CHAPTER IV. Reorganizing the Raj : Seeds of Nationalism in. Manbhum. The Mutiny of 1857 as the English called it, was a great shock to them.

Transcription

1 CHAPTER IV Reorganizing the Raj : Seeds of Nationalism in Manbhum The Mutiny of 1857 as the English called it, was a great shock to them. It had serious consequences on Indo-British relations and on the Indian administration. As the government felt the need of making some changes by reorganizing the Raj, it was natural that it created great effects in the history of Manbhum district as well. The Act of 1858 put an end to the dual authority exercised by the Board of Control and the Court of Directors. It hastened the end of the East India Company. The Act of 1858 was passed, the company was dissolved and the system of dual government was given up once for all. The Indian administration was taken up directly by the Crown. In February 1858, Lord Palmerstone introduced a bill for transferring the government of India to the Crown. J. S. Mill vehemently opposed it and drafted a famous petition for the continuance of the rule of the East India Company. But however, the bill became an "Act for the better Government of India, 1858". The various changes introduced in India were formally announced in India by a Proclamation of Queen Victoria on November 1, The Proclamation runs as under: "We hereby announce to the Native Princes of

2 India, that all treaties and engagements made with them by or under the authority of the Hon'ble East India Company are by us accepted and will be scrupulously maintained. We shall respect the rights, dignity and honour of native princes as our own". This announcement was made to pacify the Princes who fought against the British in the Great Revolt of In case of Manbhum, it was Nilmoni Singh Deo - The Panchet Zamindar who fought against the British and remained intern under the English Protection at Calcutta. The Queen further proclaimed: "It is our further will, that as far as may be our subjects of whatever race or creed be freely and impartially admitted to offices in our service, the duties of which they may be qualified by their education, ability and integrity, duly to discharge." It was further stated that due regard would be paid to the ancient rights, usages and customs of India. It was also declared "to stimulate peaceful industry of India, to promote works of public utility and improvement and to administer the government for the benefit of all of the subjects resident therein". 1 The Queen also assured once more, the non-interference in religious matters. The intention of the Queen as well as the British Parliament after the Revolt of 1857, was the welfare of the Indian people; advising them of reposing faith on British government. This type of gaining confidence of the Indians was nothing new, as was observed. by Edmund Burke just after the battle of Plassey when he says that the Britain's right to rule India could be made legitimate, only through just governance. His cautious remark that "Britain must secure the prosperity of India's people before seeking any gain [147]

3 itself', 2 had been neglected by the Company. These ideas of late 18th century included expectations of how a proper society ought to be organized and above all, the right to property and rule of English laws would be established in India. But the efforts of the 18th century liberals like Warren Hastings, Cornwallis, Edmund Burke and Thomas Munno could not produce the desired result. But even after the Great Revolt of 1857 the British justified the continuance of the Raj. But it opened up as well a gulf between Britain and India that could not easily be closed again after the restoration of order. As historian Trevelian remarks "Men cannot at will cast aside the recollection of those times when all was doubt and confusion and dismay, when a great fear was their companion, day and night," The historian further stated by remarking, "The distrust and dislike engendered by such an experience are too deeply rooted to be plucked up by an act of volition." 3 Despite the widespread expression of Indian hostility in 1857, the British officials tried to justify Britain's right to rule India. Even after the Revolt no one in Britain or among the British in India, ever considered leaving India. To the contrary the 1857 Revolt evoked a cleansing sense of heroism and self- assertion. As Travelyan wrote, the struggle "irresistibly reminded us that we were an imperial race, holding our own on a conquered soil by dint of valour and foresight". 4 The representation of the events of 1857 in British histriography as a 'Sepoy Mutiny' reflected the determination to preserve Britain's reputation as an imperial power. About the religious differences with the Indians, many Englishmen believed up to 1860 that Christianity was the mark of superiority and hence [148]

4 difference from their Indian subjects. The government's expensive church establishment had nothing to do with conversion in India and had done little for the struggling community of the Christians. Thus when the society for the Propagation of the Gospel in London proposed, as a memorial for Kanpur massacre of 1857, that a church be erected for the use of the Indian residents of the city, with a missionary clergymen and prayers perpetually made for their conversion, the local English community rebelled. Thus despite the presence of dedicated missionaries throughout India, Christianity had become the religion of Europe. 5 Although the theory of conversion in India had been abandoned, still the new policy had room for other enduring liberal ideals. One was religious toleration after This was the message of the Queen's Proclamation on the abolition of the East India Company. Although the Queen added to the draft proclamation, the phrase "firmly relying ourselves on the truth of Christianity," the document made no reference to conversion. Rather it repudiated any "desire to impose our conversions on any of our subjects" and refrained from interference with the customs and beliefs of the Indian people. 6 With much similarity, the value of education remained unquestioned despite the fear of the Revolt. In part this was because the western educated Indians had remained loyal to the government during the uprising. The Young Indian official George Campbell remarked as early as in 1853 that "the classes most advanced in English education, and who talk like newspapers, are not yet those from whom we have anything to fear; but on the contrary they are those who have gained everything by our rule, and whom neither [149]

