Introduction to Sociology- Overview

Transcription

1 Introduction to Sociology- Overview Left: By photo 2004 by Tomasz Sienicki [user: tsca, mail: tomasz.sienicki at gmail.com] (photo 2004 by Tomasz Sienicki / Own work) [<a href=" BY 2.5</a>, <a href=" or <a href=" <a href=" Wikimedia Commons</a> Right: By Unknown - image, Public Domain,

2 What is sociology? Harvey Molotch (Columbia University): Sociology is what comes from human beings interacting Zygmunt Bauman: Sociology is an analysis of the manifold webs of human interdependency Many of the words used by sociologists are the same as common terms, and can cause confusion Sociology has a troubled relationship with what we call common sense Why is there such a thing as society and not just a bunch of individuals? What holds it all together? Sociologists call this the problem of order 2

3 Some formal definitions The word comes from the Greek word for companion socius and the Greek word for the study of ology Sociology is the systematic study of society and social interaction (our textbook) Another definition: The systematic study of the ways in which people are affected by, and affect, the social structures and social processes that are associated with the groups, organizations, cultures, societies, and world in which they exist (George Ritzer, Introduction to Sociology, Sage Publications 2015) A common definition that emphasizes the scientific approach: sociology is the scientific study of social behavior and human groups Many sociologists believe sociology should be used to create social change, and scientific understanding is secondary (if it is important, or possible, at all ) 3

4 A few more definitions Social Structure: enduring and regular social arrangements, such as the family and the state, based on persistent patterns of interaction and social relationships. These change very slowly. * Social Process: the dynamic and ever-changing aspects of the social world, such as the patterns of consumption demonstrated at a specific historical moment. These change rapidly. * Culture: the symbols, ideas, values, practices, and material objects that a group of people use to meet basic biological needs and interact with other individuals and groups; the symbolic and learned aspects of human existence. * Social Behavior: any behavior that takes another person s needs, inclinations, or desires into account Institution: persistent behaviors and roles, along with the norms and rules that govern them ; basically, a bundle of practices and rules. Examples are the family, religion, and education. Often considered to be the same as structure, but many do not agree. The butterfly effect : the actions of a single individual or small group can be amplified by social bonds and networks, and have large-scale effects in areas distant from the original action *Definitions 1-3 from Ritzer,George, 2015: Introduction to Sociology, 2 nd Edition. Los Angeles: Sage Publications 4

5 The Sociological Imagination C. Wright Mills ( ) published The Sociological Imagination in 1959 In it, he criticized the approach that most sociologists took to their explanation of our connection to society He also proposed a new strategy for making sociological insights useful to people in their everyday lives Photos by Yaroslava Mills, retrieved from 7/23/16 5

6 The Sociological Imagination The sociological imagination is a way of viewing the social world that involves Finding connections between private troubles and public issues For example: Tax and spending reductions were popular have been popular with the voters in many states, and reduced state revenues led to reduced support (state spending) for college education (public issues) students took larger loans to pay for college, leaving them with big debts upon graduation (private troubles) Young people have to postpone major purchases like homes and automobiles to make the student loan payments, which means reduced economic demand overall and slower economic growth (public issues) Taking the perspective of an outsider look at the social world as if you are not a part of it Taking someone else s point of view in order to understand their world 6

7 Thinking Sociologically Zygmunt Bauman (1990) To think sociologically is to make sense of the human condition via an analysis of the manifold webs of human interdependency Once we understand better how the apparently natural, immutable, eternal aspects of our lives have been brought into being through the exercise of human power and resources, we shall find it much harder to accept that they are immune and impenetrable to subsequent actions, including our own Collective vs. individual freedom : our freedom to choose and to act is not absolute, as there can be consequences for othersour freedom is constrained by our membership in a group existence The degree to which you are free to do as you choose, regardless of the concerns or needs of others, is a measure of social inequality 7

8 Some thoughts about society Auguste Comte who first defined sociology, and Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist that was one of the first to apply statistics to the study of society, thought society was an object that existed in the world; sociologists should imitate the natural sciences in the way they study and explain social behavior. The goal is to find general laws of society Charles Horton Cooley believed society exists only in the mind; Randall Collins believes society is a chain of individual and group interactions. The goal is to understand the meaning that social action has for individuals, and how shared meanings in face-to-face encounters create society. Anthony Giddens concept the double hermeneutic connects these two views. What sociologists know about society can change some aspect of society, so what was known is no longer completely true. This occurs because people have agency and can change their behavior. 8

