The first chapter of the research, which is an introductory chapter, discusses the origin

Transcription

1 CONCLUSION The idea and concept of revival of the Silk Road are derived trom ancient dialogue of great civilizations from East to West. Silk Road's role in bringing about cultural synergy between East and West can not be minimized which was a concurrent part and incitement for all socio-economic relations of those times. Buddhism spread out from India along with trade of silk and other items moving from East to West, giving Silk Road the significance as a route of spiritual searching. The first chapter of the research, which is an introductory chapter, discusses the origin and evolution of Silk Road as a concept and the idea its revival. Buddhism had played an important role in Western Turkistan mainly through cultural and spiritual inspirations like search of the Holly place and ideas of Shangri La and/or Shambhala (as modes of sacred actions and as a holly place of those sacred actions would happen). The Silk Road had played the role of a facilitator of geographical transmission of spiritual culture from India to China through propagation, translation and adoption of Buddhism, which traveled along with the Silk Road. The territory of contemporary Kyrgyzstan that formed in ancient times a common territory with Eastern Turkistan was an important link in this transmission. That Naveket resembles the finds in Adjna Tepe, Fayaz Tepe, Kara Tepe and Merv in other Central Asian Republics, offers conclusive evidence of close historic-cultural links between India and Central Asia. Great Silk route was not only the means of transferring goods but also exchange of spiritual ideas between the two countries. Caravan routes with missionaries, monks, diplomats, merchants and travelers or warriors crossed in different times the territory of contemporary Kyrgyzstan. Chigu-Chen is another evidence of existence of the U suni civilization two thousand years ago, which inaugurated trade in the territory which became the Silk Road. The second chapter of this research has examined the cultural and historical ties between Kyrgyzstan and India to identify interaction and mutual enrichment of the people. The 187

2 rebirth of the Silk Road ties of the two countries has been taking place above all in the cultural context along side political and economic relations. Translations of "Manas" and "Mahabharata" are the starting point of it. That is to say nowadays the idea of revival of the Silk Road has been actualized on a new level of understanding. Revival the Silk Road directly depends on contemporary requirements of cultural and economic integration as well as globalization. Today Central Asia, which is in the heart of the Silk Road, is experiencing diverse economic, political and ideological revivals in the transitional development context. At geopolitical level Central Asia once again has become the center of the world powers' attention. It is clear that redistribution and control of the world resources are the top priorities even today as in earlier times with the consequence that the Great Game of the past has transformed into the New Great Game at present. The term "Silk Road" as an idea of integration and cooperation, peace and mutual understanding, has been well received by various international conferences and seminar at scientific institutions. As a result, the theme of revival of the Silk Road corresponding to the contemporary needs is gaining popularity in the international arena. Moreover, Silk Road represents a symbol of being a unique way to build dialogue and communication system in socio-cultural, economic and political spheres. It is appropriate in this context to underline that the President of Kyrgyzstan presented the Doctrine "Diplomacy of the Great Silk Road" (1998) as one of the priorities of the country's foreign policy. Ancient territories that comprised the Silk Route had a rich history and can revive a network at different levels with the benefit of modem information and communication, trailsport and trade. Due to recent developments and changes in political and economic spheres, Central Asia and its counterparts are primarily concerned about the stability and peace in this geopolitical space. The idea of reviving of the ancient Silk Road for India and Kyrgyzstan has a common historical and cultural base, since both are located in the same larger geographical region. In the era of cultural, socio-economic globalization and rapid development of the 188

3 information space, the two countries share common approaches on many international development - issues such as expansion of communications facilities in all spheres, economic integration and cooperation and security system in all forms. The third chapter analyzes political, economic and security conditions of Kyrgyzstan since its independence. In the given situation, whereas Central Asia is a subject of discussion of various strategic partnership as well as geopolitical moves, the chapter examines what is the existing socio-economic profile of Kyrgyzstan and how important is the revival of the Silk Road and development perspectives. Nowadays development of sovereign Kyrgyzstan has been passing through crucial moments of political and economic conjecture. The historical development of every nation and its culture has specificities which creates different level of interactions with other worlds, which consequently leads to different level of social and cultural development. Although Kyrgyz is considered to be an eastern type of civilization, where the political organization of the society takes the form of authoritarianism and/or despotism, the principle of collectivism guides the life of community, and there is domination of the state over society. Kyrgyzstan is multiethnic and multicultural country. At present the majority- Kyrgyz, like eighty other minority groups, who have been self identifying themselves and at the same time have inherited the Soviet culture, whose commonness unites all ethnic groups and nationalities. Cultural, political and socioeconomic relations of the country develop on existing cultural background, which is reflected in the co-existence of soviet and original cultures. Kyrgyz people since ancient times were influenced by the idea of the supervising role of the leader. Thus, during ancient times the elected khan (ruler) possessed only nominal authority. The authority of the leaders of tribes and patrimonial elders was much stronger. The continuing influence of this trait in the contemporary period has led to tribalism and clan affinities. According to Russian scientist L. Gumilev, who studied the theory of cyclic development globally in relation to ethnogenesis, each ethnos passes the naturalhistorical cycle of development in which there are stages of rise, phase of the maximum 189