5 invest nor inclination leads to deeds of daring involving any personal risk." 7 The challenge which the educated would pose to the Raj still lay in the future. Yet the effort to preserve elements of an ongoing liberalism further created contradiction which had marked the course of reform since the days of William Bentink. Although it was unthinkable to contemplate the curtailing of government support for schools, an educational policy which was embodied by Macauley could find no place in the new set up. The British were likewise unwilling to abandon altogether their sense of responsibility for the well being of the subjects of these newly favoured intermediaries like the native princes and landed aristocrats. The result was the enactment of tenancy legislation, especially in Bengal and more particularly in the Chotanagpur division of the province. It gave advantages to the peasantry but without antagonizing their landlords. But surprisingly such measures satisfied neither party. The British likewise in similar fashion granted the princesses of India the right to adopt heirs and so save their states from extinction with a closer security of their succession and education. With the end of the East India Company, Lord Canning became the Viceroy of India, who toured India after 1858 to make manifest the new relationship proclaimed by the Queen. In a series of assemblies, he distributed Indian titles like Raja, Nawab and Raja- Bahadur as well as lands and money to a number of loyal princes, notables and officials. Thus the British did not forget the recent uprisings in Manbhum under Nilmoni Singh Deo. The British wanted to make him a loyal supporter so that he might not create such troubles in future. Therefore, the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal [150]

6 recommended the title of Raja on Nilmoni Singh Deo - the Zamindar of Panchet. Colonel H.M. Durand, the officiating Secretary to the Government of India wrote to the Secretary, Government of Bengal on 2nd November, 1861 by observing: "I am directed to state that under the circumstances now represented, the Governor-General in Council is pleased to comply with this Honor's, recommendation and to confer the title of Rajah on the Zamindar." 8 But as the Sanad of conferring the title of the Raja was not received immediately, H. Bell - the Under Secretary to the Government of Bengal wrote to the Commissioner of Chotanagpur on th December, 1861 by observing: "I am directed by the Lieutenant Governor to state that there has been some delay in issuing the Sunnud conferring the title of Rajah on the Zamindar of Panchet, in consequence of the old Sunnud of 1857 to be returned to the Government of India. The ceremony of investiture cannot take place to the issue of the new Sunnud, but in the meantime, you are authorised with advertence to the Government Notification alluded to by you, to address the Zamindar of Panchet as Rajah". 9 The British government also introduced the famous policy of associating Indians with the administration. This was implemented with the enactment of the Indian Councils Act of This was done to meet a very serious defect in the Indian administration, namely, that there were no avenues for judging the public opinion in India and to ascertain the reaction of Indians to the administrative policies of the government. But the control of the Secretary of State over the Indian administration was absolute. Thus "the [151]

7 entire machinery of administration was bureaucratic, totally unconcerned about public opinion in lndia". 10 Manbhum in Transition The assumption of the direct administration of India by the Crown led to great changes both in spirit and details of internal administration of the country, and hence the district of Manbhum also felt its impact. The administrative machinery was gradually organized, which was not possible under the company's regime. As the administrative principles and political ideals of England were applied to a large extent, the Indian administration became more efficient. As was the case of the country as a whole, similar with the district of Manbhum, which, it seems arose from a great slumber in the second half of the 19th century. Local Self-Government In ancient India the ideas of local self-government prevailed to a great extent. The villages and towns were small states in miniature where all the local needs for sanitation, communication, the judiciary and the police were served by assemblies of the people. But during the turmoil that followed in the wake of the dissolution of the Mughal Empire, these self governing organizations almost entirely disappeared. The British government tried to revive them. But soon they were confronted with the task of evolving a definite system of local government both for rural and urban areas. The British government adopted no definite system under the rule of the Company. It was in 1870 that a great stimulus was given to the [152}

8 development of local self government. Within a year; Acts were passed in various provinces. For the administration of funds, committees were set up for all the districts of Bengal, including Manbhum. These communities were all nominated by ~he Government and controlled by them. They consisted of both officials and non officials members. 11 In Manbhum, the cess was imposed for the first time by the new Act, 1861, which was indirectly a violation of the Permanent Settlement. Thus the government decided to restrict the cess only to the amount required for the road. Thus the road-cess as it was called in Manbhum, could not be diverted to primary education. But the system introduced in 1871 in the district was no doubt a definite improvement upon the existing situation. Much was done in the district f~r the improvement in communications, sanitation and education. But there were several defects in these system. The popular feelings were totally neglected. The people of Manbhum had no voice or suggestions for these improvements, which were entirely dominated by the officials. Aware of the shortcomings, Lord Ripon for the first time, tried to remove these defects by introducing the system of local self-government, somewhat on the basis of English laws. This idea was laid down in the shape of a Government Resolution in May The two essential features of the new plan were that the sub-division and not the district should be the maximum area covered by one committee or local board. Secondly, he insisted that the local boards should consist of a large majority of elected nonofficial members. [153]

