reported their victimisation to competent authorities or other officially recognised conflict resolution mechanisms. Source: Afrobarometer Definition: Similar to indicator , there is no official data source and multiple sources which collect the underreporting of violence for a single country or a small group of countries. The Afrobarometer question: Did you report the incident to the police? was used as it provided the greatest level of country coverage, albeit only for African nations. This indicator was last asked in round five of the surveys, this took place between 2011 and It is likely that many more countries have data on the underreporting of violent incidents to the proper authorities, either through similar survey instruments or through national level crime victimisation surveys. Efforts are currently being undertaken by the World Bank to collect and harmonise crime victimisation surveys across the globe, which will allow much broader analysis in the years to come. PERFORMANCE Data is available for 149 countries, with 137 having at least two data points from 2005 to 2017 and 95 countries having five or more data points over this period. Values for this indicator vary greatly from country to country, with a low to high range of five per cent to 90 per cent. There are 31 countries with a rate lower than 15 per cent, meaning that they are rated as good by IEP. There are 62 countries with a rate higher than 35 per cent, which equates to a poor rating by IEP. A number of other countries that had significant fluctuations in the percentage of unsentenced detainees, with 92 countries reducing the rate and 45 increasing the rate of unsentenced prisoners. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

18 TARGET 16.4 TARGET Illicit Financial Flows The total value of inward and outward illicit financial flows in current United States dollars. Source: Global Financial Integrity Definition: Illicit financial flows are measured in millions of nominal US dollars and are defined as illegal capital outflows stemming from tax evasion, the proceeds of crime, corruption, and other illicit activity. 77% Data for this indicator is taken from a report by Global Financial Integrity. The report looked at the aggregated illicit financial flows from 2004 to Only one aggregated score of data is available and covers 125 countries. As a result, trend analysis cannot be conducted Corruption (Citizens) The proportion of persons who had at least one contact with a public official and who paid a bribe to a public official, or were asked for a bribe by those public officials, during the previous 12 months. Source: Transparency International, Global Corruption Barometer Definition: While there is an official source for indicator that looks at business dealing with government corruption. Citizen to citizen corruption is not included in the survey. The Global Corruption Barometer, produced by Transparency International, has a very similar question which asks: Have you paid a bribe to any of the six services listed in the past 12 months?. However, this question addresses actual instances of bribery, whereas the official indicator description asks for instances of paying a bribe or being asked to pay a bribe. Owing to methodological changes in how Transparency International asked the question, the 2013 and the 2015 to 2016 results are not comparable. Therefore, the trend could not be calculated. The latter survey round asks whether a bribe was paid to six services, whereas the earlier round asked the question for eight services Arms Trafficking Proportion of seized small arms and light weapons that are recorded and traced, in accordance with international standards and legal instruments Source: UNODC Definition: The official indicator description calls for small arms and light weapons to be not only recorded but also traced, in accordance with international standards. This indicator measures the annual rate of firearms seized by police per 100,000 people, rather than the percentage seized that are recorded and traced. 19% 32% 66% 22% PERFORMANCE 0% Data is available for 108 countries of the 163 IEP monitor. Of the countries with data, 22 per cent have ratings of good for this indicator, meaning that less than ten per cent of survey respondents paid a bribe to a government service in the last 12 months. Alternatively, 48 per cent of the countries scored poor for the indicator. An indicator was considered poor if 25 per cent of those surveyed responded with having paid a bribe. Data was only available for 31 countries, with 24 having at least two data points between 2010 and Of those countries with two or more years of data, ten reduced their level of arms trafficking whereas 13 increased their level of arms trafficking. 16 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

19 Corruption (Business) The proportion of businesses that had at least one contact with a public official and that paid a bribe to a public official or were asked for a bribe by those public officials during the previous 12 months. Source: World Bank, Enterprise Surveys Definition: The official data source for this indicator are the enterprise surveys carried out by the World Bank. However, the question asked in the enterprise survey does not exactly match the official indicator description. 73% 52% PERFORMANCE 46% Data for this indicator was available for 119 of the 163 countries IEP monitor. The data was collected sporadically from 2006 to Trend analysis is possible as 55 per cent of the countries monitored by IEP have two or more years of data for this indicator. The trend analysis shows that 55 countries improved, whereas 34 countries worsened. There were 62 countries that received a rating of good for this indicator, meaning that less than ten per cent of businesses felt that paying a bribe to a government official was expected. On the other hand, 23 countries received a rating of poor, meaning that more than 25 per cent of businesses felt that paying a bribe to a government official was expected. 54% 96% 27% PERFORMANCE 24% PEFA has data for 88 of 163 countries, with 59 countries having at least two data points since There are 24 countries that received the highest score of one, indicating expenditure within five per cent of the budgeted target. On the contrary, 19 countries received the worst possible score of four. Since 2005, 21 countries improved, 23 worsened and 44 remained unchanged Satisfaction with Public Services The proportion of the population satisfied with their last experience of public services. Source: Gallup World Poll Definition: IEP has used the average of two questions from the Gallup World Poll to construct data for this indicator, both of which ask survey respondents how satisfied they are with two different public services including education and health care, in their local area. 26% 48% TARGET 16.6 PERFORMANCE Responsible Budget Spending Primary government expenditures as a proportion of the original approved budget, by sector or by budget code or similar. Source: Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability (PEFA) Definition: PEFA looks at whether actual government expenditure matches planned government budget expenditure, using a one to four scoring system. The closer a country is to matching actual budgeted spending, the better the score. If a country is within five per cent of either deficit or surplus it receives a score of one. If a country misses its budget targets by more than 15 per cent, it receives the worst possible score of four. This is not an official indicator source and does not allow for expenditure to be disaggregated by sector at this stage. Data for this indicator was available for 157 of 163 countries IEP monitors, with 153 having at least two years of data and 135 having five or more years of data. For this indicator, 41 countries received a score as good, meaning that the average level of satisfaction for both education and healthcare was over 70 per cent whereas only 19 countries received a score as poor indicating a score below 40 per cent. The trend analysis shows that 48 per cent of the countries improved their populations reported level of satisfaction with public services whereas 47 per cent of countries worsened. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

20 TARGET Representative Politics Proportions of positions by sex, age, persons with disabilities and population groups in public institutions, including national and local legislatures, public service, and judiciary, compared to national distributions. Source: Varieties of Democracy (VDEM) Variable Equal Access Index Definition: As there is currently no official indicator source for , IEP is using the Equal Access Index from the VDEM database. This indicator looks at the distribution of power by socio-economic status, social grouping and gender. A score of one indicates a country with complete equal access to power. This indicator differs from the official definition, however, it is the closest match to the official indicator description. 100% TARGET % PERFORMANCE 57% Data is available for all countries of the 163 included in the research for every year from 2005 to IEP rated 29 per cent of the countries as good indicating a score above 1.2. Only, nine countries received a rating of poor for this indicator. Data is available for the years between 2005 and Since 2005, 57 per cent of countries improved while 43 per cent of countries worsened. 100% 31% PERFORMANCE 47% Data availability is very strong for this indicator, with 163 countries having available data and all 163 having at least five years worth of data as well. However, it is a qualitatively constructed score and not analogous to a survey instrument like many of the other indicators in SDG16. Fifty countries have a score of higher than 0.8, which means they receive a rating of good for this indicator. There are 42 countries that receive a rating of poor, as they have a score lower than Since 2005, 47 per cent of countries improved their equal access index score while 53 per cent of countries worsened Inclusive Decision Making The proportion of the population who believe decisionmaking is inclusive and responsive, by sex, age, disability and population group. Source: Varieties of Democracy (VDEM) Vertical Accountability Index Definition: The official indicator description calls for an indicator that surveys the population on their belief in the inclusiveness and responsiveness of the political decision making process. As comparable survey data for enough countries is not available, IEP has used the VDEM Vertical Accountability Index as a proxy measure of inclusive decision making. The Vertical Accountability Index captures the extent to which citizens have the power to hold the government accountable, which is much more likely to lead to inclusive decision making. It is another qualitatively constructed indicator and not based on an actual survey instrument Birth Registration The proportion of children under five years of age whose births have been registered with a civil authority, by age. Source: UNICEF Definition: Number of children under the age of five whose births are reported as being registered with the relevant national civil authorities, divided by the total number of children under the age of five in the population. 90% 60% PERFORMANCE 44% Birth registration data is available for 147 countries, collected between 2005 and Majority of these countries have more than two data points for this time period. However, only two countries have more than five data points. Of the 147 countries, 88 have a birth registration above 90 per cent, a score considered good by IEP. Furthermore, 65 countries have a birth registration above 99 per cent. At the other end of the scale, only 19 countries have a birth registration rate of less than 50 per cent, a score considered poor by IEP. Based on the latest available data, 44 per cent of countries had improved on their earliest year, whereas 17 countries worsened. 18 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

21 TARGET Violence Against Journalists Number of verified cases of killing, kidnapping, enforced disappearance, arbitrary detention and torture of journalists, associated media personnel, trade unionists and human rights advocates in the previous 12 months. Source: Committee to Protect Journalists Definition: Comparable data is only available for the number of journalist and media workers killed, with data on trade unionists being unavailable. Furthermore, data on torture and arbitrary detention is not available. 49% Data is available for 102 countries, with all 102 having at least two years of data and no country having five or more years of data. Only five countries are rated as good on this indicator, meaning they have a score of over 0.8, with 92 countries being rated as fair, and five rated as poor meaning they have a score of below 0.3. In total, 52 countries have improved whereas 50 countries have worsened. In March 2019, the Centre for Law and Democracy (CLD), in partnership with UNESCO, the custodian agency for , commenced preliminary data collection exercises on implementation of right to information (RTI) laws. Building on CLD s RTI Rating, which provides an assessment of all national RTI laws, this work will evaluate whether countries have ensured proper implementation of existing RTI laws. The pilot of this assessment will be rolled out in 2019 in 43 of the 51 countries which have agreed to submit Voluntary National Reviews of their progress towards the SDGs. 7 TARGET 16.A At least one point of data is available for 49 per cent of the countries monitored by IEP, with 31 per cent of countries having more than two data points, and 12 per cent of countries with more than five data points. The data ranges from 2005 to The trend analysis here is not applicable as are many years have no data recorded Public Access to Information Number of countries that adopt and implement constitutional, statutory and/or policy guarantees for public access to information. Source: World Justice Project Definition: IEP uses the Right to Information domain for the World Justice Project s Open Index. A separate methodology matching the official indicator description has been developed, but no data has been collected in accordance with this methodology as of The Right to Information domain is scored from zero to one, where one is equal to the best possible score. 16.a.1 Human Rights Institutions The existence of independent national human rights institutions in compliance with the Paris Principles. Source: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) Definition: The indicator measuring human rights institutions examines whether countries comply with the Paris Principles, which cover five areas related to human rights monitoring by official institutions. A country in full compliance will receive a rating of good, countries that are partially compliant or for whom not enough information is available receive the middle rating and those countries not in compliance with the Paris Principles receive a rating 67% 68% 0% PERFORMANCE 63% 5% 51% PERFORMANCE of poor. Data for this indicator is available for 109 countries, with all 109 countries having at least two years of data. The trend analysis is not possible as there has been no change in the countries monitored. Of the countries with data for this indicator, 74 are fully compliant with the Paris Principles, 30 are partially compliant and only five are non-compliant. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

22 TARGET 16.B PROMOTE AND ENFORCE NON-DISCRIMINATION 16.b.1 Discrimination The proportion of population reporting having personally felt discriminated against or harassed in the previous 12 months on the basis of a ground of discrimination prohibited under international human rights law. Source: Eurobarometer Definition: As with other survey-based indicators with no official data source, there are multiple possible sources and proxy indicators that cover some aspect of the official indicator definition. However, they are generally only harmonised for a small percentage of countries. IEP used a question from the Eurobarometer survey, worded as follows: In the past 12 months have you personally felt discriminated against or harassed on one or more of the following grounds: Ethnic origin, sexual orientation, disability, age, religion or belief, gender?. 16% 4% This question was most recently asked in the 2015 round of the Eurobarometer. However, it has been absent in the more recent Eurobarometer survey rounds. As Eurobarometer only survey European countries, data was only available for 26 of the 163 countries included in IEP reporting. The level of discrimination overall has worsened in Europe, with 24 countries having higher levels of discrimination from the 2008 survey. Only one of the countries surveyed improved. 20 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