4 rise, break, inertia, obscuration and the phase leading to a homeostasis. The cycle covers years. The history of development of Kyrgyzstan is repeating once again, through recent political and economical developments, beginning with comprehensive transition toward market and democratic reforms that include privatization, restructuring, price liberalization, full current account convertibility, adoption of modern business legislation, creating a dynamic financial sector and ending with an uprising and adoption of a new Constitution along with a new regime. It is obvious that political development that has recently taken place originated from the initial period of independence of the country. There were issues mainly raised during the Parliamentary elections, which created the prerequisites for the new political changes on 24th of March, 2005, leading to President's resignation and election of a new President on loth of July The background for the mass revolutionary upheaval had germinated even much earlier in 2002 because of the government's negative attitudes towards public demands. There were five Referenda on Changes and Amendments to the Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic (October 22, 1994; February 10, 1996; October 17, 1998; February 2, 2003; and October 21, 2007) related to Parliamentary and Presidential elections. The last discussions on the constitutional reform between President and the Parliament resulted in a third edition of the Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic in a new version, which was signed by the President on 9th of November 2006 and operationilised from 6 December 2006; another signed in December 30, 2006 was operationilised from 15 January 2007 (with repealing of previous legislations). While there were various debates, the Constitutional Court's decision on Legitimacy of the November and December 2006 variant of the Constitution was negative. Thereby the Constitution of 1993 was retained before final adoption of a' new edition of the constitution. At present, after the nation-wide referendum held on October 21, 2007, the primary constitutional changes proposed by the new President have come into effect with dissolution of single mandate Parliament and election of a new proportional system 190

5 legislature. The main changes in the Constitutions were separation of powers between President, Parliament and Government. The attempts within constitutional reforms were on changing the political system by strengthening the role of parliament and government and limiting president's authorities. Mainly in 2003 and 2006 constitutional amendments some power with regard to the appointment of government was given to the Jogorku Kenesh (Parliament). The strength of the 2003 Constitution was in adoption of rules for long-term appointment of judges and special procedure for their removal in order to improve independence of courts. With that the judicial reform was basically completed. According to the newly adopted Constitution, the President has authority to appoint the government, nominate candidates for the positions of head and members of the Supreme Court and dissolve Jogorku Kenesh (Parliament) in situations stipulated in the Constitution. In the local governance system, direct elections of heads of Ayil Okmotu (municipality) were replaced with elections by local Keneshs (councils) upon nomination by local state administrations. It is unambiguous that Presidential form of governance prevails in the country. However, by introducing the proportional system, at least fifteen percent of non-titular ethnic representation has been achieved. The new Parliament has seventy three Kyrgyz (81%), seven Russians (8.2%), two Koreans and one representative each of Uigur, Dungan, Karachai and Uzbek out of ninety seats. As for Russians, their share in the Parliament corresponds to that in the population structure of Kyrgyzstan. Today, the Kyrgyz Republic is a member of many regional organizations and forums since its independence including that of ECO (1992), CIS (1993), CACO (1994), SCO (1996), WTO (1998) and finally CSTO and EURASEC. Kyrgyzstan has energy resources, well-educated labor force, and good potential for food processing, mining, and metallurgy industry and tourism sector. Due to its WTO membership, small volume of economy and high level of liberalization, the trade share of the country with member states is more stable compared with nonmember states since The main trade partners of Kyrgyzstan are Russia, 191