9 A Brief History of Sociology Before the Enlightenment, there was little critical analysis of the social world; in fact, the concept of society was all but unknown The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in Europe that existed in the 17 th and 18 th centuries. These thinkers (e.g. Voltaire and Diderot) thought moral and political authority should stem from reason and respect for the individual, and not inherited tradition (organized religion and the monarchy). They believed the universe was a self-perpetuating mechanism that could be understood and controlled through science. These ideas influenced Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin, and were even more influential in France, where they were espoused by most leaders of the French Revolution Photos: Voltaire, Nicolas de Largillière [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons Diderot: Louis-Michel van Loo [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons Voltaire Diderot 9

10 Early Social Theory The ancient Greeks and Romans did not separate the political from the social; some Greek historians discussed social factors in their work, but often for propaganda purposes. Greek philosophers were concerned with how one ought to live (ethics), how to create a good society, and the connection between the two. The writings of the historian Polybius ( BCE) on the Roman constitution and politics influenced the men who wrote the U.S. constitution Ma Tuan-Lin ( ) was a Chinese historian who emphasized the role of social structure and processes as causes of historical change in an influential encyclopedia, General Study of Literary Remains. Ibn Khaldun ( ) A Tunisian philosopher and historian who developed a theory of social conflict and social cohesion and applied these ideas to studies of historical change and economic development Photos from top: Polybius, Ma Tuan-Lin, httpcalaideirel.blogspot.com201405tuluk-calai-romual-6-sung-san-rotling.html Ibn-Khaldun, 10

11 The Great Chain of Being In the European middle ages (~ CE), the structure of society the three orders of those who work, those who pray, and those who fight was believed to be ordained by God; rebellion against social arrangements was rebellion against God. This order was part of a great chain of being, that ranked every creature from low to high. The chain extended to families all male children in a family ranked higher than female children, for example. Photos from top: Reeve and serfs, By anonymous (Queen Mary Master) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons Monks at prayer, retrieved 8/22/16 Knight, By Alphonse-Marie-Adolphe de Neuville (scan of engraving) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons 11

12 The voyages of discovery * Columbus, Magellan, Cortez, Cook- showed there were other cultures in the world not organized like Christian Europe, where the people had very different ideas about life, the universe, and everything The existence of people and cultures unknown to the traditional authorities further shook the faith that prevailing beliefs were reliable. Philosophers began to include a state of nature in their ideas about the basis of political authority Adam Smith ( ) and others in Scotland developed the study of political economy, and advanced general explanations of human social behavior The French philosopher Montesquieu** ( ) wrote The Spirit of the Laws which tried to explain political differences between countries and cultures on the basis geography and climate. * They were not really discovered by Europeans the people already there were not waiting around to be discovered ** For the record, his full name was Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu Photos, from top: Adam Smith, [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons Montesquieu, After Jacques-Antoine Dassier [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons 12

13 Auguste Comte Auguste Comte ( ) borrowed the word sociology for his new science of social structure and behavior, and sociology began to take shape as a discipline The term sociology was first used by the French writer Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès ( ) Comte s first choice for a name was social physics but it was already in use elsewhere Comte believed that sociologists should use scientific methods to find laws of society that would allow them to predict and control social behavior, and thereby to eliminate social problems Photos from top: Montesquieu, After Jacques-Antoine Dassier [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons Comte: WikiMedia Commons, reproduced in OpenStax Sociology 2e 13

14 The first sociological theory* Comte s Theory of Stages Society passed through three stages as it changed over time Theological stage explanations of origin of and events in the world involve supernatural elements (gods, demons, fairies) Metaphysical stage transitional stage similar to the theological stage, but the supernatural entities are more abstract Positive stage scientific methods used to study the world and society, the focus is on uncovering laws and not concerned with causes. Comte wrote much about the positive method the method of science - and eventually founded a religion of humanity, a church/cult devoted to positive philosophy and universal love. He named himself Pope of the new religion. 14

15 The Big Picture: Social Change Sociologists have always been interested in how and why our social worlds have changed over time. These subjects have been of particular interest as sociology developed: The French Revolution The Industrial Revolution The Second Industrial Revolution Postindustrial Society Postmodern Society The Information Society The Consumer Society Globalization 15

16 Globalization A simple (but incomplete) definition of globalization in our textbook: the integration of international trade and finance markets George Ritzer (2015) has provided a more detailed definition: Globalization refers to the social process of increasingly fluid global flows and the structures that expedite and impede those flows. It provides opportunities for people to move between societies and initiate population shifts, to have greater access to goods, services, and information. Negative issues such as disease, global warming, and deviant behaviors (drugs, human trafficking) flow more easily around the world under globalization. Globalization is arguably the most important instigator of social change and affects all aspects of the social world. * Video on globalization * Ritzer, George Introduction to Sociology 2 nd Edition. Los Angeles: Sage Publications. 16

