8-1: THE EARLY COLD WAR,
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1 8-1: THE EARLY COLD WAR, I. Overview A. The United States responded to an uncertain and unstable postwar world by asserting and working to maintain a position of global leadership, with far-reaching domestic and international consequences. B. The Cold War fluctuated between periods of direct and indirect military confrontation and periods of mutual coexistence (détente). C. Cold War policies led to public debates over the power of the federal government and acceptable means for pursuing international and domestic goals while protecting civil liberties. II. Origins of the Cold War A. U.S.-Soviet Relations to 1945 i. Allies in World War II a. Negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union broke down at the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences near the end of World War II. The war s end exposed the ideological differences of these two former allies. ii. Postwar Cooperation and the UN a. The major international issue following WWII involved the shape of the new world and what new political alliances would be formed. This question would become the major source of contention between the world s two leading political-economic systems, capitalism and communism. iii. Satellite States a. By the end of 1945, the Soviet Union controlled most of Eastern Europe, Mongolia, Manchuria, North Korea, and several islands. By 1947 it took over Poland, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. B. Iron Curtain i. Winston Churchill stated that an iron curtain had been spread across Europe separating the democratic states from the authoritarian communist states. ii. United States policymakers engaged in a Cold War with the authoritarian Soviet Union, seeking to limit the growth of Communist military power and ideological influence, create a free-market global economy, and build an international security system. iii. This power struggle between the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was called the cold war, because there was no actual combat as there is in a hot war. III. Containment in Europe A. Overview i. Containment was a foreign policy designed to contain or block Soviet expansion. It was based on the belief that the USSR would not take risks and would back down if faced with determined opposition. ii. Containment was the primary U.S. foreign policy from the announcement of the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to the fall of the Berlin Wall in iii. George Kennan was an American diplomat and specialist on the USSR. Kennan wrote an influential article known as the Long Telegram, which advocated that the U.S. focus its foreign policy on containing the spread of Soviet influence. B. Truman Doctrine i. In 1947, Communist insurgents threatened to take over both Greece and Turkey, and since the UK was weakened from WWII, it could no longer prop up these nations.
2 ii. President Harry S. Truman was determined to block the expansion of Soviet influence into Greece and Turkey. iii. In March 1947, Truman asked Congress for $400 million in economic aid for Greece and Turkey. iv. Truman justified the aid to Greece and Turkey by declaring that the United States would support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugations by armed minorities or by outside pressures. This sweeping pledge became known as the Truman Doctrine. C. Marshall Plan i. As postwar tensions dissolved the wartime alliance between Western democracies and the Soviet Union, the United States developed a foreign policy based on collective security, international aid, and economic institutions that bolstered non-communist nations. ii. World War II left Western Europe devastated and vulnerable to Soviet influence. iii. The Marshall Plan was a program of economic aid designed to promote the recovery of wartorn Europe while also preventing the spread of communist influence. iv. The Marshall Plan provided $12 billion in aid to help Europe rebuild its cities and economy. In return for that money, countries were expected to become American allies. Although money was offered in Eastern Europe, no countries in the Soviet sphere participated in the program. v. The Marshall Plan was an integral part of Truman s policy of containment. vi. Stalin viewed the Marshall Plan as further evidence of U.S. imperialism. D. Berlin Airlift i. The U.S., France, and UK decided to merge their sectors of Germany into one country and bring it into the Western economy, drawing the ire of the USSR. ii. Fearing a resurgent Germany, the USSR cut off Western land access to West Berlin, located deep within the Soviet zone. iii. President Truman ordered a massive airlift of food, fuel, and other supplies to the beleaguered citizens of West Berlin. iv. The Berlin Airlift marked a crucial and successful test of containment, as the U.S. refused to allow the USSR to take control of West Berlin. E. NATO and National Security i. National Security Act a. Postwar decolonization and the emergence of powerful nationalist movements in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East led both sides in the Cold War to seek allies among new nations, many of which remained nonaligned. b. Ten Western European nations joined with the United States and Canada to form a defensive military alliance called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). c. The Soviet Union and its communist satellite nations were collectively known as the Warsaw Pact. d. The NATO alliance marked a decisive break from America s tradition of isolationism to a policy of collective security. ii. Atomic Weapons a. The Soviet Union exploded an atomic device in September 1949.