6 Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Switzerland and Germany. India, almost similar to Korea, has a lower average volume of trade. Kyrgyzstan's main export item, electric power, was 15% of the total export in the different years. On the geopolitical scene of Centra! Asia, there are many major stakeholders in the natural and energy resources on the one hand and the security sphere on the other hand. The fight against terrorism and drug trafficking are of the strategic interest to most stake-holders. The most natural way of coordinating efforts in the hydropower sphere, which is Kyrgyzstan's most important sector, would be to create investment opportunities with participation of Russia and Kazakhstan mainly in constructing new power plants and water reservoirs in Kyrgyzstan. The economic priorities of the country, on the one hand, are integration with regional and world technological clusters of processing and realization of agricultural products, rare-earth minerals, and development of communication and tourist services. On the other hand, there is a need for manufacturing of exclusive high-tech technological agricultural products. The third is the creation of innovation industry of biotechnology, non-traditional energy sources and mining technologies. The fourth chapter is devoted to the Kyrgyzstan - India bilateral economic cooperation to identify the problems and prospects. Cooperation between Kyrgyzstan and India is based on existing cultural, historical and trade roots that came to greater focus during due to significant steps like forming the two Inter-Governmental groups: IGC and JBC. Thus, bilateral cooperation is mainly based on Intergovernmental Agreements at Economic Institutional Development level. During the official visits, several agreements were signed, the most important among them are agreements On Cooperation in the Field of Trade, Economic Relations and Science and Technology; On Investment Initiatives and Defense; On Avoidance of Double Taxation and Income Taxes Payment, which provide the legal instruments and mechanism for regulation of bilateral trade and economic cooperation. 192

7 A significant step toward bilateral relations was the establishment of JBC and lgc, which mainly focus mainly on the development of small and medium but also on large size enterprises. However, during five meetings of JBC since 1995 and four meetings ofigc since 1996 there was a little progress despite extensive discussions and resolutions. In fact, a major breakthrough is needed in order to achieve a higher level in the biiateral economic cooperation. Notwithstanding the fact that trade turnover between the two countries is increasing, the investment of Indian companies in Kyrgyzstan is marginal and that of Kyrgyzstan in India is non-existent. Not surprisingly, the volume of trade between the two countries is 2% of the total volume of foreign trade of Kyrgyzstan. As for Indian profile, the turnover between India and Central Asian countries is less then 1 % of the total volume of India's foreign trade, and with Kyrgyzstan it is only 0.02%. The low volume of trade can be explained by lack of surface connectivity and by the absence of direct contacts, small investment, insufficiently explored business areas, nonfamiliarity with each other's market and language barrier. Though economic cooperation is still inert, there are more reciprocally beneficial advantages for the both sides. First of all, the two countries are members of WTO with price liberalization policy and could use the benefits of Customs Union agreements and FT A agreements, join regional economic organizations etc. Four Free Economic Zones in Kyrgyzstan are regulated by special regime for development of international trade. Companies in FEZ are granted some privileges like exemption from all taxes, land and other obligations, as well as simplified customs regulations in whole period of their work. The advantages for bilateral economic cooperation would be the utilization of existing Free Economic Zones in Kyrgyzstan for trade and investment; There are possibilities for India to integrate to the Shanghai Cooperation Organization as a full member. Taking into consideration the historical and cultural traditions spread by the ancient Silk Road and based on tolerance, multicultural diversity, secularism and democratic pattern 193

8 of statehood, Kyrgyzstan and India have enough reasons to revive bilateral relations by creating a new atmosphere of diplomacy, research and education, cultural activities as well as expanding new international transport-communication routes and corridors through joint infrastructure projects, developing tourism sector, and sharing know-how through information and communication technologies. Common areas of economic cooperation can be mega-projects on metals and mining, pharmaceuticals, chemicals and IT sector on which Indian companies are going global and Kyrgyzstan has huge potential. On the geopolitical scene, China has already made significance presence in CARs. Similarly, India could benefit with a long term perspective on ties with Kyrgyzstan. Considering the potential and needs of both countries, energy and hydropower sector could be of strategic partnership interest along with security interest. It is obvious, the geopolitical interests and moves in the contemporary world are related to control over energy resources and its transportation that is playing a vital role. Therefore, the energy resources will underline future regional integration and geopolitical situation not only in Central Asia, but also in the Eurasian continent as well. Due to this, the route, connecting Central Asia and India is vitally important. The fifth chapter examines regional integration trends which can form the basis for Kyrgyzstan -India relations. Security issues and natural resources are the leading factors of India's interest in Central Asia: India set up a Joint Working Group against terrorism with Kazakhstan and Tajikistan in June Indian oil Company ONGC has been allowed to own 15 % of share in Kazakhstan. Though there are a number of regional organizations involving Central Asian states and other regional powers, India has so far preferred a bilateral approach to engage Central Asian countries. India's focus on bilateral track is not contradictory to the integration process in Central Asia. In fact it can compliment the efforts to find solutions to regional problems. In the complexity of integral issues such as economic and trade, security and transport corridors, natural resources management and ecological security, Central Asian region is in the center of special attention. There are also many external players in the region and Central Asian integration itself is far from developing on the classical example of the 194