23 SDG16+ Additional Targets and Indicators TARGET 1.B TARGET b.1 Social Spending The proportion of government recurrent and capital spending to sectors that disproportionately benefit women, the poor and vulnerable groups. Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Definition: No comparable data for this indicator is currently available and the methodology to begin measuring this indicator is still under development. The level of social spending as a percentage of total GDP is available for the OECD countries. The OECD defines social expenditure as comprising of cash benefits, direct in-kind provision of goods and services, and tax breaks with social purposes. Benefits may be targeted at low-income households, the elderly, disabled, sick, unemployed, or young persons. 8 This indicator measures the level of social spending, which is a relevant proxy for measuring the level of spending that benefits women, the poor and vulnerable groups. 21% 53% 82% Data is available for 34 countries, with all 34 countries having data for more than five years. Analysis of the level of social spending demonstrates that 28 of the 34 countries have increased their level of social spending and six countries have decreased their level of social spending. If a country spends over 20 per cent of its total GDP as social spending, this is considered a good score. In total, 18 countries received a good score Parity Indices for Education Parity indices (female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others such as disability status, indigenous peoples and conflict-affected, as data become available) for all education indicators on this list that can be disaggregated Source: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Institute for Statistics, World Bank, IEP calculation Definition: The SDG indicator for this target has 17 indicators that are further disaggregated by three levels of schooling, pre-primary, primary and secondary. Of the available indicators, the level of consistency in the data varies, with some countries having most indicators to some countries having no indicators or very few. Without having a single indicator, it is difficult to measure progress as a whole. As a result, IEP has nominated to use another indicator that is useful for determining equal access to education, and that is the rate of primary school completion for females divided by the rate of male primary school completion. The final indicator is a ratio of female primary school completion, and gives a measurement for the level of equality in primary education, a score of one is perfect equality in education, below one favours males and above one favours females. 88% 83% 62% Data is available for 143 countries, with 121 of those having data for five or more years. IEP considers a score below 0.85 as a poor score, whereas a score above 0.95 is considered a good score. Of the 121 countries that have more than one year of data, 62 per cent have increased their score. Sixty-two per cent of the countries have increased in the ratio, whereas 31 per cent of countries have decreased. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

24 TARGET 4.A 4.a.1 Education Access and Facilities Proportion of schools with access to: (a) electricity; (b) the Internet for pedagogical purposes; (c) computers for pedagogical purposes; (d) adapted infrastructure and materials for students with disabilities; (e) basic drinking water; (f) single-sex basic sanitation facilities; and (g) basic handwashing facilities, as per the WASH indicator definitions. Source: UNSTATS SDG database, UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UNESCO-UIS) Definition: Similar to indicator 4.5.1, indicator 4.a.1 contains several sub-indicators for the specific indicator. IEP has nominated to use (b) the Internet for pedagogical purposes. This indicator is nominated as it can indirectly measure other indicators, for example (a) electricity and (c) computers for pedagogical purposes. This indicator is the average across all education levels, for a given country, in a given year. health, education, political representation and the labour market. The index ranges from zero to one, where zero is complete equality and one is absolute inequality. 90% 14% PERFORMANCE and girls subjected to physical and sexual 95% Data is available for 146 countries with all 146 having at least two years of data and 142 having at least five years of data. IEP considers an index score below 0.10 to be good whereas a score above 0.5 to be poor. The latest results show that 20 countries scored below 0.10 thus achieving a good score. Whereas 38 countries scored above 0.5 resulting in a score considered poor. The earliest year of data is 2005 and since then 95 per cent of the countries monitored improved their gender inequality score demonstrating improvements in gender equality. Only five per cent of countries have worsened. 39% 36% 17% TARGET 5.2 Data is available for 64 countries, with 24 countries having more than two years of data and 14 countries having five or more years of data. The trend analysis displays that no country has worsened with respect to the percentage of schools with access to the internet. Eleven countries have improved the percentage of schools with internet access. IEP considers the performance of this indicator to be poor if a country has less than 60 per cent of their schools having access to the internet and a country to have a good score if the country has 95 per cent of their schools having access to the internet. In total, 23 countries have a good performance, whereas 25 have a poor performance. TARGET Non-discrimination Laws Whether or not legal frameworks are in place to promote, enforce and monitor equality and non discrimination on the basis of sex Source: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Human Development Reports Definition: No worldwide comparable data currently exists for this indicator. As a result, IEP has nominated to use the Gender Inequality Index. Gender equality can proxy gender discrimination. The index measures the inequalities against females and therefore gender discrimination existing in Physical and Sexual Violence Against Women by a Partner The proportion of ever-partnered women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to physical, sexual or psychological violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months. Source: United Nations Statistics Division (UNSTATS) SDG database Definition: The definition used in this indicator follows the UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women. The definition states that violence against women is gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. Violence against women shall be understood to encompass, but not be limited to, the following: physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family. 9 artner in the previous 12 months 46% 0% Data is available for 75 of the countries IEP monitors. However, no country has more than one year of data. Consequently, the trend analysis cannot be conducted. 22 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

25 90% 14% Physical and Sexual Violence Against Women by a Non-Partner The proportion of women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to sexual violence by persons other than an intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age and place of occurrence. Source: UNSTATS SDG database Definition: The definition is similar to that used in SDG However, this indicator accounts for violence subjected by someone other than a current or former partner Genital Mutilation The proportion of girls and women aged 15 to 49 years who have undergone female genital mutilation/cutting, by age. Source: UNICEF, UNSTATS SDG database Definition: Female genital mutilation and cutting is defined as the procedures involving partial or total removal of the 46% 0% female external genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons. This indicator is calculated as the number of females aged 15 to 49 who have undergone female external genitalia mutilation and cutting divided by the total number of females aged 15 to 49 in the population multiplied by % 2% 17% 31% 0% 2% Data is available for 50 countries with only three countries having two or more years of data. The trend analysis illustrates that the majority of the countries were unchanged as 47 countries only published one data point. However, of the three countries with multiple years of data, only one country improved whilst the other two countries deteriorated. TARGET Child Marriage The proportion of women aged years who were married or in a union before age 15. Source: UNICEF and UNSTATS SDG database Definition: The indicator is calculated as the number of women aged 20 to 24 who were first married or in union before age 15 divided by the total number of women aged 20 to 24 in the population multiplied by 100. Both formal marriages and informal unions are included in the scope of this indicator. The informal unions are those in which a couple lives together, but there has yet to be the formal marriage ceremony. Data is available only for 28 countries with no countries having more than one year of data. Consequently, trend analysis cannot be conducted. The countries monitored are all located in sub-saharan Africa or the Middle East and North Africa regions. 64% Of the countries monitored for this indicator, only six have a rate of female genital mutilation and cutting below ten per cent of all females aged 15 to 49. Nine countries have a rate of female genital mutilation and cutting above 75 per cent. TARGET Seats Held by Women in Parliaments The proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments. 17% 0% Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), UNSTATS SDG database Definition: The number of seats held by women members in single or lower chambers of national parliaments, expressed as a percentage of all occupied seats. The number of seats is from February first of the reporting year. 64% 0% 98% 7% 79% PERFORMANCE Data is available for 64 per cent of the countries with no country having more than one data point. The trend analysis cannot be conducted due to no country having more than one year of data. Data is available for 159 of the 163 countries that IEP monitor with 158 of the countries having data for five or more years. IEP considers a country to have a good indicator performance if women hold more than 40 per cent of the seats in parliament. 43% 13% 56% SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

26 On the contrary, a poor score is if women hold less than 25 per cent of seats. From the countries monitored, 11 have a good score while 96 countries have a score considered poor. The earliest value observed is The trend analysis compares the earliest year of a country and compares that to the latest available year. The trend analysis displays that 79 per cent of the countries monitored has increased the level of female representation in their parliaments. Whereas, the level of female representation in the parliament has worsened in 18 per cent of the countries Proportion of Women in Managerial Positions The proportion of females in senior and middle management. Source: International Labour Organization Database (ILOSTAT), UNSTATS SDG database Definition: The number of females in medium and senior management positions as a percentage of the total middle and senior management positions. Data is available for 160 countries with all 160 having data for five or more years. A country with an unemployment rate below five per cent is considered good, while a country with an unemployment rate above 15 per cent is considered poor. Overall, 71 countries have an unemployment rate considered good, and 15 have a rate considered poor. The data ranges from 2005 to 2017 and 106 countries have lowered their unemployment rate since 2005 levels indicating an improvement. TARGET Child Labour Proportion and number of children aged five to 17 years engaged in child labour, by sex and age. Source: UNICEF and ILO calculations Definition: The proportion of children in child labour is calculated as the number of children in child labour divided by the total number of children in the population. 43% 13% 56% 44% 0% PERFORMANCE For the indicator measuring women in managerial positions, 70 countries have data with 58 having two or more years of data and 44 countries having five or more years of data. Majority of countries have increased their number of females in managerial positions with 39 countries improving and 19 declining. IEP considers a level of females in management positions over 40 per cent as good and a level below 30 per cent as poor. Nine countries have a level of females in middle or senior management over 40 per cent whereas 28 countries have a percentage of females in middle or senior management below 30 per cent. TARGET Unemployment Rate Source: International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Bank Definition: Unemployment refers to the share of the labour force that is without work, but is willing and able to work. The data availability is limited for the indicator Only 72 countries publish data on child labour and for those countries that do publish data, only one year is available. Consequently, a trend analysis is not possible due to no country having data for more than one year. TARGET Fatal and Non-Fatal Occupational Injuries Frequency rates of fatal and non-fatal occupational injuries per 100,000 workers. Source: ILOSTAT Definition: Officially, this indicator is an aggregate of both workplace injury and death. However, IEP for this report has disaggregated this indicator to display workplace deaths and workplace injuries separately. This is displayed as two indicators, 8.8.1a Fatal occupational injuries, and 8.8.1b Non-fatal occupational injuries a - Frequency rates of fatal occupational injuries 98% 44% 66% 40% 65% PERFORMANCE 24 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

27 The data sourced from the ILO has data for 66 countries of the 163 countries that IEP monitors, 57 of these countries had data for two or more years and 35 countries for five or more years. The trend analysis shows that 65 per cent of countries have lowered the number of occupational injuries, while 20 per cent of the countries have increased the number of injuries b Frequency Rates of Non-Fatal Occupational Injuries 39% an income Data is available for 63 countries, with 58 countries having at least two data points and 34 countries have at least five years of data. The trend analysis shows that 68 per cent of countries have lowered the number of occupational deaths, while 24 per cent has increased the number of occupational deaths. TARGET % TARGET Discrimination and Harassment The proportion of population reporting having personally felt discriminated against or harassed in the previous 12 months on the basis of a ground of discrimination prohibited under international human rights law. Source: Afrobarometer Definition: As with other survey-based indicators with no official data source, there are multiple possible sources and proxy indicators that cover some aspect of the official indicator definition. However, they are generally only harmonised for a small percentage of countries. The survey question from the Afrobarometer is worded as follows: In the past year, how often, if at all, have you personally been discriminated against or harassed based on your ethnicity? 15% 0% Population Living Below 50 Per Cent of Median Income Proportion of people living below 50 per cent of median income, by sex, age and persons with disabilities. Source: OECD Data Definition: No official data exists for this indicator. However, the OECD database publishes a similar indicator that can be used as a proxy. The share of the population with an income of less than 50 per cent of the respective national median income. This indicator uses income after taxes and transfers and is adjusted for the difference in household size. 21% 11% PERFORMANCE 29% As the Afrobarometer only surveys African countries, data was only available for 24 of the 163 countries monitored. Afrobarometer asked this question in a survey conducted throughout As there is only one survey round a trend analysis cannot be conducted. TARGET Labour Share of GDP Labour share of GDP, comprising wages and social protection transfers Source: ILO Definition: Labour share of GDP is the total compensation of employees given as a percentage of GDP, which is a measure of total output. It provides information about the relative share of output that is paid as compensation to employees as compared with the share paid to capital in the production process for a given reference period. Data is available for 35 OECD countries, with all having at least two data points and 21 having five or more years of data. IEP considers a country to have a good score if it is below seven per cent and a poor score if 15 or above. In total, eleven countries are ranked as poor and only four having a score considered good. The trend analysis shows that ten countries improved while 15 worsened. 31% 56% 54% PERFORMANCE 71% 22% 44% SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

28 Data is available for 50 countries with 49 countries having two or more points and 40 countries having five or more data points. The trend analysis indicates that 27 countries improved while 21 countries worsened. IEP ranks a score below 25 per cent as poor and a score above 50 per cent as good. Overall, 28 countries received a good score and four received a poor score. Definition: Population living in slums is the proportion of the urban population living in slum households. A slum household is defined as a group of individuals living under the same roof lacking one or more of the following conditions: access to improved water; access to improved sanitation; sufficient living area; and durability of housing. TARGET % 67% Financial Soundness Indicators The financial indicator used is the non-performing loans to total gross loans (%). Source: International Monetary Fund (IMF) Definition: There are multiple financial soundness indicators (FSIs). The IMF has identified seven FSIs for this measure. IEP has selected the non-performing loans to total gross loans indicator to monitor and report. The indicator has been selected because it is considered a good proxy for the asset quality in an economy and can be used to identify problems in a country s financial assets. Furthermore, this ratio is a good measure of the strength and robustness of financial systems. This FSI uses the value of non-performing loans and divides by the total value of the loans. A loan is considered non-performing when payments of principal and interest are 90 days or more past due, or when future payments are expected to not be received in full. 43% 13% 56% Data is available for 87 countries with 80 countries having two or more data points. Multiple years of data for each country allows for the trend analysis. Overall, 58 countries have reduced the level of urban population living in slums, while twelve have seen an increase. TARGET Total Revenue as a Proportion of GDP Source: World Bank Definition: The World Bank defines government tax revenue as: compulsory transfers to the central government for public purposes. Certain compulsory transfers such as fines, penalties and most social security contributions are excluded. Refunds and corrections of erroneously collected tax revenue are treated as negative revenue. PERFORMANCE 83% 60% Data is available for 115 of the countries, 114 countries have two or more years of data and 109 countries have five or more years of data. IEP considers the FSI score to be good if less than two per cent of loans are non-performing. The score is considered poor if the non-performing loan rate is above 20 per cent. Out of the countries monitored by IEP, 22 per cent are considered good whilst six per cent are considered poor. Trend analysis is available for 115 countries from 2008 to Over that period, 44 per cent of countries improved while 55 per cent of countries worsened. TARGET Urban Population Living in Slums The proportion of urban population living in slums, informal settlements or inadequate housing. Source: UN-HABITAT Of the 163 countries that IEP monitor, 136 countries have at least one point of data for the weighted average tariff indicator. Trend analysis is possible as 134 countries have at least two or more points of data and 120 countries have at least five data points between 2005 and The overall trend is for the majority of countries to increase the total government revenue as a percentage of GDP with 81 countries increasing their percentage tax revenue, while 53 countries have decreased their tax revenue. 26 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