3 IV. Cold War in Asia A. China i. Between 1945 and 1948, the United States gave over $2 billion in aid to the Nationalist Chinese under Chiang Kai-shek and sent George Marshall to settle the conflict between the Nationalists and Chinese Communists. ii. Led by Mao Zedong, the Chinese Communists defeated the Chinese Nationalists and declared the People s Republic of China both an independent and a communist nation. The Nationalists were forced to retreat to Taiwan. iii. The collapse of Nationalist China was viewed as a devastating defeat for America and its Cold War allies. iv. After the fall of China, the United States refused to recognize the new government in Beijing as anti-communist hysteria began to take hold in America. The U.S. interpreted the Chinese revolution as part of a menacing communist monolith. B. The Korean War i. Invasion a. The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea in June b. President Truman took advantage of a temporary Soviet absence from the United Nations Security Council to obtain a unanimous condemnation of North Korea as an aggressor. The Korean War thus marked the first collective military action by the United Nations. c. The Korean War was fought under UN auspices, in contrast to Vietnam, where the U.S. did not have UN backing. ii. Counterattack a. Concerned by expansionist Communist ideology and Soviet repression, the United States sought to contain communism through a variety of measures, including a major military engagement in Korea. b. The Korean War was a limited war that extended the containment policy to Asia. c. Stung by the criticism that the Democratic Party had lost China, Truman was determined to defend South Korea. d. The Chinese entered the war when the UN forces approached the strategic Yalu River. iii. Truman vs. MacArthur a. General Douglas MacArthur disagreed with President Truman s policy of fighting a limited war. MacArthur publicly favored a blockade of the Chinese coast and bombardment of Chinese bases. Truman responded by relieving the insubordinate MacArthur of his command. iv. Armistice a. The combatants signed an armistice in July b. The armistice set the border between North and South Korea near the 38 th parallel at approximately the pre-war boundary. V. Eisenhower and the Cold War A. Massive Retaliation i. Massive retaliation, also known as brinksmanship, was a military doctrine association with Dwight Eisenhower and his Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles.
4 ii. Dulles was opposed to simply containing the USSR and wanted to liberate the countries under Soviet control. iii. In the event of an attack by the Soviet Union or any other hostile power, the U.S. would retaliate with massive force, including nuclear weapons. iv. The threat of massive retaliation was designed to deter an enemy from launching an initial attack by emphasizing nuclear deterrents instead of the conventional use of the armed forces. v. The U.S. exploded its first hydrogen bomb in November 1952 while the Soviets followed with theirs in August B. Indochina i. Division of Vietnam a. Following World War II, the U.S. adopted a policy of containment to halt the expansion of Communist influence. France continued to exercise influence and control over Indochina. b. Led by Ho Chi Minh, the Viet Minh defeated the French at the Battle of Dienbienphu. Following their defeat, the French withdrew from Vietnam in c. American involvement in Vietnam grew out of the policy commitments and assumptions of containment. d. The United States refused to sign the Geneva Accords which divided North and South Vietnam and soon replaced France as the dominant Western power in Indochina. e. The CIA organized commando raids across the border into North Vietnam, hoping to provoke a response which could be blamed on the communists. ii. Domino Effect a. The U.S. believed that if one nation fell under communist control, nearby nations would inevitably also fall under communist influence. b. The U.S. feared that it might eventually be forced back to Hawaii, as it was before WWII. iii. SEATO a. To prevent South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from falling to communism, Secretary of State Dulles put together a regional defense pact called the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, agreeing to defend one another in case of an attack within the region. b. The U.S., Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan also signed. C. The Middle East i. Suez Crisis a. The U.S. had agreed to lend money to Egypt under the leadership of Colonel Gamal Abdul Nasser, to build the Aswan Dam but refused to give arms. b. Nasser drifted toward the USSR and in 1956 established diplomatic relations with the People s Republic of China. The U.S. responded by withdrawing its loans to Egypt. Egypt then seized the Suez Canal. c. Without U.S. assistance, France, the UK, and Israel attacked Egypt but Eisenhower demanded that they pull out, and a cease-fire was announced shortly thereafter. ii. Eisenhower Doctrine a. According to the Eisenhower Doctrine, the U.S. was prepared to use force in the Middle East against aggression from any country controlled by the Soviet Union.