9 Though it was a real beginning of self-government, but unfortunately the principles underlying this resolution were not fully given effect in many provinces. In Bengal alone an attempt was made to carry Lord Ripon's ideas to full extent, but the Bill introduced for the purpose was vetoed by the Secretary of State. Thus under the Act, finally passed in 1885, the District Boards continued to function under the Chairmanship of District Magistrates. 12 Up to the time of Ripon, the local administration of towns, like that of rural areas, was not conducted by any uniform pattern. In big towns there was a municipal committee nominated by the government headed by the District Magistrate as Chairman. Their power of taxation for meeting local needs was based on some ceses. In most cases the government had complete control over administration. Lord Ripon's Resolution of May 1882, aimed at the introduction of selfgovernment in municipal administration in rural Boards. He proposed that the ultimate control, and supervision should remain in the hands of the government, while the actual administration should be entrusted to the elected representatives of the people under a non-official chairman, the people should be trained to govern themselves. According to him the municipal works should be devoted to education, sanitation, provision of light, construction of roads, water supply and such other public utility. Thus Lord Ripon made a real beginning in the direction of local self-government in modern India. These ideas were not given full effect, but he sowed the seeds which ultimately germinated, bore fruitful result in local self-government in India. [154]

10 Purulia Municipality was constituted in 1869 and was administered by a board of 19 commissioners of whom 12 were elected. 5 nominated by the government and two were ex-officio members. For municipal purpose, it included the villages of Purulia and Nadiha and portions of Palanja, Ketka, Dulmi, Belguma, Maguria, Bhagaband and Raghabpur, covering an area of nearly five square miles and a population of 5,695 persons according to the Census of The rate of municipal taxation was 8 annas 11 pie per head of the population. 13 Up to 1909, the Purulia municipality had an area of 5 sq. miles. The number of rate-payers was then 3,212 or 18.57% of the population. The average annual income of the municipality during the decade ending in was Rs. 23,000 and expenditure was Rs. 21,000. The total incidence of taxation was Rs per head of the population in The Raghunathpur Municipality was established in 1888 and was administered by a Board of 10 commissioners, all of whom were nominated by the government. The area of Raghunathpur Municipality was four square miles. The Jhalda Municipality was constituted in 1888, which had a Municipal Board composed of 9 commissioners, all of whom were nominated by the government. The area of this municipality was nearly three square miles. 14 The Municipal town is surrounded by hills and is picturesque. Outside the Municipal towns of Purulia, Raghunathpur and Jhalda, for the administration of local affairs like the maintenance of road, bridges, ferries, ponds, etc. a separate organization known as the District Board of Manbhum was established in It was then established under the provision of the Local Self Government Act Ill of The meagre income of [155]

11 the Board in its early years was obtained mainly from road cess. Later it began to increase with the opening of coal fields. The expenditure also became very high because several metalled and unmetalled roads had to be maintained both in colliery and rural areas. There was also a local board at Dhanbad under the District Board early in the 20th century. All the members were nominated by the Government. The Board looked after the maintenance of some roads of the District Board, village roads, ponds, etc. 15 The British government gave emphasis to form local self government to look after the welfare and provide basic amenities to the local people. This was done just to satisfy the local people temporarily. This system brought the people and administration close to each other. Subsequently the local self government served as training centres which had ultimately promoted the cause of political consciousness. Territorial changes For consequence of the Revolt of 1857 and more particularly after the agrarian discontent at Tundi in Manbhum, the British government introduced some changes in the district for tighter control over different areas and for efficient administration. Thus territorial changes and adjustment were resumed. In 1871, Shergarh with a part of Padra which was lying on the east of Barakar river was transferred to Burdwan, Chatna and Maheswara to Bankura, while retaining their criminal jurisdiction in Manbhum. A further change in the jurisdiction of the district was effected in 1879 by which the parganas of Supur, Raipur, Ambikanagar, Simlapul, Bhelaidiha, Phulkusma and Shyamsundarpur, comprising the police stations of Raipur, Khatra and [156]

12 Simlapal were transferred to Bankura 16. The remaining areas of Manbhum became the territory of the district for a period of more then 80 years from 1879 to 1956, when the Sadar sub-division of Manbhum was merged with West Bengal. 17 Revenue Survey So far as the revenue survey of the district was concerned, it started the operation in 1861 and continued up to Gokhale's note on the operations of the survey in Chotanagpur mentioned that the demarcation of the district commenced in During the year, nine parganas covering an area of 1,072 square miles containing 1,715 villages were demarcated. During about 2069 villages were surveyed covering an area of 1,427 square miles and 3,292 villages were demarcated. During about 992 square miles were surveyed and 16 parganas were demarcated. During , eight parganas were surveyed and 390 villages containing ghatwali lands covering an area of 400 square miles were demarcated. During , about 1,034 square miles were surveyed that consisted of 941 villages. The survey was completed in , when nine parganas were surveyed. Though there were great difficulties involving the operation, the survey was carried out with wonderful accuracy. During the survey operations the maps were prepared 18 and that proved immensely helpful for a thorough knowledge. of the district. During the course of the revenue survey, some 3,000 villages in Panchet escaped assessment at the time of decennial and the permanent settlements. On 23rd April, 1867, the Deputy Commissioner of Manbhum solicited permission from the Board to institute resumption proceedings in [157]