29 Proportion of Domestic Budget Funded by Domestic Taxes Source: World Bank, IMF and IEP calculations Definition: This indicator uses tax revenue and government expenses to calculate the percentage of government expenditure funded by taxes. The expenses include wages, salaries, interest and subsidies, grants, social benefits, and other expenses such as rent and dividends. The indicator is calculated as follows: (Tax Revenue) ( Expenses) 83% 38% Data is available for 83 per cent of the countries monitored by IEP or 135 countries. Trend analysis can be done on 133 countries with data points for two or more years and 116 countries having data points for five or more years. In total, 51 countries have increased their proportion of their domestic budget funded by domestic taxes, whereas 82 countries have decreased their proportion of their domestic budget funded by domestic taxes. TARGET Worldwide Weighted Tariff Average Source: World Bank Definition: The mean of applied tariffs for products in each commodity group weighted by the import share for the corresponding country. 94% 70% Of the 163 countries that IEP monitors, 154 countries have at least one point of data for the weighted average tariff indicator. The trend analysis is possible as 151 countries have at least two or more points of data and 142 countries at least five data entries between 2005 and The overall trend has been to reduce the average tariff with 70 per cent of countries lowering their tariffs and 27 per cent increasing their average tariff. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

30 Positive Peace and SDG16+ Key Findings After removing the SDG16 targets from SDG16+, only 15 of the 33 SDG16+ indicators have official data. The lack of data is a significant issue for examining the SDG16+ framework. In light of the data limitations of SDG16+, the Institute of Economics & Peace s (IEP) pillars of Positive Peace offer an integrated data set for 163 countries that is conceptually and empirically linked to the SDGs. The statistical link between SDG16+ and Positive Peace is strong. The overall Positive Peace Index (PPI) correlates with 12 of the 15 SDG16+ indicators. All eight Pillars of Positive Peace significantly correlate with more than half of the SDG16+ indicators. The strong empirical link between SDG16+ and Positive Peace highlights that the pillars of Positive Peace are a useful proxy for measuring peaceful, just and inclusive societies. Until the data limitations are overcome the pillars of Positive Peace offer a viable alternative to measure SDG16+ progress. Overview There is increasing recognition of the importance of improving peace and the drivers of peace if the goals of the traditional development agenda are to be met. This is true for all countries regardless of their level of peace. Education and health outcomes cannot be achieved separately without a focus on conflict, justice and governance. The structure of SDG16 reflects this increasing recognition and the SDG16+ framework is further recognition of the fact that many indicators of peaceful, just and inclusive societies can be found outside of goal 16. Unlike the SDGs, which was the result of high level negotiations, IEP s Positive Peace framework is empirically derived from the peacefulness of 163 countries and independent territories. Given the conceptual overlap between Positive Peace and the SDGS, as shown in Figure 3.1, the framework provides an excellent tool to analyse the depth of coverage of the SDG targets as they relate to peace. Of the 169 targets in the SDGs, 85 per cent are relevant to more than two pillars of Positive Peace. 28 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

31 FIGURE 3.1 Coverage of Positive Peace factors in SDG targets Of the 169 targets in the SDGs, 85% are relevant to more than two Positive Peace factors. Corruption is the least represented Pillar in the SDGs Low levels of corruption 3 Free flow of information 25 Good relations with neighbours 56 Sound business environment 59 Equitable distribution of resources 62 Acceptance of the rights of others 71 High levels of human capital 86 Well-functioning government 95 Number of targets relevant Source: IEP While SDG16 most explicitly deals with peace and the drivers of peace, there are other aspects of the SDGs beyond SDG16 that are related to the drivers of peace. The SDGs are integrated, interlinked and universal, working together to bring about development outcomes. SDG16 cannot be separated from the other goals in the SDGs and it does not apply only to conflictaffected countries as all countries can improve their peace. This section explores how the additional SDG16+ indicators correlate with goal 16 and also how they correlate to the eight Pillars of the Positive Peace index. This will allow for a better understanding of the strength of the SDG16+ framework and whether it can be bolstered with proxy data from the Positive Peace Index. BOX 3.1 SDG16 or SDG16+? The term SDG16+ is usually taken to mean all the targets of SDG16 in conjunction with additional indicators from seven SDGs. In this section, only the indicators that are not included in SDG16 are analysed.there are 33 indicators analysed. Of these 33 indicators, only 15 indicators have official data from the Global SDG Indicators Database initiative. For this section, these 15 indicators are referred to as the 15 SDG16+ indicators, or simply the plus indicators. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

32 What is Positive Peace? There are two common conceptions of peace, each of which has a long history in peace studies Negative Peace and Positive Peace. IEP s definition of Negative Peace is the absence of violence or fear of violence an intuitive definition that many agree with, and one which enables peace to be measured more easily. Measures of Negative Peace are used to construct the GPI. The 23 GPI indicators are broken into three domains: ongoing conflict, societal safety and security and militarisation. Societal safety and security refer to internal aspects of violence, such as homicide, incarceration or availability of small arms, while ongoing conflict and militarisation capture the extent of current violent conflicts and each country s military capacity. A more ambitious conceptualisation of peace is Positive Peace. Well-developed Positive Peace represents the capacity for a society to meet the needs of its citizens, reduce the number of grievances that arise and resolve remaining disagreements without the use of violence. Human beings encounter conflict regularly whether at home, at work, among friends, or on a more systemic level between ethnic, religious or political groups. The majority of these conflicts do not result in violence. Most of the time individuals and groups can reconcile their differences without resorting to violence by using mechanisms such as informal societal behaviours, constructive dialogue or legal systems designed to reconcile grievances. Conflict provides the opportunity to negotiate or renegotiate a social contract and as such it is possible for constructive conflict to involve nonviolence. Positive Peace can be seen as providing the necessary conditions for adaptation to changing conditions, a well-run society and the nonviolent resolution of disagreements. This section describes how Positive Peace can be the guiding principle to build and reinforce the attitudes, institutions and structures that pre-empt conflict and help societies channel disagreements productively rather than falling into violence. Positive Peace also enables many other characteristics that societies consider important. For example, Positive Peace is also statistically linked to countries with higher GDP growth, higher levels of resilience, better ecological performance, better measures of inclusion, including gender and much more. Findings from the Global Partnership for the Prevention of Armed Conflict s (GPPAC) review of civil society and conflict conclude that, When tensions escalate into armed conflict, it almost always reflects the breakdown or underdevelopment of routine systems for managing competing interests and values and the failure to satisfy basic human needs. Thus, the Positive Peace framework draws out the aspects of societies that prevent these breakdowns, based on their statistical association with the absence of violence. 30 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

33 IEP has identified eight key domains, or pillars, that comprise Positive Peace: Well-functioning government A well-functioning government delivers high-quality public and civil services, engenders trust and participation, demonstrates political stability and upholds the rule of law. Sound business environment The strength of economic conditions as well as the formal institutions that support the operation of the private sector and determine the soundness of the business environment. Business competitiveness and economic productivity are both associated with the most peaceful countries, as is the presence of regulatory systems that are conducive to business operations. Equitable distribution of resources Equity in access to resources such as education and health, as well as, although to a lesser extent, equity in income distribution. Acceptance of the rights of others Formal laws guarantee basic human rights and freedoms and the informal social and cultural norms that relate to behaviours of citizens serve as proxies for the level of tolerance between different ethnic, linguistic, religious and socio-economic groups within the country. Similarly, gender equality and worker s rights are important components of societies that uphold acceptance of the rights of others. Good relations with neighbours Peaceful relations with other countries are as important as good relations between groups within a country. Countries with positive external relations are more peaceful and tend to be more politically stable, have better functioning governments, are regionally integrated and have lower levels of organised internal conflict. This factor is also beneficial for business and supports foreign direct investment, tourism and human capital inflows. Free flow of information Free and independent media disseminates information in a way that leads to greater openness and helps individuals and civil society work together. This is reflected in the extent to which citizens can gain access to information, whether the media is free and independent and how well-informed citizens are. This leads to better decision-making and more rational responses in times of crisis. High levels of human capital A skilled human capital base reflects the extent to which societies care for the young, educate citizens and promote the development of knowledge, thereby improving economic productivity, enabling political participation and increasing social capital. Education is a fundamental building block through which societies can build resilience and develop mechanisms to learn and adapt. Low levels of corruption - In societies with high corruption, resources are inefficiently allocated, often leading to a lack of funding for essential services. The resulting inequities can lead to civil unrest and in extreme situations can be the catalyst for more serious violence. Low corruption can enhance confidence and trust in institutions. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

34 These pillars interact together systemically to build a society s attitudes, institutions and structures. High levels of Positive Peace occur where attitudes make violence less tolerated, institutions are more responsive to society s needs and structures underpin the nonviolent resolution of grievances. Attitudes refer to norms, beliefs, preferences and relationships within society. Attitudes influence how people and groups cooperate in society, and can both impact and be impacted upon by the institutions and structures that society creates. Institutions are the formal bodies created by governments or other groups, such as companies, industry associations or labour unions. They may be responsible for supplying education or rule of law, for example. The way institutions operate is affected by both the attitudes that are prevalent within a society and the structures that define them. Structures can be both formal and informal and serve as a shared code-of-conduct that is broadly applicable to most individuals. Informally, it could be as simple as the protocol for queuing or formally as complex as tax law. Interactions are often governed by informal rules and structures, such as politeness, societal views on morality or the acceptance or rejection of other s behaviours. Attitudes, institutions and structures are all highly interrelated and can be difficult to distinguish between. However, what is more important than drawing clear lines between them is the understanding of how they interact as a whole. IEP does not attempt to define the specific attitudes, institutions and structures necessary for Positive Peace, as these will very much be dependent on the cultural norms of a specific society and its current trajectory. What is appropriate in one country may not be appropriate in another. Rather, it aims to provide a framework that each country can adopt and adapt to local contexts. This is critical because approaches to peace are best developed locally. 32 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

35 Positive Peace has the following characteristics: Systemic and complex: it is complex; progress occurs in non-linear ways and can be better understood through its relationships and communication flows rather than through events. Virtuous or vicious: it works as a process by which negative feedback loops ( vicious cycles of violence) or positive feedback loops ( virtuous cycles of violence) can be created and perpetuated, respectively. Preventative: though overall Positive Peace levels tend to change slowly over time, building strength in relevant Pillars can prevent violence and violent conflict. Underpins resilience and nonviolence: Positive Peace builds the capacity for resilience and incentives for non-violent means of conflict resolution. It provides an empirical framework to measure an otherwise amorphous concept, resilience. Informal and formal: it includes both formal and informal societal factors. This implies that societal and attitudinal factors are equally as important as state institutions. Supports development goals: Positive Peace provides an environment in which development goals are more likely to be achieved. Well Functioning Sound Business Environment Equitable Distribution of Resources Low Levels of Corruption PEACE Free Flow of Information Acceptance of the Rights of Others High Levels of Human Capital Good Relations with Neighbours THE PILLARS OF POSITIVE PEACE All eight factors are highly interconnected and interact in varied and complex ways. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