5 b. Under this doctrine, the U.S. marines entered Lebanon in 1958 to promote political stability and prevent a civil war between Christians and Muslims. iii. OPEC and Oil a. Ideological, military, and economic concerns shaped U.S. involvement in the Middle East, with several oil crises in the region eventually sparking attempts at creating a national energy policy. b. In Eisenhower s last year in office, the Arab nations of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran joined Venezuela to form the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), as oil was shaping up to be a critical foreign policy issue. c. The combination of western dependence on Middle East oil, Arab nationalism, and a conflict between Israelis and Palestinian refugees would trouble American presidents in the coming decades. D. U.S.-Soviet Relations i. Death of Stalin a. President Eisenhower hoped that the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953 might improve American-Soviet relations. Initially, the new Russian leader Nikita Khrushchev offered hope. b. Khrushchev denounced Stalin s totalitarianism and called for peaceful coexistence among nations with different economic philosophies. ii. Hungarian Revolt a. Some Soviet satellite states took Khrushchev s pronouncements as signs of weakness, and rebellions took place in Poland and Hungary. b. When the USSR crushed the uprisings, U.S.-Soviet relations returned to where they were during the Stalin era. iii. Sputnik a. Launched by the Soviet Union in 1957, Sputnik was the first Earth-orbiting satellite. b. Sputnik stunned America, prompting President Dwight Eisenhower to establish NASA. c. Sputnik made education an issue of national security. Congress responded to the launch by passing the National Defense Education Act. The legislation significantly expanded federal aid to education by funding programs in mathematics, foreign languages, and the sciences. iv. U-2 Incident a. In May 1960, the Soviet Union shot down an American U-2 spy plane. b. Eisenhower ultimately took responsibility for the spy plane and Khrushchev angrily called off a summit conference which was to take place a few days later. E. Communism in Cuba i. Fidel Castro gained control over Cuba in ii. Castro soon began criticizing the United States and moved closer to the Soviet Union. iii. The U.S. prohibited the importation of Cuban sugar in October 1960 and broke off diplomatic relations the following year. F. Eisenhower s Legacy i. Americans debated the merits of a large nuclear arsenal, the military-industrial complex, and the appropriate power of the executive branch in conducting foreign and military policy.
6 VI. ii. In his farewell address, Eisenhower warned of the danger posed by a strong defense industry and the armed forces (military-industrial complex); despite his own background, Eisenhower wanted to control military spending. John F. Kennedy and the Cold War A. Alliance for Progress i. Cold War competition extended to Latin America, where the U.S. supported non-communist regimes that had varying levels of commitment to democracy. ii. The Alliance for Progress was initiated by President John Kennedy in It aimed to establish economic cooperation between North American and South America. iii. The Alliance for Progress was intended to counter the emerging communist threat from Cuba. iv. The Alliance was a brief public relations success. Despite some limited economic gains, however, the Alliance for Progress was widely viewed as a failure. B. Bay of Pigs Invasion i. President Kennedy inherited from the Eisenhower administration a CIA-backed scheme to topple Fidel Castro from power by invading Cuba with anti-communist exiles. ii. When the invasion failed, Kennedy refused to rescue the insurgents, forcing them to surrender. iii. Widely denounced as a fiasco, the Bay of Pigs defeat damaged U.S. credibility. iv. The Bay of Pigs failure, along with continuing American covert efforts to assassinate Castro, pushed the Cuban dictator into a closer alliance with the USSR. v. Soviet Premier Khrushchev responded by secretly sending nuclear missiles to Cuba. C. Cuban Missile Crisis i. The Cuban Missile Crisis was precipitated by the discovery of Soviet missiles in Cuba. ii. The Soviets withdrew their missiles from Cuba in exchange for a promise from the United States not to attack Fidel Castro. iii. As part of the negotiations to end the Cuban Missile Crisis, President Kennedy promised to refrain from a military invasion of Cuba. D. Berlin Wall i. After a confrontation in Berlin in 1961, President John Kennedy called up reserve and National Guard units and asked for an increase in defense funds. ii. Soviet Premier Khrushchev responded by closing the border between East and West Berlin and ordering the erection of the Berlin Wall.
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