13 respect of these villages. But this proposal was not granted. 19 It was during the course of land survey that Major J. R. Sherwell discovered the existence of coal in Jharia, Katras and Nowagarh. He reported the fact with considerable accuracy to the Board of Revenue. Accordingly the subdivisional officer of Govindpur was asked for a report in all particulars. Samples of coal were submitted, declaring them of the poorest and most inferior quality. Thus the government lost for ever the opportunity of acquiring the sub-soil rights. The proprietors then leased out the land at the low rates of three rupees per bigha. 20 For the purpose of land revenue, the district of Manbhum was divided i'nto 45 parganas. Certain parganas like Chatna and Maheswara formerly belonged to Manbhum, had been transferred to Bankura, when these fiscal divisions became effective in the district. In 1877, Hunter mentioned that the 19 parganas remitted land revenue direct to the Panchakot Raj. These parganas of Panchet embraced an area of 12,09,795 acres or square miles, paying a revenue nearly Rs. 55,800 to the government. 21 The remaining 26 parganas of Manbhum district paid an annual land revenue direct to the government. Thus the total area of the district comprised 31,74,805 acres of land or square miles and the total land revenue paying to the government was Rs. 86, First Census Report After the conclusion of the revenue survey of the district in 1867, the population was returned at 6,94,498 persons. The estimate was based 6n the number of homes, allowing an average of four and a half persons in each [158]

14 family. A preliminary census was taken in 1869 but the Deputy Commissioner stated this estimate as incorrect. Manbhum contained a large population 23, and was more civilized than the other districts of Chotanagpur. 24 For the purpose of Census, the district was divided into twenty-five blocks, so arranged that the number of homes of each block should not exceed seven thousand. Lists of the villages within their respective blocks were supplied to the enumerators. Each enumerator was directed to count the inmates of seventy-five houses daily and were to file his returns at the police station from time to time. Accordingly, the first Census report of the district was completed in On the accuracy of the Census, the Deputy Commissioner of Manbhum observed: "The Census has been taken with great care and none but well qualified men have been employed on the duty. It is possible that some few houses in the midst of heavy jungle have escaped, so that, if anything, the number of houses and persons entered in the returns may be somewhat under the mark, but the whole I believe the Census to have been very correctly taken, and the returns to be perfectly reliable." 25 From the account of the first Census report of 1872, it appears that Manbhum was nearly as thickly populated as any other district of Chotanagpur division. But the population of the district was not evenly distributed. While Chas and Raghunathpur were the most densely populated areas containing 299 and 289 persons respectively per square mile, Barabhum was most thinly populated containing an average of 152 persons per square mile. Thus the Census of 1872 disclosed a total population of [159]

15 9,95,570 persons in the district inhabiting 1,95,665 houses 26 and the average density of population was 203 per square mile. The Imperial Gazetteer of India differs with this statement of population. But Hunter's account seems to be more accurate as he reproduced the Census report in detail. In 1872 there were only five towns in the district. Purulia town had a total population of 5,695. Out of the total population of the district, 2,32,777 or 23.3 percent population were aborigins. 27 Communications In ancient time, there are references of two main roads through the district of Manbhum, one from Tamralipta (Tamluk) to Pataliputra (Patna) and extended up to Benaras. It is said that King Asoka during his travel to Tamralipta crossed through this road and probably halted at Jharia and Raghunathpur in the territories of Manbhum. Another road was from Tamralipta to Benaras via Chotanagpur. plateau, on the bank of the river Subarnarekha, passing through Pakbirra, Ranchi and Palamau. There were also existence of cross roads joining the routes to Patna and Benaras. The fact that in ancient times, the merchants spent huge sums of money for their business purposes, and constructed the roads which were free from disturbances. 28 In mediaeval time, it is said that Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq led his expedition to Orissa through Panchet in The area presented very beautiful to him "with low hills and dales, dotted with orchards". The Sultan then pushed southward through the defiles of Manbhum and Singhbhum and advanced to Sajnagar. In 1590, Raja Man Singh, the general of Akbar marched from Bhagalpur through the Western hills en route to [160]