36 Summary of Analysis of SDG16+ Indicators Despite the conceptual link between SDG16 and the SDG16+ indicators, the empirical link is less clear. This section analyses the empirical linkages between SDG16+ and SDG16, in addition to the empirical link between SDG16+ and the pillars of Positive Peace. The concept SDG16+ includes targets related to peace, justice and inclusive societies from seven SDG goals other than SDG16. Given this lack of data, IEP s Positive Peace framework helps to support the SDG16+ framework in two respects: Firstly, it helps establish the likely empirical link between SDG16 and the SDG16+ concept. The strong correlation between the 15 SDG16+ indicators and the Positive Peace pillars indicates that SDG16+ is an appropriate measure of peaceful, just and inclusive societies if the data was available. Secondly, given the lack of available data on the SDG16+ indicators, the Positive Peace data can serve as a useful proxy for measuring progress towards attaining peaceful, just and inclusive societies until the appropriate data is available. The practicalities of actually collecting the missing data are explored in the next section. Table 3.2 shows the percentage of SDG16 and Positive Peace pillars that each SDG16+ indicator significantly correlates with. TABLE 3.2 SDG16+ Indicator correlation summary SDG16+ CORRELATION WITH SDG16 S (%) CORRELATION WITH POSITIVE PEACE PILLARS (%) Fatal occupational injuries among employees, by sex (per 100,000 employees) Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls subjected to physical and sexual violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age (%) Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments (% of total number of seats) Proportion of urban population living in slums (%) Proportion of women (aged 15-49) subjected to sexual violence by persons other than an intimate partner since age 15 Schools with access to the internet for pedagogical purposes, by education level (%) Tariff rate, applied, weighted mean, all products (%) Tax revenue (% of GDP) Proportion of women aged years who were married or in a union before age 15 (%) FSI - Non-performing Loans to Total Gross Loans Proportion of children engaged in economic activity Non-fatal occupational injuries among employees, by sex (per 100,000 employees) Proportion of women in senior and middle management positions (%) Proportion of girls and women aged years who have undergone female genital mutilation/cutting, by age (%) Unemployment rate Source: IEP Calculations 34 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

37 The research finds that eight of the 15 SDG16+ indicators correlate significantly with every measure of Positive Peace. Furthermore, 13 of the 15 SDG16+ indicators significantly correlate with at least half of the Positive Peace pillars. The unemployment rate is the only SDG16+ indicator that does not correlate with any of the Positive Peace domains. By contrast, only three of the possible 15 SDG16+ indicators correlate significantly with more than 50 per cent of the indicators found in SDG16. Part of the reason for the difference between the percentages of significant relationships displayed in Table 3.2 stems from data availability issues. Only 15 of the 33 SDG16+ indicators have official data. For those 15 SDG16+ indicators with data, only 11 have data for more than 100 countries. If more data is available then the strength of the correlations may improve. Goal 16 and Goal 16+ A complete empirical analysis between the SDG16+ and SDG16 indicators is inhibited by the lack of official data. There are 33 SDG16+ indicators remaining after removing the SDG16 indicators. However, of the 33 indicators, only 15 have official data sources. Because 18 of the 33 SDG16+ indicators do not have adequate data, the empirical link between these indicators and SDG16 cannot be established. In the previous section, a review process carried out by the IEP research team identified viable proxy alternatives for the missing indicators. For each of these unofficial sources, the focus was on finding a proxy variable that most closely matched the SDG indicator description, balanced against finding an indicator with comparable data for a meaningful amount of countries. This section looks at the statistical link between the 22 SDG16 indicators and the 15 SDG16+ indicators with official data. Although SDG16 and SDG16+ are considered to be closely linked, at the statistical level, the link was not strong. Only two of the 15 SDG16+ indicators were highly statistically significant with another four of the 15 SDG16+ indicators being moderately significant, leaving nine indicators with low or no statistical relationship. Figure 3.3 summarises the statistically strongest and significant correlations between the 15 SDG16+ indicators with official data and the SDG16 targets. A correlation greater than 0.5 is considered to be statistically significant. FIGURE 3.3 PERCENTAGE OF SDG16+ S THAT CORRELATE WITH EACH SDG16 TARGET Only three of the SDG16 targets correlate with more than 50 per cent of the SDG16+ indicators Ensure legal identity for all Ensure representative decision-making Promote rule of law and access to Justice Reduce corruption and bribery Access to information and fundamental freedoms a - Effective, accountable and transparent institutions Ensure protection of child rights Reduce voilence and related death rates Reduce illicit arms and finances flows Strong institutions to prevent violence b - Enforce non-discriminatory laws Percentage of SDG16+ indicators that are significantly correlated Source: IEP Calculations A short description of the three SDG16 indicators with the largest number of correlations are described below. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

38 Target 16.9 Provide legal identity for all, including birth registration Birth registration, a measure of the target to ensure a legal identity for all is correlated with eleven of the available 15 SDG16+ indicators. Ensuring children are registered at birth provides children with a legal recognition of their birth. Figure 3.4 shows the relationship between birth registration and the percentage of women who experienced physical or sexual abuse from an intimate partner. Countries with high levels of birth registration had on average lower levels of sexual and physical abuse. Birth registration provides a child with a legal form of identity. If a child does not have their birth registered, they may be unable to attend school or receive healthcare. The problems can extend beyond just childhood, and without having a legal form of age identification, marriage may occur before the legal age. FIGURE 3.4 BIRTH REGISTRATION VS VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN (R = -0.53) Where birth registration is high, domestic violence against women tends to be less frequent DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS (%) Birth Registration (%) Source: IEP Other SDG16+ indicators that share a strong correlation with birth registration are: schools with access to the internet for pedagogical purposes: proportion of urban population living in slums; proportion of women who are married before age 15; and proportion of children engaged in economic activity. Generally, countries with high levels of GDP per capita perform well in the above mentioned indicators. Target Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision making at all levels This target contains two indicators: representative politics; and inclusive decision making. Both indicators are proxies from the V-DEM database. Representative politics shows the extent to which the parliamentary formation reflects the sociodemographic groups of the country. In total, 60 per cent of all possible pairs of correlations between target 16.7 and SDG16+ indicators are significantly correlated. Twelve SDG16+ indicators correlate above ±0.30 with target Inclusive decision making and the proportion of women subjected to physical and sexual violence by an intimate partner in the previous 12 months had the strongest correlation (r = -0.58). Target Reduce corruption and bribery in all forms This target is significantly correlated with 50 per cent of the SDG16+ indicators. Corruption damages public trust in authorities and undermines the functioning of the free market by inhibiting the allocation of resources to their most productive means. corruption is positively and significantly correlated with the number of fatal occupational injuries (per 100,000 employees) equalling The proportion of urban population living in slums (%) is also positively and significantly correlated with corruption The targets including ensuring legal identity for all, ensuring representative decision-making, and reducing corruption and bribery, have the highest number of correlations with the 15 SDG16+ indicators. Table 3.5 shows the ten strongest correlations between SDG16 and the 15 SDG16+ indicators. 36 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

39 TABLE 3.5 STRONGEST CORRELATIONS BETWEEN SDG16 AND SDG16+ S Only three of the SDG16 targets correlate with more than 50 per cent of the SDG16+ indicators SDG16 SDG16+ CORRELATION COEFFICIENT NUMBER OF COUNTRIES Underreporting of Violence Tax revenue (% of GDP) Birth Registration Schools with access to the internet for pedagogical purposes, by education level (%) Birth Registration Proportion of urban population living in slums (%) Safe Walking Alone Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls subjected to physical and sexual violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age (%) Underreporting of Violence Unemployment rate Underreporting of Violence Tariff rate, applied, weighted mean, all products (%) Inclusive Decision Making Corruption (Citizens) Birth Registration Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls subjected to physical and sexual violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age (%) Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls subjected to physical and sexual violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age (%) Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls subjected to physical and sexual violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age (%) Corruption (Citizens) Fatal occupational injuries among employees, by sex (per 100,000 employees) Source: IEP Calculations SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

40 Goal16+ and Positive Peace The pillars of Positive Peace and SDG16+ are conceptually closely linked as both are measures of the quality of institutions, peace and inclusive societies. At the empirical level, there is also a clear statistical relationship between the SDG16+ indicators and Positive Peace as shown in Figure 3.6. The complete dataset of the pillars of Positive Peace reinforce the validity of this empirical link and the empirical and conceptual connection demonstrates the pillars applicability as measures of just, peaceful and inclusive societies. Correlating the 15 SDG16+ indicators against the eight pillars of Positive Peace and the overall Positive Peace index yields 135 potential correlations. Of these 135 correlations, 106 were statistically significant. Table 3.9 summarises the strength of the correlation between the 15 SDG16+ indicators, and the pillars of Positive Peace. FIGURE 3.6 PERCENTAGE OF SDG16+ S THAT CORRELATE WITH POSITIVE PEACE All Positive Peace Pillars correlate more than 60 per cent with all 15 SDG16+ indicators PPI Overall Score 87 Acceptance of the Rights of Others 80 Equitable Distribution of Resources 80 High Levels of Human Capital 80 Low Levels of Corruption 80 Sound Business Environment 80 Well-Functioning 80 Free Flow of Information 73 Good Relations with Neighbours 67 Percentage of SDG16+ indicators that are significantly correlated Source: IEP 38 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

41 The strong association between Positive Peace and the 15 SDG16+ indicators is not surprising, given the strong conceptual overlap between the two. Figure 3.7 shows the correlation between the pillar High Levels of Human Capital, and the SDG16+ indicator percentage of the population living in urban slums. As the level of human capital worsens, the percentage of the population living in urban slums increases. FIGURE 3.7 HUMAN CAPITAL VS POPULATION LIVING IN SLUMS (R = 0.78) There is a strong correlation between education and fewer people living in extreme poverty 100 POPULATION LIVING IN SLUMS (%) Better Performance High Levels of Human Capital Worse Performance Source: IEP Figure 3.8 displays that countries with a more equitable distribution of resources have lower levels of children engaged in economic activity. FIGURE 3.8 EQUITABLE DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES VS CHILD LABOUR (R = 0.76) More equitable societies are much less likely to have high levels of child labour CHILDREN ENGAGED IN ECONOMIC ACTVITY (%) Better Performance Worse Performance Equitable Distribution of Resources Source: IEP The overall PPI score was correlated with 13 of the 15 SDG16+ indicators. The strong empirical link between Positive Peace and the SDG16+ framework is owed to the completeness of the PPI dataset. Table 3.9 shows the ten strongest correlations between Positive Peace and the 15 SDG16+ indicators. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

42 TABLE 3.9 STRONGEST CORRELATIONS BETWEEN POSITIVE PEACE AND SDG16+ S POSITIVE PEACE PILLAR SDG16+ CORRELATION COEFFICIENT NUMBER OF COUNTRIES High Levels of Human Capital Schools with access to the internet for pedagogical purposes, by education level (%) High Levels of Human Capital Proportion of urban population living in slums (%) Equitable Distribution of Resources Schools with access to the internet for pedagogical purposes, by education level (%) Equitable Distribution of Resources Proportion of children engaged in economic activity PPI Overall Score Schools with access to the internet for pedagogical purposes, by education level (%) Equitable Distribution of Resources Proportion of urban population living in slums (%) Sound Business Environment Schools with access to the internet for pedagogical purposes, by education level (%) High Levels of Human Capital Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls subjected to physical and sexual violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age (%) Well-Functioning Schools with access to the internet for pedagogical purposes, by education level (%) Equitable Distribution of Resources Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls subjected to physical and sexual violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age (%) BOX 3.2 Future Research - Analysing and measuring the interactions between SDG16 and other SDGs IEP is currently reviewing its next phase of SDG16 research and is considering conducting a more detailed analysis on the interactions between SDG16 and other SDGs in the near future. This proposed research by IEP will synthesise qualitative and quantitative findings and provide a new practical approach that informs SDG16+ priorities depending on the country s contexts. This will result in strategies for policy implementation and priority setting for the 2030 Agenda while offering guidance for further national level research and analysis. Acknowledging that many of the SDGs are contingent on the success of other goals raises several policy relevant questions, such as what is the nature of the relationships between the SDGs and how do they strengthen or weaken each other? IEP has been addressing this question since the development of the PPI. In the PPI from the year 2018, IEP presented a systems approach to conceptualising links that recognises that relationships in complex societies cannot be thought of in terms of linear cause and effects. Applying this approach to the SDGs requires the recognition that all 17 goals represent a system within each member state. Systems thinking proposes that the behaviour of any system cannot be understood by simply understanding its individual components. Likewise, understanding how the SDGs interrelate requires more than just analysing how one goal interacts with another at a global level. Rather, it requires understanding a country s unique history and profile to understand how it might evolve within the SDG framework and what might be the most effective policies to achieve the Global Agenda Applying systems thinking to the nation state, and using the SDGs as a framework, will yield a better understanding of how societies work, how to better manage the challenges societies face and how to improve overall wellbeing. In turn, it will also contribute to IEP s research into systems thinking. 40 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

43 Measuring SDG16+ Case Studies Key Findings Expanding existing surveys offers potential for countries to monitor SDGs in the absence of NSO data. In particular, DHS could be extended to cover a high percentage of outstanding SDG16+ indicators. Despite the importance attached to monitoring SDG16, relatively little attention has been paid to the practicalities of collecting data. Collecting data on SDG16 is particularly important in countries that are at risk of falling into conflict. Countries with large Positive Peace deficits are particularly vulnerable to sudden outbreaks of violence. Of the ten case study countries chosen by IEP, only two had data for more than 75 per cent of the SDG16+ indicators. Many had data points that had not been updated for five or even ten years. Despite this lack of data, most countries had plans in place to improve data collection. Seven of the ten countries are currently implementing or have previously implemented national statistical development strategies (NSDS). Overview One of the biggest challenges in successfully implementing the SDGs will be having enough adequate data collection instruments to successfully collect even basic information. The following section looks in detail at ten countries and their ability to measure the SDG16+ indicators. The ten countries are listed in Table 4.1. TABLE 4.1 SDG16+ COLLECTION CASE STUDY COUNTRIES These ten countries were chosen by IEP for two reasons: firstly, they are geographically and economically diverse, and are likely to reflect a broader range of data collection issues; and secondly they all have a Positive Peace deficit, meaning that they are relatively more peaceful than would be expected, given the strength of their institutions that support Positive Peace. This suggests that they face certain challenges that could lead to rapid increases in violence. As such, accurately capturing the SDG16+ indicators is of particular importance in these countries. Case Study Country Bhutan Cuba Croatia Equatorial Guinea Hungary Laos Rwanda Tanzania Uzbekistan Zimbabwe SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