17 Globalization and Its Discontents * Debates over the impact of globalization, who wins, who loses, and how it can be managed to minimize negative impacts, have taken place in election campaigns, legislatures, courts, and the streets of most nations. NAFTA WTO The Battle of Seattle DIY Joseph Stiglitz Globalization and Its Discontents. New York: W.W. Norton & Company Photos, from top: By Steve Kaiser [CC BY-SA 2.0 ( via Wikimedia Commons; By Jnarrin CC BY 3.0 ( via Wikimedia Commons By Ph0kin (Own work) [CC BY-SA 4.0 ( via Wikimedia Commons 17

18 The McDonaldization of Society The McDonaldization of society refers to spread throughout the economy (and beyond ) of production and distribution systems similar to that used in fast-food restaurants The term comes from George Ritzer s ( ) book, The McDonaldization of Society, published in 1993 McDonaldized systems are characterized by Efficiency (standardized, step-by-step procedures are in place for almost every task) Calculability (quantities can be calculated, qualities cannot, so the focus is on sales and not reviews from food critics) over quality Predictability Control (automating the process and standardizing the products) Ritzer on McDonaldization Photo: Public Domain, Public Domain, 18

19 Technology and Society Technology refers broadly to tools and they way they are used; sociologists study how they are integrated with social relationships to pattern distinctive types of society Technology is produced and used collectively, and sociologists have always been interested in it Technological developments change how we produce what we need to survive, how we interact with each other, and much more A cluster of information technologies has had a dramatic impact on life in the past 25 years Applications of basic computer technology in the workplace changes how we work and how many of us are needed to produce the essentials , instant messaging, and social media have become new ways to connect with others in real-time, no matter where they are located The internet makes a vast amount of information available to anyone with a smartphone anywhere on the planet 19

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21 Social Networks and Global Access Source: Ritzer, George Introduction to Sociology 2 nd Ed. Los Angeles: Sage Publications 21

22 What is Society? Society has multiple meanings, even for sociologists Ritzer defines society as a complex pattern of social relationships that is bounded in space and persists over time Another definition: A group of people who share a common culture, occupy a particular territorial area, and feel themselves to constitute a unified and distinct entity (Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, Third Edition) 22

23 Is Society Real? Some sociologists view society as a thing that exists in the world out there. Others believe society does not exist as a thing, and that what we call society is the combined effect of interactions between people. Reification: treating a concept as if it is a real thing that exists in the world Society is real even if it does not exist in the way we usually use the term, and they way things happen there is not random, but has a pattern Most sociologists occupy the middle ground. Where you stand on this issue determines the way you study the social world. 23

24 Micro and Macro Levels of Analysis Micro-small scale Micro levels of analysis are concerned with individuals and small group interactions An example : how newly hired, non-union employees in a fluorescent light fixture factory in Temple, Texas interact with experienced unionized employees after it is announced that all new hires will be lower-paid and nonunion. Macro-large scale A macro level analysis is concerned with big picture structures the economy, social class, large-scale social change, politics An example: The impact of the decline in union membership on economic inequality in the U.S. 24

25 Social Agency and Social Structure Social agency is the ability of an individual to act and make choices independently in a social setting, even in ways that are contrary to what is expected and in opposition to established structural patterns It can be viewed as our capacity to disrupt the normal flow of social life Social structures are autonomous and able to sustain and reproduce themselves over a long period of time without disruptions from individuals. They are long-term, often society-wide patterns of relationships, norms, values, and other social phenomena that include the family, education, media, the state, and the economy. Anthony Giddens: duality of structure social structures are both constraining (prevent you from doing something) and enabling (make it possible to do something). His example is language it has rules so it is constrained, but it enables (allows) us to communicate and interact efficiently 25

26 The Social Construction of Reality Social constructivism in sociology refers to the idea that many aspects of social life are constructed by humans, and are not fixed and unchanging they are what they are because we believe that is what they are The sociologists Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann published The Social Construction of Reality in 1966 It has been extremely influential, and we will use the concept here and there throughout the course They wrote that what people view as reality is created through social interaction, habitual behavior, thought patterns, and shared meanings that change over time, but become institutionalized and accepted as reality In their view, humans are social products, and society is an objective reality that is a human product 26

27 Key Terms for Review positivism: the scientific study of social patterns anti-positivism: the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values grand theories: an attempt to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change macro-level: a wide-scale view of the role of social structures within a society micro-level theories: the study of specific relationships between individuals or small groups paradigms: philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them 27

28 Key Terms for Review culture: a group's shared practices, values, and beliefs Social constructivism: an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be social solidarity: the social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion society: a group of people who live in a defined geographical area who interact with one another and who share a common culture McDonaldization of society: the increasing presence of the fast food business model in common social institutions 28

29 Key Terms for Review reification: an error of treating an abstract concept as though it has a real, material existence social facts: the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life social institutions: patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs sociological imagination: the ability to understand how your own past relates to that of other people, as well as to history in general and societal structures in particular sociology: the systematic study of society and social interaction 29