16 reconquer Orissa. He followed the road through Manbhum. In 1782, the military road known as the 'Old Benaras Road' was reconstructed and repaired, which went through Panchet. But as a matter of fact, large tracts in this area were totally unfamiliar to the Europeans till Rennell's Map were finally prepared in But during the time of the British rule and at least up to the end of the 19th century, the district was very badly served in matter of means of communication both by road and rail. In 1854, the only metalled road was the Grand Trunk Road, 43 miles of which remained within the district. It was from the Barakar bridge up to the foot of Paresnath hill that remained within Manbhum. There was also a good road constructed in 1854 from Sili to Bankura through Purulia. There was another road from Purulia to Raniganj through Raghunathpur. A road from Govindpur to Ranchi was then under construction. The alignment of the old Benaras road, which was not metalled, passed through the district from a point near Gaurangdih to the Hazaribagh border. Oldham gives a graphic description of a road through Manbhum by observing: "After crossing the Hooghly between Calcutta and Salkhea, the road ran north-west through Kalipur... From Vishnupur it followed the line of the present metalled road through Bankura and Chatna to Dalpur, and thence across the Bankura boundary to Gaurandi and on the Raghunathpur in the Manbhum district. From Raghunathpur it took a more westerly direction, through Dubra, Chandankiari, Chandra and Chas to the Hazaribagh border." 30 Between 1854 to 187 4, efforts were made to connect Purulia with other important towns. As such some metalled roads were constructed up to [161 1

17 Barakar and Ranchi. The Chaibasa road had been constructed, while a direct road to Bankura was under construction during this period. It is reported that up to altogether there were 500 miles of road within the district. 31 For the purpose of communication, the most important was the railways introduced in the district in the second half of the 19 1 h century. In the beginning, this enterprise was left to private efforts. Private companies were encouraged to undertake them on the guarantee given by the Government of India that if their net profits fell below five per cent, the balance should be paid by the government. In return for this the government secured some privileges. If the profits of the company exceeded the guaranteed five per cent, the government would be entitled to half of the excess profits. Further the Government of India was entrusted to control the management of the railway system. Due to this, the government up to the end of the 19 1 h Century incurred heavy losses. 32 In the district of Manbhum, when the East India Chord Line was constructed in 1858, it touched Barakar, the northern extremity of the district. For the next 31 years, railway communication with Calcutta and outside world was generally undertaken via Barakar or Raniganj. In 1885, the Bengal Nagpur Railway Company started construction of the Bilaspur-Asansol branch, which was finally opened in This line thus connected Purulia with outside. The line crosses the Damodar 1 Okms south of Asansol and for a distance of 140 kms traverses the district in a south-westerly direction, connecting Asansol with Purulia. From Purulia, the line extended further southwards to meet Sini and Chakradharpur on the main line of Bengal- [162]

18 Nagpur Railway. In 1903, the Kharagpur-Gomoh section was opened to goods traffic and in 1904 the passengers. The opening of this section connected the coalfield of Jharia as well. A narrow railway line was constructed from Purulia to Ranchi in So in comparison to the other districts of Bengal, railway system operated lately in Manbhum. Yet development of communication helped the distant people to come closer, culminating an exchange of ideas regarding modern political concepts. Industries The people of Manbhum generally lived in agriculture and it was reported that 67.1 percent of the total population were supported by agriculture. The industrial population, on the other hand, accounted for 11.7 percent only. Commerce supported a very small number, only three per thousand population were engaged in trade. 33 The old- time industries of the district were lac, tassar-weaving, brass, coal etc. All these industries are still in existence but are not in a prosperous condition. The most important mineral deposit was coal and the district was famous for superior quality of coal. The district produced the largest amount of coal in India. Its fame as a coal producing district rested with Jharia coal field. In 1891, apart from Raniganj, two other coal mines were opened with an output of 78,000 tons, with the opening railways in 1894, the development became rapid. At the end of the 19 1 h century, many coal fields were opened, such as at Ranipur, Perbelia, Hirakhum, Bhamuria etc. In 1903, there were altogether 115 collieries at work in Jharia with an output of 27,46,000 tons. 34 In 1909, the coal in the district earned Rs. 150 lakhs. [163]

19 The most important industry after coal in the district was lac. It was collected and manufactured within the district. But unfortunately, no accurate figure of the collection of lac was obtained up to the beginning of the 20th century. The, number of people engaged in the collection of new lac was very difficult to know as almost every small cultivator had at least a few trees on which he reared lac. Among these may be mentioned Messers Schoroder Smidt and Co. as well as Messers Shaw Wallace & Co. Besides these were a large number of private individuals sometime working like the Company. 35 Among them Nandalal Mukherjee of Bagda and Debilal Singh Deo of Nowagarh, sometime with joint collaboration, acquired fame in collecting lac in the beginning of the 20th century. They collected lac from the Jonha forest of Ranchi and exported the lacs to Mirzapur in U.P. In the 1909 there. were 118 lac factories in the district employing an average of nearly 6,000 persons. The export of lac from the district in the form of sticklac and manufactured forms was about 2,00,311maunds valued at Rs lakhs in Jhalda was the most important centre of manufacture and there were numerous factories also in Purulia, Balrampur, Chandil, Chas, Manbazar, Tulin and Govindpur. Tasar silk weaving formed another important industry and it was mainly produced in Raghunathpur and some other places of the district. Raghunathpur was the chief centre of the production of tasar in earlier days. Now the industry is on the decline due to gradual disappearance of forests. The new materials had to be procured at a higher cost. The profits of manufacture were thus reduced and many of the weaving families had to take to other occupations. The total number of families engaged in these industries was about 150, the quality of cloth produced at Raghunathpur is good, but it [164]