9 European Union. Central Asian cooperation in many cases has bilateral form, because of the very multivectoral character of many of the national interests. The role of CARs is passive with regard to regional integration of the states because of limited financial capabilities to develop the energy sector, vulnerability on security issues and political instability. However, among intellectuals the role of CARs in the given geopolitical situation is being actively discussed. Especially, after Frederick Starr' "Greater Central Asia" (GCA) project accompanied by the US state secretary Condoleezza Rise visit to Central Asia, there were conferences in Tashkent in October 21-22, 2005 and in Bishkek in November 18, 2005 devoted to the problems of Regional Integration of CARs and GCA. Considering the fact that the use of energy resources for socio-economic progress is a priority for CARs as well as Kyrgyzstan, development of trans-national transport corridors and communication are of critical concern. For Kyrgyzstan as for India the North-South corridor is a project of high importance which could pass through Osh - Sary-Tash - Irkeshtam (Kyrgyzstan) -Xinjiang region (China) via Kharog (Kulma Pass, Tajikistan) to Leh and Kashmir (India). Indian scholar Devendra Kaushik has been advocating the given route from India to CA through the Xinjiang region of China with the disputed Aksai-Chin territory of Ladakh as the joining point from India. Tajikistan, separated from Ishkoman Valley in Northern Pakistan by a narrow corridor - Wakhan - in Afghanistan's Badakshan region, is an immediate neighbor of Pakistan from one side, and of Afghanistan from another. Transport corridors via Pakistan and Afghanistan are constraints in India's trade with the region. However, Tajikistan has linked Kharog with the Karakorum highway. As per the Indian scholar, Kaushik, the Ladakh route from Kharog {Tajikistan) to Kangla (India) has an advantage over Karakorum route (Kharog to Karachi via Islamabad) because of lower height and better climatic conditions. This route was known in the past as "Chang-Chenmo" of "the Silk route". The North-eastern Sikkim state of India from Nathula pass is already connected since May 19, 2005 to the Chinese province of Yunnan via Myanmar after forty three years, 195

10 which is another evidence of the revival of the Silk Road. On the other hand, "the China road" (Osh-Sary-Tash-Irkeshtam) has been actively operating since 2007 connecting Kyrgyzstan and China and serving as an internationai terminal. The importance of this road can be seen not only in terms of large-scale import from China which comprises one billion US dollars annually (98 percent of which exportes to Uzbekistan mainly and other neigbouring countries), but also an international surface transport route making Kyrgyzstan potentially a transit route from China up to India. The trilateral project (China - Kyrgyzstan - Uzbekistan) is another possible rail transport route. There are two proposed variants: northern- from China via Torugart pass and Karasuu, and southernthrough Andijan- Osh- Sarytash- Irkeshtam. Uzbekistan is interested in southern part because it would be connected to international highway via Ferghana, while Kyrgyzstan is attracted to the northern section that could connect with existing Balykchi railway. Despite the negotiations having stopped due to disputes and partly to March 2005 political turmoil in Kyrgyzstan, this project has kept investors interested. Thus, within the complex geopolitical situation, Kyrgyzstan-India relations can progress with common security concerns. At present Kyrgyzstan's geopolitics is again on the verge of change due to closing of Gansi Airbase in March, Geopolitically, Kyrgyzstan has moved closer to Russia on long term economic and security issues, which suits India. In order to coordinate efforts on regional security issues, Kyrgyzstan and India have conducted joint military exercises too. In the framework of revival of the Silk Road there are various possibilities to renew socio-cultural, economic and security ties. Today, the Silk Road can have meaningful revival through transport networks, first of all, and great movement of peoples, goods and knowledge. 196