44 The Data Collection Challenge None of the ten case study countries currently has data for all the SDG16+ indicators. However, alterations to existing survey questionnaires, combined with better communication between departments who are monitoring and evaluating the SDGs, and the continued implementation of NSDSs will enable a more complete measurement of the SDG16+ indicators. Measuring SDG16+ requires the involvement of external organisations such as universities, think tanks and NGOs who gather data until NSOs develop their capabilities. The MICS which are often conducted by UNICEF in conjunction with national governments, have the most scope to introduce new questions that will cover parts of SDG16+ indicators. 10 This section only reviews the availability of indicators that could feasibly be included in existing surveys or through improvements to the governmental reporting on financial accounts, and thus does not report on indicators that could be collected through other governmental means, or by civil society organisations. Indicators that are measured on a global scale rather than at a country scale are also excluded. The omitted indicators can be found in appendix A. Given these exclusions, the case studies focus on 44 of the 56 SDG16+ indicators. Figure 4.2 highlights current data availability on SDG16+ for the ten case study countries. Only Zimbabwe and Tanzania have data for more than 75 per cent of the indicators, with Uzbekistan, Laos, Bhutan, Equatorial Guinea, and Cuba all having data for less than half of the 44 indicators included in the analysis. FIGURE 4.2 SDG16+ COVERAGE, CASE STUDY COUNTRIES Only two of the case study countries have data for more than 75 per cent of the SDG16+ indicators. Zimbabwe 77 Tanzania 77 Hungary 73 Rwanda 64 Croatia 64 Uzbekistan 48 Laos 48 Bhutan 48 Source: IEP Equatorial Guinea Cuba Percentage of coverage Despite this lack of data, most of the case study countries are making efforts to improve statistical capacity, as outlined in Table 4.3, which also highlights the latest available survey for a number of different survey types 42 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

45 TABLE 4.3 SUMMARY OF SURVEY INSTRUMENTS AND NSDS PLANS BY COUNTRY Country Census Income & Expenditure Surveys Demographic & Health Survey/ MICS MICS Labour Survey / Enterprise Survey NSDS Bhutan Cuba / Croatia Equatorial Guinea Hungary Laos Rwanda / / Tanzania / / Uzbekistan Zimbabwe An NSDS is either being implemented, being designed, being planned or the strategy has been completed in seven of the ten countries reviewed. 10 The role of the NSDS is to build on the statistical capacity of the countries to enable the monitoring of the SDGs. 12 BOX 4.1 What are the different surveys types? Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS): MICS are run by UNICEF in collaboration with the host country to collect data which fills the data gaps for indicators surrounding the situation of children and women. The latest round of the MICS includes a component directed at men in addition to the previous focus on women and children. Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS): DHS assists countries worldwide to collect data on population health, social issues and household characteristics. Enterprise Survey: The Enterprise surveys are conducted by the World Bank in collaboration with the host country. The enterprise surveys collect data on the private sector covering a wide range of business relevant topics. Labour survey: The Labour force surveys collect data on employment and labour characteristics of the population. Household Income and Expenditure Surveys (HIES): HIES collect data on household s living conditions and income and expenditure patterns. National Sustainable Development Strategies (NSDS): The NSDS are a framework for all low income and lowermiddle income countries to develop statistical capacity and statistical systems to promote the monitoring of all SDG indicators. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

46 Case Studies The following section looks at current and potential data availability across the ten case study countries for the SDG16+ indicators. However, as census surveys are extremely costly both temporally and financially, and are usually only conducted once a decade, IEP has not included them as a potential source of SDG indicators. Conversely, household, labour and health surveys, if well-sampled can give a representation of the population. They are less costly and are conducted more regularly, usually every three to five years. Thus household surveys are the focus of this section. BHUTAN GPI RANK: 19/163 GPI TREND ( ): 18.0% increase in peace PPI RANK: 63/163 PPI TREND ( ): 7.5% increase in Positive Peace Bhutan has transitioned to democracy peacefully. Measuring peace, justice and institutions in Bhutan are particularly vital as Bhutan is one of the world s youngest democracies. 13 Although historically some transitions to democracy have been prone to conflict, Bhutan s transition from a monarchy to democracy has been relatively peaceful. Measuring the strength of Bhutan s democratic institutions and improvements in their robustness will be vital for long-term improvements for the society. Bhutan has improved in all eight pillars of Positive Peace. Significant improvements have been made in the pillars Good Relations with Neighbours and Low Levels of Corruption. Significant improvements in the domains of Safety and Security and Militarisation have driven the improvement in the overall GPI score. The domain Ongoing Conflict has slightly deteriorated. Data Coverage Figure 4.4 shows existing SDG16+ indicator coverage for Bhutan. Only 48 per cent of indicators covered by IEP in this report are currently measured in Bhutan, the third lowest of any of the ten countries assessed in this section. However, almost all of the indicators could be measured using existing surveys. Just five of the 44 indicators would require the creation of new surveys or other data measurement instruments. FIGURE 4.4 POTENTIAL SDG16+ COLLECTION - BHUTAN Less than half of the SDG16+ indicators are currently being measured in Bhutan Currently Measured Could be measured using exisiting surveys Need new surveys to measure Bhutan produced a NSDS, to be implemented from 2018 to The NSDS will promote procedures to enhance the monitoring and development of national statistical systems to collect information on the SDGs. Table 4.5 shows which surveys are currently collected in Bhutan, how often they are collected, when the survey was last conducted and how many additional indicators the survey could potentially collect. TABLE 4.5 SUMMARY OF SDG16+ COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS - BHUTAN Survey Authority Frequency Demographic & Health Survey/MICS Income & Expenditure Survey Census Labour Survey of Bhutan of Bhutan of Bhutan of Bhutan, World Bank Last conducted Potential Additional Indicators Five years Five years Ten years Yearly Bhutan recently completed the fourth Bhutan Living Standards Survey in Previous reports were conducted in 2003, 2007 and Furthermore, in line with Bhutan s NSDS plan, they aim to conduct a national health survey (DHS/MICS) every four to five years. With the assistance of UNICEF, Bhutan completed a customised Bhutanese MICS4 survey in The main aim of this survey is to provide updates and measure for women and children in Bhutan. This survey covers components such as child development, education, child protection and reproductive health. However, it was last conducted almost a decade ago. Currently, the MICS are in their sixth round (MICS6). Bhutan is not currently scheduled to conduct the MICS6, which will be conducted for many countries up until Bhutan collected data for some of the violence indicators in the SDG16+ in the survey Knowledge Attitude and Practice Survey Report, conducted in It surveyed SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

47 religious personnel, the majority of whom were students at monastic institutions, to determine their knowledge and attitudes with regards to sources of income, violence, sexual and reproductive health, non-communicable diseases, and education. Adding Additional Indicators Adding questions and components to existing surveys would allow the Bhutanese government to measure an additional 18 indicators, bringing the total number of indicators covered to 39. Conducting the MICS6 in Bhutan and adding additional components to the pre-existing living standard and health surveys will permit Bhutan to measure the missing indicators, especially those regarding victimisation. Extending the survey Knowledge Attitude and Practice Survey Report beyond only religious personnel to households, could be used to give deeper insights into household views, attitudes and experiences. This survey is unique to Bhutan and has the potential to measure many of the missing indicators, specifically indicators related to experiences and attitudes, such as discrimination and corruption. Bhutan regularly conducts labour force surveys, which can assist in providing information on the number of occupational injuries and deaths and women in management positions. Conducting more frequent household income and expenditure survey (HIES) and DHS will promote the monitoring of more timely SDG indicator data. CROATIA GPI RANK: 27/163 GPI TREND ( ): 8.9% increase in peace PPI RANK: 42/163 PPI TREND ( ): 3.6% increase in Positive Peace A post-conflict success story in many respects, Croatia continues to improve on Positive Peace. Since joining the European Union (EU) in 2013, Croatia has improved its levels of corruption and organised crime. However, organised crime is still considered a major problem. 14 Croatia has also continued to take action towards punishing those responsible for war crimes. Strengthening justice and institutions are at the core of SDG16+ and the promotion of obtaining and measuring SDG16+ can allow Croatia to better monitor their progress. Since 2008, Croatia has significantly improved in Positive Peace. The only pillar to deteriorate was Free Flow of Information whilst all other Pillars have improved or remained unchanged. Croatia s overall GPI score has also improved since The improvements have been led by the domains of Safety and Security, and Militarisation. experiences, successes and challenges surrounding the SDGs. Figure 4.6 shows existing SDG16+ indicator coverage for Croatia. Croatia is one of the best-performing countries, with coverage of 64 per cent of indicators reported by IEP in this report. Additionally, almost all of the remaining indicators could be measured using existing surveys. Just four of the 44 indicators would require the creation of new surveys or other data measurement instruments. FIGURE 4.6 POTENTIAL SDG16+ COLLECTION - CROATIA Croatia could potentially measure 12 more indicators using existing surveys Table 4.7 shows which surveys are currently collected in Croatia, how often they should be collected, when the survey was last conducted, and how many additional indicators the survey could potentially collect. TABLE 4.7 Currently Measured Could be measured using exisiting surveys Need new surveys to measure SUMMARY OF SDG16+ COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS - CROATIA Survey Authority Frequency Demographic & Health Survey/MICS Income & Expenditure Survey Census Labour Survey / Enterprise Survey Croatian / Eurostat Croatian / Eurostat Croatian / Eurostat Croatian / World Bank Last conducted Potential Additional Indicators Five years Five years Ten years Yearly Data Coverage At the upcoming HLPF, Croatia will conduct their first voluntary national review of the SDGs. These voluntary national reviews aim to encourage discussion of SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

48 Croatia currently measures 28 of the 44 indicators in SDG16+. The implementation of an NSDS from 2004 to 2012 led to a significant increase in data collection, particularly with regards to financial indicators. Although Croatia has some demographic and health data from the MICS surveys, it was only involved in round one, which was conducted in However, Croatia benefits from being a member of the EU, which conducts income and expenditure surveys, labour surveys, and its own demographic and health surveys. The European Health Interview Survey (EHIS) is similar to a DHS and was last conducted in 2014 in Croatia. The survey addressed health status, health care use, health determinants and socioeconomic background variables. Eurostat plans to conduct Croatia s EHIS3 in Household Budget Surveys (HBSs) are national surveys focusing mainly on consumption expenditure. Eurostat has been conducting and publishing these surveys every five years since The last two rounds were 2010 and The survey collects data on household consumption expenditures as well as data on socio-economic and demographic characteristics of households. Croatia will work with the World Bank to run an enterprise survey in Adding Additional Indicators Adding questions and components to existing surveys would allow the Croatian government to measure an additional 12 indicators, bringing the total number of indicators covered to 40. Croatia is currently missing indicators for victimisation, including the victimisation of women and children. Additional modules surrounding household characteristics would be required for a complete measure of SDG16+. Designing the 2019 EHIS3 survey to address a victimisation module will ensure a more complete monitoring of SDG16+. The EHIS3 could allow for eight additional indicators to be measured. Additionally, the household budget surveys could allow for a further two indicators regarding poverty. Cuba s centrally controlled economy has begun to encourage private business. The lifting US restrictions against Cuba demonstrate a positive shift in the country s political relations. Since 2008, Cuba has had improvements in all pillars of Positive Peace. The greatest improvements have come from the pillars Free Flow of Information and Acceptance of the Rights of Others. Similarly, the country s GPI ranking has improved since 2008 levels, led by the improvements in the domain Militarisation. However, the domain Safety and Security has slightly worsened, led by deteriorations in the indicators Perceptions of Criminality and Incarceration Rate. The achievement of the SDGs, in particular, the targets within SDG16+ could only come about through a change in attitude towards data collection. If implemented, the monitoring of the goals will provide timely updates on Cuba s progress to achieve a more peaceful, just and inclusive society. Data Coverage Figure 4.8 shows existing SDG16+ indicator coverage for Cuba. Only 39 per cent of indicators covered by IEP in this report are currently measured in Cuba, the equal lowest of any of the ten countries assessed in this section. However, many additional indicators could be measured using existing surveys. However, 11 of the 44 indicators would require the creation of new surveys or other data measurement instruments, such as an NSDS. Table 4.9 shows which surveys are currently collected in Cuba, and how many additional indicators these surveys could potentially collect. FIGURE 4.8 POTENTIAL SDG16+ COLLECTION - CUBA Less than half of the SDG16+ indicators are currently being measured in Cuba Additionally, the Eurobarometer conduct surveys in Croatia providing information on public opinion. Eurobarometer has asked questions in the past regarding discrimination, corruption and violence. The continuation of these questionnaires would create comparable European data that can supplement the current household surveys and add supplementary information on victimisation. Currently Measured Could be measured using exisiting surveys Need new surveys to measure CUBA GPI RANK: 81/163 GPI TREND ( ): 1.0% increase in peace PPI RANK: 99/163 PPI TREND ( ): 5.1% increase in Positive Peace Cuba, a centrally planned economy is encouraging private business resulting in improvements to the Sound Business Environment pillar. 46 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