20 has a very limited local demand. Tasar rearing is still carried on fairly extensively, until the recent time, in a small area near Kenda, Kashipur, Purulia, Manbazar and Baghmundi. The main products include tasar plane, tasar-made matka Bapta, Pagri, Sari and Dhuti. The products are sold mainly on religious occasions and they also find a market in West Bengal and north India. Kurmis, Santhals and Bauris are chiefly engaged in this production. 37 The iron utensils required for domestic use were made locally in the district. The ordinary village blacksmith worked in a very primitive method. But in Puralia, Jhalda and Tanasi there were some skilled workers. Jhalda had the reputation for the manufacture of guns. This industry was very flourishing in the middle of the 19th century. The gun-makers of both Jhalda and Tanasi were suspected in the Great Revolt of 1857 of supplying guns and other weapons to discontented Santhals, who created troubles at Jaipur and Gola. Sword-sticks (Gupti) were also manufactured in considerable numbers. Kodalis, axes and the smaller cutting instruments in ordinary use were also manufactured at Jhalda. 38 With the development of various need-based industries in Manbhum the problem of unemployment solved temporarily. The peasants who were under the heels of the British, got employment in various industrial sectors. But the exploitation of the British continued unabetted, resulting in an anticolonial feeling against the government. This feelings gave birth to nationalism. [165]

21 Postal Services Under Lord Dalhousie's scheme the postal service was introduced in Manbhum before the Revolt of 1857, but during that time, its growth was very slow. Since , the use of post offices had gradually been increased in the district. During the succeeding years up to , the number of letters received at the District post office had been more than doubled. Similarly the number of newspapers received in the Post office had greatly been increased and the number of books received in the Post offices were eighteen times more within this period. 39 The total number of letters, newspapers, books and parcels received in the post offices increased from 13,426 in to 45,118 in The total number of letters, newspapers, parcels and books dispatched from the district post offices increased from 14,686 in to 32,065 in The Director General of Post offices furnished the following information about the number of letters, parcels etc. received at and dispatched from the Manbhum post offices during and : Received Dispatched Received Dispatched Private letters 8,722 9,938 26,291 23,548 Service 3,614 4,496 10,974 7,591 letters Total letters 12,336 14,434 37, '139 Newspapers , Parcels Books Total 13,486 14,686 42, [166]

22 In the beginning of the 20th century, there were altogether 56 post offices in the district and 258 miles of postal communication. The number of postal articles delivered in was 6,28, Thus in the beginning of the 20th century, post offices were established nearly in all important places in the district including the rural areas. These post offices from where the public used to receive newspapers and books played an important role in awakening the masses. Public Health Manbhum enjoyed the reputation among both Indians and Europeans of the healthy district. Considerations of temperature made Ranchi and Hazaribagh preferable, but Manbhum was also a favourable health resort particularly among the Indians. The fact that the whole district was undulating and the towns and villages were usually built on comparatively high lands, ensured a certain amount of natural drainage and with it a relative immunity from ordinary diseases. 43 Up to the end of the 19th century, the prevailing epidemic diseases of Manbhum were cholera and remittent fevers, diarrhoea and dysentery. Malaria was also common. Cholera had a tendency to become epidemic during rainy season. There was also the epidemic of small pox, almost every year, particularly at the end of Winter. 44 At the end of the 19th century, there were four classes of native medical practitioners in Manbhum. The practitioners who treated the upper classes of people were baidyas and hakims. Probably they were originated from Bengal [167]

23 and Bihar. They were mostly employed by the Rajas or big Zamindars. Ojhas were the quack doctors of the aborigines and their methods to cure diseases consisted of mantras of charms. Sakhas were found only among the Santhals and the Bhumijs. Their special business was witchcraft. In their view, every disease proceeded from the personal agency of witches or evil spirits and must be dealt by appropriate method. Thus cholera was attributed to a spirit called 0/ai chandi, small-pox to Bisai chandi and epidemic fever to Marak chandi. Thus up to the end of the 19 1 h century, many persons were put to death for witchcraft. 45 The Purulia Charitable Dispensary was established in August 1866 and was in charge of an Indian doctor. There were little attendance of out-door patients during 1872 as the year was healthy. Though cholera prevailed epidemically in May, June and July, but the disease spread in limited area. There was a mild outbreak of small-pox in March and April. The financial condition of the dispensary was not satisfactory. In January 1873, after visiting the dispensary, Dr. Francis remarked that six months subscriptions were in arrears. Several subscribers withdrew their names. In 1872, the total number of indoor patients treated was 2,792, among them 2,372 were recovered, and 420 died. The total number of outdoor patients treated were 2,248. The following table gives us information about the Purulia charitable Dispensary in [168]