49 TABLE 4.9 SUMMARY OF SDG16+ COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS - CUBA Survey Authority Frequency Demographic & Health Survey/MICS Cuban / UNICEF Last conducted Potential Additional Indicators Five years EQUATORIAL GUINEA GPI RANK: 65/163 GPI TREND ( ): 1.3% increase in peace PPI RANK: 157/163 PPI TREND ( ): 6.6% decrease in Positive Peace Equatorial Guinea has had one of the greatest improvements in per capita GDP in recent years, but has one of the largest Positive Peace deficits. Income & Expenditure Survey Census Labour Survey Cuban Cuban Cuban Five years Ten years Yearly Equatorial Guinea has one of the largest Positive Peace deficits of any country in the world and combined with a deteriorating Positive Peace score leads to concerns regarding future levels of peace. Improvements in Positive Peace are needed to underpin the current levels of peace. Countries experiencing Positive Peace deficits are more likely to fall in peace than to improve when their Positive Peace measures are not substantially improving. Cuba currently does not have a plan to implement a NSDS plan. Cuba would benefit from implementing a strategy for the development of national statistics similar to a NSDS, as it would provide a framework to enhance the monitoring and development of national statistical systems to collect information on the SDGs. With the assistance of UNICEF, Cuba will conduct a customised Cuban MICS6 in The main aim of this survey is to provide updates and measure the current situation for women, men and children in Cuba. The MICS6 can be used to measures many of the 44 SDG16+ indicators and is often employed to fill the SDG data gaps. This survey covers components such as child development, education, child discipline, domestic violence, genital mutilation and victimisation all SDG indicators not currently reported by Cuba. Cuba collected data for some of the violence indicators in the SDG16+ in the DHS, which was conducted in A labour survey was completed by the Cuban government in 2017, providing data for the SDG indicators regarding questions regarding occupational deaths and injuries. Adding Additional Indicators Adding questions and components to existing surveys would allow the Cuban government to measure an additional 16 indicators, bringing the total number of indicators covered to 33. Implementation of a NSDS, creating new surveys and better monitoring are required to measure the existing 11 indicators that currently cannot be measured under the current surveys conducted. Cuba is currently in the survey design stage of the MICS6 and the adoption of additional questions will allow for a greater measurement of indicators. Implementing additional household surveys tailored to the SDGs will permit Cuba to measure the missing indicators, especially those regarding victimisation. Equatorial Guinea has experienced considerable economic growth since the discovery of oil reserves in 1996 and is now one of the largest oil producers in sub-saharan Africa. Equatorial Guinea has deteriorated in many of the pillars of peace since 2008, most notably, the pillar Good Relations with Neighbours. The GPI has shown a small improvement over the same period mostly led by improvements in the Militarisation domain. However, the domain Safety and Security has worsened led by deteriorations in the indicator Violent Demonstrations and Violent Crime. Data Coverage Figure 4.10 shows existing SDG16+ indicator coverage for Equatorial Guinea. Only 39 per cent of indicators covered by IEP in this report are currently measured in Equatorial Guinea, the equal lowest of any of the ten countries assessed in this section. However, almost all of the indicators could be measured using existing surveys. Just seven of the 44 indicators would require the creation of new surveys or other data measurement instruments. FIGURE 4.10 POTENTIAL SDG16+ COLLECTION - EQUATORIAL GUINEA Current survey instruments in Equatorial Guinea are being underutilised Currently Measured Could be measured using exisiting surveys Need new surveys to measure SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

50 Equatorial Guinea is currently in the implementation stage of their NSDS, which will run from 2016 to The NSDS will promote procedures to enhance the monitoring and development of national statistical systems to collect information on the SDGs. Table 4.11 shows which surveys are currently collected in Equatorial Guinea and how many additional indicators the survey could potentially collect. TABLE 4.11 SUMMARY OF SDG16+ COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS - EQUATORIAL GUINEA Survey Authority Frequency Demographic & Health Survey/MICS Income & Expenditure Survey Census Enterprise Survey Equatorial Guinea / UNICEF Equatorial Guinea Equatorial Guinea Equatorial Guinea / World Bank Last conducted Potential Additional Indicators Five years Five years Ten years Yearly In 2019 with the assistance of UNICEF, Equatorial Guinea will conduct the MICS6. The main aim of this survey is to provide updates and measure the current situation for men, women and children in Equatorial Guinea. In collaboration with the World Bank, Equatorial Guinea conducted an enterprise survey in The enterprise survey provides information on business corruption, workforce demographics and the business environment. The current HIES was last conducted in 2006 and the DHS was last conducted in Equatorial Guinea in Both household surveys are outdated and should be conducted every four years. Adding Additional Indicators Adding questions and components to existing surveys would allow Equatorial Guinea s government to measure an additional 20 indicators, bringing the total number of indicators covered to 37. Enterprise surveys are conducted by the World Bank in collaboration with the Equatorial Guinea, which can provide data for the indicators to do with corruption, occupational injuries and death, and females in management positions. In February 2019, Equatorial Guinea s human rights institutions will be reviewed by the Global Alliance for National Human Rights Institutions (GANHRI) resulting in the potential monitoring of the indicator 16.a.1. HUNGARY GPI RANK: 18/163 GPI TREND ( ): 8.1% decrease in peace PPI RANK: 38/163 PPI TREND ( ): 7.0% decrease in Positive Peace Political unrest has led to a rise in populist sentiment in Hungary in the last decade, and corresponded with a concurrent fall in both Positive Peace and the GPI. The European migration crisis has drawn considerable international attention to Hungary s domestic politics. 15 From the 2008 levels, Hungary has deteriorated in their overall Positive Peace score. Good Relations with Neighbours and Equitable Distribution of Resources are the only Positive Peace pillars that have improved. Good Relations with Neighbours improved through an increase in the number of visitors as percentage of domestic population. The pillars Acceptance of the Rights of Others, Well-Functioning, Low Levels of Corruption and Free Flow of Information have had the largest deteriorations. The GPI has also worsened in Hungary. Significant deteriorations occurred in the domains of Safety and Security, and Ongoing Conflict. Data Coverage Of the ten case study countries, Hungary is one of the top performing with regards to data availability for the indicators measured in SDG16+. However, Hungary has never implemented a NSDS. Figure 4.12 shows existing SDG16+ indicator coverage for Hungary. In Hungary, 73 per cent of indicators covered by IEP in this report are currently measured, the third highest of any of the ten countries assessed in this section. Almost all of the indicators could be measured using existing surveys. Just three of the 44 indicators would require the creation of new surveys or other data measurement instruments. The MICS6 is currently in the survey design stage, which enables Equatorial Guinea to tailor the question design for the missing SDG16+ indicators. In particular, the MICS is well suited to measuring the indicators concerning victimisation, discrimination and corruption perception. Improving the frequency at which Equatorial Guinea undertakes household surveys such as the DHS and HIES will improve the data availability for indicators contained in the SDGs. Conducting these surveys will promote the better monitoring of SDG SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

51 FIGURE 4.12 POTENTIAL SDG16+ COLLECTION - HUNGARY Hungary has data for almost 75 per cent of the SDG16+ indicators Currently Measured Could be measured using exisiting surveys Need new surveys to measure Table 4.13 shows which surveys are currently collected in Hungary and how many additional indicators these surveys could potentially collect. TABLE 4.13 SUMMARY OF SDG16+ COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS - HUNGARY Survey Authority Frequency Demographic & Health Survey/MICS Income & Expenditure Survey Census Labour Survey / Enterprise Survey Hungarian / Eurostat Hungarian / Eurostat Hungarian / Eurostat Hungarian / World Bank Last conducted Potential Additional Indicators Five years Five years Ten years Yearly In collaboration with the World Bank, Hungary has scheduled an enterprise survey to be conducted in The enterprise survey provides information on business corruption, workforce demographics and the business environment. The EHIS is similar to a DHS. The last EHIS conducted in Hungary was the EHIS2 in 2014; the EHIS3 has been scheduled for The previous EHIS contained modules of health status, health care use, health determinants and socio-economic background variables. HBSs are national surveys focusing on consumption expenditure. Eurostat has been conducting and publishing the HBSs every five years since The two last collection rounds were 2010 and The survey collects data on household consumption expenditures as well as data on socio-economic and demographic characteristics of households. Adding Additional Indicators Adding questions and components to existing surveys would allow Hungary s government to measure an additional nine indicators, bringing the total number of indicators covered to 41. Hungary has data for the majority of the indicators discussed in this report as a result of all the surveys conducted through Eurostat. However, Hungary is consistently missing the victimisation indicators, which can be monitored through adaptions to pre-existing surveys such as the European Health Interview Survey. Additionally, the household budget surveys could allow for further indicators such as the percentage of the population living below 50 per cent of median income. Eurobarometer conduct surveys in Hungary, providing information on public opinion. Eurobarometer has asked questions in the past regarding discrimination, corruption and violence. The continuation of these questionnaires would create comparable European data that can supplement the current household surveys and add supplementary information on victimisation. LAOS GPI RANK: 46/163 GPI TREND ( ): 4.8% increase in peace PPI RANK: 127/163 PPI TREND ( ): 3.0% increase in Positive Peace Human rights abuses and freedom of speech are concerns in Laos. Laos has one of the largest Positive Peace deficits of any country in the GPI. Although the country is ruled by a one-party system, the government has made significant progress in addressing the issues and impacts of environmental destruction. Laos has made improvements in their overall score in the GPI, particularly in the domains of Safety and Security and Militarisation. The largest improvements came from the indicator Political Terror Scale, improving by 33 per cent. The Positive Peace overall score has improved in Laos since The largest improvements have come from the pillars, Sound Business Environment, High Levels of Human Capital, Low Levels of Corruption and Well-Functioning. However, the pillar Good Relations with Neighbours has deteriorated. Data Coverage In 2016, Laos began implementing their NSDS, which aims to be completed by It outlines a framework to promote procedures to enhance the monitoring and development of national statistical systems to collect information on the SDGs. Figure 4.14 shows existing SDG16+ indicator coverage for Laos. Laos has data for less than 50 per cent of the indicators covered in this report. However, an additional 17 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

52 indicators could be measured using existing surveys. Just six of the 44 indicators would require the creation of new surveys or other data measurement instruments. FIGURE 4.14 POTENTIAL SDG16+ COLLECTION - LAOS Seventeen additional indicators could be measured in Laos by adding questions to existing surveys business characteristics, gender participation, workforce composition and bribery. Adding Additional Indicators In October of 2019, Laos will undergo a peer review by the Sub-Committee on Accreditation of GANHRI providing additional information on 16.a.1 - Human Rights Institutions. Implementation of a NSDS, creating new surveys and better monitoring are required to measure the existing 11 indicators that currently cannot be measured under the current surveys conducted. Currently Measured Could be measured using exisiting surveys Need new surveys to measure RWANDA GPI RANK: 103/163 GPI TREND ( ): 10.4% decrease in peace PPI RANK: 92/163 PPI TREND ( ): 9.7% increase in Positive Peace Although Rwanda has seen an improvement in its Positive Peace, its GPI score has deteriorated by more than 10 per cent in the last decade. Table 4.15 shows which surveys are currently collected in Laos, how often they should be collected, when the survey was last conducted, and how many additional indicators the surveys could potentially collect. TABLE 4.15 SUMMARY OF SDG16+ COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS - LAOS Survey Authority Frequency Demographic & Health Survey/MICS Income & Expenditure Survey Census Labour Survey / Enterprise Survey Laos / UNICEF Laos Laos Laos / World Bank Last conducted Potential Additional Indicators Five years Five years Ten years Yearly Laos conducted the 6th round of the MICS in Consequently, Laos must wait until the 7th round of the MICS to incorporate the questions into the survey that will enable Laos to measures the remaining SDGs connected to victimisation. Laos also conducted a household expenditure and budget survey in 2012 and a DHS from 2011 to In line with NSDS best practice, these household surveys should be conducted every four years. Rwanda is often cited as an example of a successful post-conflict peacebuilding program. Rwanda has shown improvements in all the pillars of Positive Peace. The largest improvements derives from the pillars Sound Business Environment and Low Levels of Corruption. The promising business environment with low corruption may be attributing to the promising economic development in Rwanda. Female labour force participation is one of the highest in the world. Furthermore, Rwanda leads the world in female political participation, with females making-up more than 60 per cent of the parliamentary floor, and achieving near-parity in ministerial positions. The Global Gender Gap Report 2018 ranks Rwanda as the sixth highest country when it comes to reducing the gender gap. 16 However, Rwanda has seen a significant decline in their GPI score deteriorating by 10.3 per cent in the last decade. The largest deterioration has come from the Safety and Security domain which worsened by 17.2 per cent. Data Coverage Rwanda is currently implementing their NSDS which outlines a framework from 2014 to The NSDS promotes conducting household surveys once every four to five years. The NSDS will promote procedures to enhance the monitoring and development of national statistical systems to collect information on the SDGs in Rwanda. Figure 4.16 shows existing SDG16+ indicator coverage for Rwanda. Rwanda has data for 64 per cent of the indicators covered in this report. An additional 14 indicators could be measured using existing surveys. Just two of the 44 indicators would require the creation of new surveys or other data measurement instruments. Labour and enterprise surveys have been conducted by the government of Laos. The most recent enterprise survey was conducted in The standard enterprise survey covers 50 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