24 1. Total number of Patients treated 2, Total income of the dispensary Rs. A. P Expenditure Salaries and Allowances Cost of govt. for European medicines /4 6. Amount spent on diet of the patients Average cost of diet, calculated on the average of the last 12 months In the same year, it was proposed to extend "the Scheme of education of native women in practical midwifery", to every large Sadar Hospital presided over by a sub-assistant surgeon of superior qualifications. Thus scheme was established in Purulia dispensary and some other places. By 1911, there were public dispensary situated at Purulia, Jhalda, Raghunathpur, Chas and Barabazar. 47 In 1924, a charitable dispensary was opened at Bagda. 48 The European residents including the German Evangelical Lutherean Mission and their church resided along the Ranchi Road at Purulia and on the Western and North-eastern banks of the Sahib-Bandh. A mile beyond the European quarters and out side the municipal limits, in the village of Maguria, a Leper Asylum was established at the end of the 19th century. 49 Another dispensary was established at Padra in August It was established due to the zeal of Rani Hingan Kumari, who undertook the responsibility of establishing the building and a donation of Rs. 54 per month. It was established under class Ill, grade-3 scheme and an Indian doctor was [169]

25 appointed in December. There were little accommodation for in-door patients, but 148 persons received out-door treatment in 1872 and the daily average attendance was In the same year, the income of the dispensary was Rs. 420 and the government donation was Rs ; the expenditure amounted to Rs Education The introduction and growth of English education was perhaps the most important single factor in the awakening the people of the district. Up to the end of the 18th century learning and education were in decaying condition, only some Sanskrit verses were composed at Purulia the theme being cast in the form of conquest of the world by the four brothers of Yudhistira. The text was known as Pandava-Digvijaya. Again, a palm-leaf manuscript on Sankar's Bhasya on the Vedanta was found in Cheliama village that has been preserved in the Asiatic Society, Calcutta. Thus it appears that the cultivation of Sanskrit learning was fairly widespread in the district. Up to the end of the 18th century there were mainly three types of educational institutions in the district. Firstly, the Tols or institution of Sanskrit learning. Secondly, the Madrasas for Arabic and Persian learning. And thirdly, Pathsa/as or Makhatabs or elementary schools. The To/s were the centres of Hindu learning, while the Madrasas for the muslims. English system of education had almost been neglected in Manbhum during the rule of the East India Company. In 1833 the proposal for establishing schools in Manbhum for the education of zamindars children did not bring any result. The demand for education was confined to the middle [170]

26 class people, the zamindars thought it below their standard to send their children to public schools. Compared with the other districts of Bengal, education was neglected in Manbhum, until the second half of the 19 1 h century, when the British Government made some efforts of establishing educational institutions. Lamenting over this condition and the apathy of the people towards education, the Secretary of Local Committee of the Purulia school reported in "If would not, I think, however, be out of place to mention here that the zamindars and people of this district are not so willing to come forward with their mite to aid us in educating their fellow countrymen, as are the people about Calcutta". 51 Education was at that time mainly concerned with middle class people. Reporting on the position of education in Manbhum in 1876 W. W. Hunter observed that there was up to only one Government School in Purulia, which had been established in It is the first Government School established in the district. In the first Government School, the number of attendance of students was 34 only. In , the number of students rose to 92. By , the number of Government and aided schools had increased to 23. In , the creation of a number of primary schools under Sir G. Champbell's grant-in-aid scheme increased the number of schools and in , it rose to 183. Thus during this time, the schools were established in rural villages also. And accordingly in all the towns, headquarters of the parganas and in big villages, the Primary Schools had been established. In the number of students was 960, in it rose to 1156, and in , it became Besides there were in [171]

27 , 72 private unaided schools attended by 1238 students. In , the following was the return of government and aided schools in Manbhum. 52 Classification of Schools No. of Schools No. of Students Govt. English schools 1 81 Govt. Vernacular schools Aided English schools Aided Vernacular schools Total In the following two years, i.e. in and , the following table would show the progress of education in Manbhum 53 : No. of Schools No. of Students Primary Schools Middle Schools High Schools Thus the number of schools as well as students began to rise rapidly in the district. By the end of March, 1875, the total number of Government aided and unaided schools was 244, attended by 6,938 students. The succeeded 25 years saw a considerable advance in education. The number of schools was returned as 727 in and the students 19,728. The Census Report of 1901 showed that the total number of persons able to read and write was 47,231, representing 4.2 percent of the district's population. So far as the higher school education was concerned, the first secondary school in the district was established in 1st May, It was then [172]

28 known as Purulia High School subsequently converted into Purulia Zilla School. It was first affiliated to the University of Calcutta in 1857 for Matriculation course. At the close of the 19th Century, it was the only Government High School in the district. The students in the rolls of this school in numbered 272. The next secondary school was Manbhum Victoria Institution founded in Purulia in 1901, followed by Raghunathpur G. D. Lang Institution, established in Within 1911 secondary schools were established at Dhanbad, Katras and Jharia. Reporting on the secondary schools in Manbhum, Coupland observed in 1911: "Of middle schools there were 19 in , namely 12 middle English and 7 middle vernacular. One of the former and three of the latter were managed by the District Board, the number of pupils on the rolls being 45 and 185 respectively. Of the others 13 with 822 pupils were aided and 2 with 93 pupils unaided." 55 The education of women had not been advanced beyond the primary stage. Writing about the state of female education in Manbhum at the beginning of the 20th Century, Coupland stated in 1911: "The education of women has not advanced beyond the primary stage. There were in altogether 29 girl schools were attended by 847 girls and there were also 1,150 girls studying in boys' schools, so that altogether 1,997 girls were under instruction. In a majority of cases the girl schools are taught by male teachers from the neighbouring boys' schools and there are only 13 girls' schools with separate staff." 56 Thus it seems that in comparison to the other districts of Bengal, Manbhum was backward in the field of female education. [173]