53 FIGURE 4.16 POTENTIAL SDG16+ COLLECTION - RWANDA Rwanda could potentially measure 95 per cent of the SDG16+ indicators without the need for any new surveys Currently Measured Could be measured using exisiting surveys Need new surveys to measure Table 4.17 shows which surveys are currently collected in Rwanda and how many additional indicators these surveys could potentially collect. TABLE 4.17 SUMMARY OF SDG16+ COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS - RWANDA Survey Authority Frequency Demographic & Health Survey/MICS Income & Expenditure Survey Census Labour Survey / Enterprise Survey Rwandan / UNICEF Rwandan Rwandan Rwandan / World Bank Last conducted Potential Additional Indicators Five years Five years Ten years Yearly Rwanda conducted an integrated household survey in 2013/14. This survey provided information on the income and expenditure of households in Rwanda. In 2014/15, Rwanda conducted their most recent DHS. Labour Force Surveys are also regularly completed by Rwanda, the most recent being in Adding Additional Indicators Adding additional questions and components to existing surveys would allow the Rwandan government to measure an additional 14 indicators, bringing the total number of indicators covered to 42. Afrobarometer currently does not conduct their surveys in Rwanda. Partnerships to support Afrobarometer could provide comparable data within Africa on social perceptions and experiences. Improving the frequency of conducting household surveys in line with the NSDS plan such as the expenditure and budget survey and the DHS will enable Rwanda to better monitor the SDGs. Adding additional questions, in particular, questions related to victimisation, corruption and poverty will ensure a more complete monitoring of the missing SDGs. An additional seven questions could be asked within these surveys related to victimisation, three questions related to employment and workplace conditions and one question related to poverty, allowing for a more complete monitoring of the missing SDGs. Alternatively, the labour force surveys can implement questions surrounding women in management positions and occupational injuries and deaths. Rwanda is currently not measuring many of the financial indicators defined in SDG16+. The successful implementation of the NSDS will promote governmental data monitoring enabling Rwanda to better measure the financial indicators related to the government s accounts. TANZANIA GPI RANK: 51/163 GPI TREND ( ): 2.6% decrease in peace PPI RANK: 102/163 PPI TREND ( ): 6.2% increase in Positive Peace Tanzania has improved in seven of the eight pillars of Positive Peace. Despite being one of the most peaceful countries in sub-saharan Africa, Tanzania has a large Positive Peace deficit. President John Pombe Magufuli has expanded the access to schooling for all through the removal of all forms of fees. Furthermore, laws have been introduced to protect children from exploitation, especially in the domains of child labour and underage marriage. 17 Tanzania has improved in seven of the eight pillars of Positive Peace. Notable improvements have been in the pillars of Acceptance of the Rights of Others and Good Relations with Neighbours. Tanzania has contradictory outcomes concerning the domains of the GPI. While the overall score and the domain Safety and Security have deteriorated, the domain Ongoing Conflict has remained unchanged while the domain Militarisation has improved. Data Coverage Tanzania implemented a national statistics development strategy plan (NSDS) in 2017 and The NSDS developed a framework to improve the monitoring and development of the Tanzanian national statistical systems enabling the better monitoring and data collection of the SDGs. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

54 Figure 4.18 shows existing SDG16+ indicator coverage for Tanzania. Tanzania measures 77 per cent of the SDG16+ indicators, the equal most of any of the ten countries assessed in this section. An additional nine indicators could be measured using existing surveys. Just one of the 44 indicators would require the creation of new surveys or other data measurement instruments. FIGURE 4.18 POTENTIAL SDG16+ COLLECTION - TANZANIA Tanzania could potentially measure 98 per cent of the SDG16+ indicators Table 4.19 shows which surveys are currently collected in Tanzania, how often they should be collected, when the survey was last conducted, and how many additional indicators the survey could potentially collect. TABLE 4.19 Currently Measured Could be measured using exisiting surveys Need new surveys to measure SUMMARY OF SDG16+ COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS - TANZANIA Survey Authority Frequency Demographic & Health Survey/ MICS Income & Expenditure Survey Census Labour Survey / Enterprise Survey Tanzanian / UNICEF Tanzanian Tanzanian Tanzanian / World Bank Last conducted Potential Additional Indicators Five years Five years Ten years Yearly Tanzania last conducted an expenditure and budget household survey in 2011/2012. In order to have more timely data, Tanzania could reduce the time elapsed between surveys. The most recent DHS Demographic & Health Survey is more timely and was conducted in Adding Additional Indicators Adding questions and components to existing surveys would allow the Tanzanian government to measure an additional nine indicators, bringing the total number of indicators covered to 43. Increasing the household surveys to contain a larger victimisation component would enable Tanzania to measure additional indicators that are currently not been measured. For example, the indicator violence against children (16.2.1) and anti-social behaviour indicators, such as discrimination suffered (16.b.1), are currently not measured, but could easily be incorporated into the next round of household surveys. Afrobarometer conduct surveys in Tanzania providing information on democracy, governance, and corruption. Afrobarometer has asked questions in the past regarding discrimination, physical violence and sexual violence. The continuation of these questionnaires would create comparable African data that can supplement the current household surveys and add supplementary information on victimisation. Household surveys (and especially labour force surveys) can provide information about the economic activities of household members. National income and consumption surveys could also allow for a clear indication of those living below 50 per cent of median income. Better monitoring of the government expenditures will enable Tanzania to measure social spending as a percentage of total GDP, indicator 1.b.1, and the labour share of GDP, indicator Tanzania is missing data on the level of accessibility of education facilities. The UNESCO Institute for Statistics compiles time series data that is reported by the national Ministries of Education or National Statistical Offices. This data is gathered through the annual Survey of Formal Education and the Survey on ICTs in Education which in the past has been conducted in Tanzania. UZBEKISTAN GPI RANK: 104/163 GPI TREND ( ): 5.5% increase in peace PPI RANK: 129/163 PPI TREND ( ): 2.2% increase in Positive Peace Uzbekistan has made improvements in their human rights under the new political leadership. Under the new political leadership, Uzbekistan has taken steps to improve the rights of their citizens. Following the death of Islam Karimov in 2016, Shavkat Mirziyoyev was inaugurated as Uzbekistan s president. Under new 52 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

55 leadership, Uzbekistan has had a shift towards improving freedom of speech, in addition to increasing governmental transparency. 18 Advancements have been made to release political prisoners, including journalists that were previously detained. Uzbekistan s government have focused on repairing relations with neighbouring countries and opening up to the world. Journalists have stated that their freedom of press and access to websites has improved. 19 Uzbekistan has had improvements in all Positive Peace domains, in addition to the PPI overall score. Better measuring of the targets in SDG16+ will result in closer tracking of this shift towards a more open and accountable government. Data Coverage Uzbekistan is not currently implementing a NSDS plan. However Paris21, the organisation that assists countries with their NSDS is planning to develop a NSDS for Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan would benefit from implementing a NSDS as it would provide a framework to enhance the monitoring and development of national statistical systems to collect information on the SDGs. Figure 4.20 shows existing SDG16+ indicator coverage for Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan has data for less than half of the indicators covered in this report. However, an additional 16 indicators could be measured using existing surveys. Seven of the 44 indicators would require the creation of new surveys or other data measurement instruments. FIGURE 4.20 POTENTIAL SDG16+ COLLECTION - UZBEKISTAN Less than half of the SDG16+ indicators are currently being measured in Uzbekistan Currently Measured Could be measured using exisiting surveys Need new surveys to measure 16 Table 4.21 shows which surveys are currently collected in Uzbekistan, how often they should be collected, when the survey was last conducted and how many additional indicators the survey could potentially collect TABLE 4.21 SUMMARY OF SDG16+ COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS - UZBEKISTAN Survey Authority Demographic & Health Survey/MICS Income & Expenditure Survey Census Labour Survey / Enterprise Survey Uzbekistan / UNICEF Uzbekistan Uzbekistan Uzbekistan / World Bank Frequency Last conducted Potential Additional Indicators Five years Five years Ten years Yearly With the assistance of UNICEF, Uzbekistan is designing a MICS6 to be conducted in The main aim of this survey is to provide updates and measure the current situation for women and children in Bhutan. This survey covers components, such as child protection, domestic violence and other victimisation questions. In 2013, a survey was conducted that provided information on the income and expenditure of the Uzbekistan citizens. With the assistance of the World Bank, in 2013 an enterprise survey was completed covering questions regarding the business environment in Uzbekistan. In 2019, a second enterprise survey will be conducted. The enterprise survey provides information on modules such as business corruption, workforce demographics and the business environment. Adding Additional Indicators Adding questions and components to existing surveys would allow the Uzbekistan government to measure an additional 16 indicators, bringing the total number of indicators covered to 37. The MICS6 furthers Uzbekistan s potential to measure the SDG indicators, which they have previously been unable to measure. The focus of the MICS in the past has been on women and children, the new MICS will interview men furthering the scope of this survey. Due to Uzbekistan either not monitoring, or not publishing information on their government spending, the indicators 1.b.1 for social spending, for labour share of GDP, and for responsible budget spending, are not measured. Furthermore, new data measurement instruments would need to be introduced to measure the SDGs for arms trafficking, for human trafficking, and for violence against journalists. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

56 ZIMBABWE GPI RANK: 124/163 GPI TREND ( ): 4.8% increase in peace PPI RANK: 150/163 PPI TREND ( ): 6.7% increase in Positive Peace With the change of leadership in Zimbabwe, it has the opportunity for policy changes in governance and the business environment to improve its Positive Peace. In November 2017, Emmerson Mnangagwa assumed power from Robert Mugabe, who had been president for two decades prior. The past decade has seen an improvement in both its GPI score and Positive Peace, with its score on the GPI and PPI improving by 4.8 per cent and 6.7 per cent respectively. The improvements in Positive Peace were driven by the improvements in the pillars, Sound Business Environment and Free Flow of Information. The GPI improved in all domains with the largest improvement coming from the domain Ongoing Conflict. Since 2008, the Ongoing Conflict indicator Intensity of Internal Conflict has improved by 25 per cent. Data Coverage Zimbabwe is currently implementing their NSDS, which began in 2016 and aims to be finished by The NSDS conducts household surveys once every four to five years. The NSDS will promote procedures to enhance the monitoring and development of national statistical systems to collect information on the SDGs in Zimbabwe. Figure 4.22 shows existing SDG16+ indicator coverage for Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe has data for 77 per cent of the SDG16+ indicators, the equal highest of any of the ten countries assessed in this section. An additional seven indicators could be measured using existing surveys. Just three of the 44 indicators would require the creation of new surveys or other data measurement instruments. FIGURE 4.22 POTENTIAL SDG16+ COLLECTION - ZIMBABWE Zimbabwe has one of the highest levels of indicator coverage for SDG16+ Currently Measured Could be measured using exisiting surveys Need new surveys to measure Table 4.23 shows which surveys are currently collected in Zimbabwe, how often they should be collected, when the survey was last conducted, and how many additional indicators these surveys could potentially collect. TABLE 4.23 SUMMARY OF SDG16+ COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS - ZIMBABWE Survey Authority Frequency Demographic & Health Survey/MICS Income & Expenditure Survey Census Labour Survey / Enterprise Survey Zimbabwe / UNICEF Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe / World Bank Last conducted Potential Additional Indicators Five years Five years Ten years Yearly With the assistance of UNICEF, Zimbabwe is designing a MICS6 to be conducted in The main aim of this survey is to provide updates and measure the current situation for women and children in Zimbabwe. This survey covers components, such as child protection, domestic violence and other victimisation questions. The last MICS in Zimbabwe was conducted in In 2015, a survey was conducted that provided information on the income and expenditure of the citizens in Zimbabwe. With the assistance of the World Bank, in 2016 an enterprise survey was completed covering questions regarding the business environment in Zimbabwe. Adding Additional Indicators Adding questions and components to existing surveys would allow the Zimbabwe government to measure an additional seven indicators, bringing the total number of indicators covered to 41. Zimbabwe s implementation of the MICS6 in 2019 will enable the further measuring of indicators related to victimisation, poverty and employment, adding the additional measurement of five more indicators. Alternatively, introducing updated versions of the health and demographic survey and the income and expenditure surveys can provide information to measure the missing indicators associated with victimisation, poverty and employment. Afrobarometer conduct surveys in Zimbabwe, which provide information on democracy, governance, and society. Afrobarometer has asked questions in the past regarding discrimination, physical violence and sexual violence. The continuation of these questionnaires would create comparable African data that can supplement the current household surveys and add supplementary information on victimisation. Since 2016, Zimbabwe has been implementing a NSDS. The development of national statistics may enable Zimbabwe to build effective statistical systems to monitor and report financial indicators such as the level of social spending and financial soundness indicators. 54 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