29 Emergence of Middle class The 19th Century was one of the brightest period in the history of Manbhum, as well as of Bengal. It was a crea~ive age in the history of India. Naturally the age produced an unusually large number of distinguished men in different sphere of life. The introduction of Western education was perhaps the most important single factor in the awakening of Bengal, as well as Manbhum. Due to English education, the mental horizon of the people became wider, their thought became scientific and they looked with apathy the superstitions of the 18th Century. They came in contact with the writings of the Western scholars. At the same time, the English education created some professional men like the teachers, doctors, lawyers, engineers etc. These professional groups were called the middle class, who were above the peasants and labourers, but below the aristocrats. The emergence of the middle class in Manbhum in the second half of the 19th century was the permanent and positive legacy of British rule. Unlike the other social classes, they had not linked with the past. But these middle class people, imbibed with new ideas, began to take part in the national movement, for the freedom of our country. Some of them were the sons of the soil, while some came to Manbhum from outside. Thus with western ideas, a large number of people, emerged from the middle class, participated in the national struggle from the beginning of the 20th century. The most notable among them in Mabhum were Rishi Nibaran Chandra Dasgupta, Atul Chandra [174]

30 Ghosh, Bibhuti Bhusan Dasgupta, Labanya Prabha Ghosh, Jimut Bahan Sen, Bhola Nath Mukherjee and a number of other leaders. References 1. R. N. Agarwala, National Movement and Constitutional Development of India (Delhi, 2"d Edt. 1959), p T. R. Metcalf, Ideology and the Raj (New-Delhi, Reprint, 1996) p. 1 (hereafter, Metcalf, Ideology). 3. G. 0. Trevelyan, The competition Wallah (London, 1864), pp Quoted in Metcalfs Ideology, op.cit., p T. R. Metcalf, The Aftermath of Revolt: India, (Princeton, 1964). 6. Metcalf, Ideology, p George Campbell, India as it May Be (London, 1853), p Proceedings of the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal, December, 1861 (No. 100, p. 79). 9. Ibid., (No. 103) D. Basu, Introduction to the Constitution of India. (New Delhi, 16 1 h Edt. 1994), p R. C. Majumdar and others, An Advanced History of India (New Delhi, 1978), p /bid., p [175]

31 13. W. W. Hunter, A Statistical Account of Bengal, Voi.-XVII, pp Up to 1872, the Purulia town had a Deputy Commissioner's office, court houses, a jail, a police station, a post office, a school building and a charitable hospital (hereafter, Hunter, A Statistical Account). 14. H. Coupland, Bengal District Gazetteers, Manbhum, Voi.-XXVIII (Calcutta, 1911), pp (hereafter, B.D.G., Manbhum). 15. Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya and Others, West Bengal District Gazetteers, Puruliya, (Calcutta, 1985) pp (hereafter, Puruliya). 16. The territories that went out of Manbhum up to 1879, formed the district of Bankura. A separate district judgeship for Bankura was created in On November 1, 1956, Manbhum had been defunct, the Sa dar subdivision, with exception of five thanas merged with West Bengal, while Dhanbad sub-division under the name of Dhanbad District remained in Bihar. 18. P.C. Roy Chaudhuri (ed.), Bihar District Gazetteers, Dhanbad (Patna, 1964), pp (hereafter, B.D.G., Dhanbad). 19.1t appears that tolas and potions of villages were not surveyed and that was why so many as 3000 villages had escaped assessment. 20.B.D.G., Dhanbad, pp Hunter, A Statistical Account, pp bid. [176]

32 23./bid. 24. Hunter, A statistical Account, XVII, p About this, the Imperial Gazetteer, Manbhum, observes : "The vernacular of the district is the western dialect of Bengali known as Rarhi-boli. Along the Western border this merges into Hindi known as Khotta boli. - Imperial Gazetteer, Manbhum, XVII, p Ibid. 26. Ibid. p Ibid., pp. 274 and H. Coupland, Report of the Survey and Settlement Operations in the District of Manbhum, , (Patna, 1928), p Puruliya, p C.E.A.W. Oldham, Routes Old and New from Lower Bengal. Vide, Bengal Past and Present, (July-September, 1925), p B.O.G., Manbhum, p R.C. Majumdar and others, An Advanced History, op.cit. p Sudipta Mukherje, Agrarian Discontent in Manbhum District, (An unpublished M.Phil thesis of Benaras Hindu University, 1990), pp /bid. [177]