57 APPENDICES APPENDIX A1 Omitted indicators due to no official data or proxy Target/ Indicator Title/Official Indicator 4.7 PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development, including gender equality and human rights, are mainstreamed at all levels in: (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c) teacher education; and (d) student assessment 5.c.1 THE PROMOTION OF GENDER EQUALITY 5.c.1 Proportion of countries with systems to track and make public allocations for gender equality and women s empowerment 8.5 FULL, FAIR AND PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYMENT Average hourly earnings of female and male employees, by occupation, age and persons with disabilities 8.8 SAFE AND SECURE WORKING ENVIRONMENTS Level of national compliance of labour rights (freedom of association and collective bargaining) based on International Labour Organization (ILO) textual sources and national legislation, by sex and migrant status 10.7 FACILITATE ORDERLY, SAFE, AND RESPONSIBLE MOBILITY OF PEOPLE Recruitment cost borne by employee as a proportion of yearly income earned in country of destination Number of countries that have implemented well-managed migration policies 11.2 ACCESS TO SAFE, AFFORDABLE, ACCESSIBLE AND SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT SYSTEMS Proportion of population that has convenient access to public transport, by sex, age and persons with disabilities 11.3 INCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE URBANIZATION Ratio of land consumption rate to population growth rate Proportion of cities with a direct participation structure of civil society in urban planning and management that operate regularly and democratically 11.7 ACCESS TO SAFE, INCLUSIVE AND ACCESSIBLE PUBLIC SPACES Average share of the built-up area of cities that is open space for public use for all, by sex, age and persons with disabilities. SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

58 APPENDIX A2 Omitted indicators due to being measured globally Target/ Indicator Title/Official Indicator 10.6 COUNTRY REPRESENTATION IN THE GLOBAL INSTITUTIONS Proportion of members and voting rights of developing countries in international organizations COUNTRY REPRESENTATION IN THE GLOBAL INSTITUTIONS Proportion of members and voting rights of developing countries in international organisations. APPENDIX A3 Official indicators omitted due to being simplified Target/ Indicator Title/Official Indicator 4.5 ELIMINATE EDUCATION DISPARITIES Parity indices (female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others such as disability status, indigenous peoples and conflict-affected, as data become available) for all education indicators on this list that can be disaggregated 4.a ENSURE INCLUSIVE AND EFFECTIVE EDUCATION FACILITIES 4.a.1 Proportion of schools with access to: (a) electricity; (b) the Internet for pedagogical purposes; (c) computers for pedagogical purposes; (d) adapted infrastructure and materials for students with disabilities; (e) basic drinking water; (f) single-sex basic sanitation facilities; and (g) basic handwashing facilities (as per the WASH indicator definitions) 56 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

59 In the following tables, the green X s represent the country has conducted a survey in the past that can potentially measure the SDG indicator by adding additional components to the survey. The orange X s represent the country has undertaken a NSDS plan and a successful implementation of the strategy will allow the country to monitor their fiscal situation better. The black X s represent a country does not have the mechanisms or surveys in place from the surveys reviewed to measure the indicator. The yellow X represent a scheduled date for a GANHRI review. Legend: SDG16+ data gaps and missing indicators X X X X Country has conducted a survey that could provide information on the indicator Does not have the mechanisms in place to measure indicator GANHRI REVIEW National strategy to develop statistics APPENDIX B: SDG16+ GAPS AND MISSING S ASIA-PACIFIC Indicator Laos Potential measurement surveys or other data measurement instruments Women subjected to physical and sexual violence X DHS MICS Sexual Violence Against Girls X DHS MICS Female genital mutilation X DHS MICS Women in management positions X Labour force surveys Enterprise surveys MICS 8.8.1a Fatal occupational injuries X Labour force surveys Enterprise surveys MICS 8.8.1b Non-fatal occupational injuries X Labour force surveys Enterprise surveys MICS Population living below 50% of median income X National income and consumption surveys DHS MICS Discrimination based on ethnicity X DHS MICS Victims of Violence X DHS MICS Sexual Violence Against Girls X DHS MICS Underreporting of Violence X DHS MICS Corruption (Citizens) X Household surveys MICS 16.b.1 Discrimination X MICS DHS 1.b.1 Social spending X Fiscal office NSDS social protection transfers X Fiscal office NSDS FSI Non-performing loans X Fiscal office IMF NSDS 16.a.1 Human Rights Institutions X Peer review by GANHRI 4.a.1 School Access X Survey of Formal Education SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

60 APPENDIX B: SDG16+ GAPS AND MISSING S CENTRAL AMERICA & THE CARIBBEAN Indicator Cuba Potential measurement surveys or other data measurement instruments Women subjected to physical and sexual violence X DHS MICS Sexual Violence Against Girls X DHS MICS Female genital mutilation X DHS MICS Women in management positions X Labour force surveys Enterprise surveys MICS Children engaged in economic activity X DHS MICS Labour force surveys Population living below 50% of median income X National income and consumption surveys DHS MICS Discrimination based on ethnicity X DHS MICS FSI Non-performing loans X Fiscal office IMF NSDS Urban population living in slums X National income and consumption surveys DHS MICS Victims of Violence X DHS MICS Sexual Violence Against Girls X DHS MICS Underreporting of Violence X DHS MICS Corruption (Citizens) X Household surveys MICS Corruption (Business) X Household surveys Enterprise surveys MICS 16.b.1 Discrimination X MICS DHS Budget funded by taxes X IMF NSDS 1.b.1 Social spending X Fiscal office NSDS social protection transfers X Fiscal office NSDS Responsible Budget Spending X Fiscal office IMF NSDS Tax revenue X IMF NSDS 16.a.1 Human Rights Institutions X Peer review by GANHRI 4.a.1 School Access X Survey of Formal Education Illicit Financial Flows X National Statistical Office Global Financial Integrity (GFI) IMF 58 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

61 APPENDIX B: SDG16+ GAPS AND MISSING S EUROPE Indicator Croatia Hungary Potential measurement surveys or other data measurement instruments 1.b.1 Social spending X Fiscal office NSDS Women who were married before 15 X X DHS MICS Female genital mutilation X X DHS MICS Children engaged in economic activity X X DHS MICS Labour force surveys Population living below 50% of median income X National income and consumption surveys DHS MICS Discrimination based on ethnicity X X DHS MICS Urban population living in slums X X National income and consumption surveys DHS MICS Victims of Violence X X DHS MICS Violence Against Children X X DHS MICS Sexual Violence Against Girls X X DHS MICS Underreporting of Violence X X DHS MICS Birth Registration X DHS MICS 4.a.1 School Access X Survey of Formal Education Responsible Budget Spending X X Fiscal office IMF NSDS SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

62 APPENDIX B: SDG16+ GAPS AND MISSING S RUSSIA & EURASIA Indicator Uzbekistan Potential measurement surveys or other data measurement instruments Women subjected to physical and sexual violence X DHS MICS Sexual Violence Against Girls X DHS MICS Female genital mutilation X DHS MICS Women in management positions X Labour force surveys Enterprise surveys MICS Children engaged in economic activity X DHS MICS Labour force surveys 8.8.1a Fatal occupational injuries X Labour force surveys 8.8.1b Non-fatal occupational injuries X Labour force surveys Enterprise surveys Enterprise surveys MICS MICS Population living below 50% of median income X National income and consumption surveys DHS MICS Discrimination based on ethnicity X DHS MICS Urban population living in slums X National income and consumption surveys DHS MICS Victims of Violence X DHS MICS Violence Against Children X DHS MICS Sexual Violence Against Girls X DHS MICS Underreporting of Violence X DHS MICS 16.b.1 Discrimination X MICS DHS 16.a.1 Human Rights Institutions X Peer review by GANHRI 1.b.1 Social spending X Fiscal office NSDS social protection transfers X Fiscal office NSDS Illicit Financial Flows X National Statistical Office Global Financial Integrity (GFI) IMF Responsible Budget Spending X Fiscal office IMF NSDS 60 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

63 APPENDIX B: SDG16+ GAPS AND MISSING S SOUTH ASIA Indicator Uzbekistan Potential measurement surveys or other data measurement instruments Women subjected to physical and sexual violence X DHS MICS Sexual Violence Against Girls X DHS MICS Female genital mutilation X DHS MICS Women in management positions X Labour force surveys Enterprise surveys MICS 8.8.1a Fatal occupational injuries X Labour force surveys Enterprise surveys MICS 8.8.1b Non-fatal occupational injuries X Labour force surveys Enterprise surveys MICS Population living below 50% of median income X National income and consumption surveys DHS MICS Discrimination based on ethnicity X DHS MICS Urban population living in slums X National income and consumption surveys DHS MICS Victims of Violence X DHS MICS Violence Against Children X DHS MICS Sexual Violence Against Girls X DHS MICS Underreporting of Violence X DHS MICS Corruption (Citizens) X Household surveys MICS 16.b.1 Discrimination X MICS DHS 1.b.1 Social spending X Fiscal office NSDS social protection transfers X Fiscal office NSDS 16.a.1 Human Rights Institutions X Peer review by GANHRI SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

64 APPENDIX B: SDG16+ GAPS AND MISSING S SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Indicator Equatorial Guinea Rwanda Tanzania Zimbabwe Potential measurement surveys or other data measurement instruments Sexual Violence Against Girls X X DHS MICS Female genital mutilation X X X DHS MICS Women in management positions X X X X Labour force surveys Enterprise surveys MICS Children engaged in economic activity X X DHS MICS Labour force surveys 8.8.1a Fatal occupational injuries X X X Labour force surveys Enterprise surveys MICS 8.8.1b Non-fatal occupational injuries X X X Labour force surveys Enterprise surveys MICS Population living below 50% of median income Discrimination based on ethnicity Urban population living in slums X X X X HICS DHS MICS X X DHS MICS HICS DHS MICS Victims of Violence X X DHS MICS Safe Walking Alone X DHS MICS Violence Against Children X X X DHS MICS Underreporting of Violence X X DHS MICS Corruption (Citizens) X X Household surveys MICS Corruption (Business) X Household surveys Enterprise surveys MICS Satisfaction with Public Services X Household surveys 16.b.1 Discrimination X X X X MICS DHS 1.b.1 Social spending X X X X Fiscal office NSDS 4.a.1 School Access X X X Survey of Formal Education Social protection transfers X X X Fiscal office NSDS FSI Non-performing loans X Fiscal office IMF NSDS Responsible Budget Spending X Fiscal office IMF NSDS 16.a.1 Human Rights Institutions X Peer review by GANHRI Gender Inequality Index X DHS MICS 62 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT 2019

65 End notes 1. Pathfinders, Accessed Nov World Bank World development report 2011: Conflict, security, and development. 3. World Bank, MDG Progress Status, mdgs/progress-status-across-groups-percentage-of-countries.html, Accessed Nov World Bank, Harmonized List of Fragile Situations, worldbank.org/en/topic/fragilityconflictviolence/brief/harmonizedlist-of-fragile-situations, Accessed Dec UNDP, Work Plans for Tier III Indicators, org/sdgs/files/meetings/iaeg-sdgs-meeting-05/tieriii_work_ Plans_03_03_2017.pdf, Accessed Jan UNSTATS, Tier Classification for Global SDG Indicators, unstats.un.org/sdgs/iaeg-sdgs/tier-classification/, Accessed Dec Centre for Law and Democracy pilot-data-collection-on-sustainable-development-goalindicator /, Accessed Mar OECD, Social Spending, 9. United Nations, Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, UNICEF, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, Accessed Jan The 2018 NSDS progress report stated Uzbekistan to be in the process of having a NSDS designed and funding sought. paris21.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/nsds-progress- Report-2018_0.pdf, Accessed Dec PARIS21, National Strategies for the Development of Statistics, Accessed Dec Bhutan 2017 Human Rights Report: United States Department of State Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, state.gov/documents/organization/ pdf, Accessed Jan Gan, Croatia Corruption Report, Accessed Jan Amnesty, Hungary, europe-and-central-asia/hungary/, Accessed Jan World Economic Forum, The Global Gender Gap Report 2018, Accessed Jan Tanzania 2017 Human Rights Report, documents/organization/ pdf, Accessed Jan Uzbekistan 2017 Human Rights Report, documents/organization/ pdf, Accessed Jan Human Rights Watch, Uzbekistan, Accessed Jan 2019 SDG16+ PROGRESS REPORT

66 MEASURING THE GLOBAL ECONOMIC IMPACT OF VIOLENCE AND CONFLICT Our research analyses peace and its economic value. We develop global and national indices, calculate the economic impact of violence, analyse country level risk and have developed an empirical framework for Positive Peace that provides a roadmap to overcome adversity and conflict, helping to build and sustain lasting peace. Download our latest reports and research briefs for free at: visionofhumanity.org/reports THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF PEACE 2018 THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF PEACE 2018