A Decade of National Infrastructure for Peace: Assessing the Role of The National Peace Council in Ghanaian Elections

Transcription

1 Faculty of Humanities, Social Science and Education, Centre for Peace Studies A Decade of National Infrastructure for Peace: Assessing the Role of The National Peace Council in Ghanaian Elections Kelvin Owusu Master s thesis in Peace and Conflict Transformation May 2017

2 DEDICATION To these wonderful women; Maame O. Boateng, Mama O. Timah, Mad. Faustina Kumi, and Patricia, Abigail, Emmanuella, Sandra.

3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My profound thanks to the Almighty God for bringing me this far in life. Thanks to my supervisor Dr Randolph Wallace Rhea for his knowledgeable directions to the study. My appreciation to my family and friends for their support and inspiration. I say thank you to all my research participants without whose help this study would not have been a reality. Finally, I thank the staff of the Center for Peace Studies, University of Tromso for their significant contribution.

4 ABSTRACT This study focuses on national infrastructure for peace and elections. The study assesses the role played by the National Peace Council (NPC) in promoting peace during elections in Ghana. The main aim of the study is to research into how well the activities and mechanisms of the NPC promoted peace in the recent election. It also shows the challenges that affect the NPC s promotion of peace during elections. Moreover, the study highlights the specific activities which the NPC used to promote peace in the elections. To achieved its aims the study used the semi-structured interview methods to ascertain the perspectives of informants from three groups namely the NPC, the political parties in Ghana and public-students group. The concepts used in the study includes peacebuilding, local or national ownership and infrastructure for peace. The findings of the study indicate that the activities and mechanisms of the NPC promoted peace during the elections. Also, the study discovered from informant s perspective that, the violence that characterises the elections in Ghana is attributed to factors related to the Ghanaian political culture and political policies that obstruct peace work during elections. The study therefore suggests that, peacebuilding requires the collaboration and cooperation of all peace stakeholders from all levels of the society to develop mechanism that deals with conflict through non-violent means. Further, it shows the importance of building national infrastructures for peace that is tasked with structuring mechanisms which are known to the people to achieve democratic peace and stability. Master s Thesis, Tittle: A DECADE OF NATIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE FOR PEACE: ASSESSING THE ROLE OF THE NATIONAL PEACE COUNCIL IN GHANAIAN ELECTIONS. Kelvin Owusu. Page i

5 List of abbreviations NPC- National Peace Council NPP- New Patriotic Party NDC-National Democratic Party NRPAC- Northern Region Peace Advisory Committee UNDP- United Nations development Programme USAID-United States Agency for International Development RPC-Regional Peace Council DPC-District Peace Council UN-United Nations EU-European Union CSO-Civil Society Organisations IDEG- Institute for Democratic Governance IEA- Institute of Economic Affairs NCCE- National Commission for Civic Education EC- Electoral Commission I4Ps-Infrastructure for Peace MUSIGA-Musicians Union of Ghana WANEP - West Africa Network for Peacebuilding BNI-Bureau of National Investigation Page ii

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT... i List of abbreviations... ii Chapter 1: BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Introduction and background Problem statement Objective of the study Research questions Instances of Electoral Violence in Africa Violence and electoral malpractices in Ghana s elections Elections reawaken chieftaincy disputes The 2012 elections The 2016 elections Contribution by civil society organizations Related Literature Edifice of the Thesis Chapter 2: PROFILE OF THE NPC Background of the NPC Brief history of the formation of the NPC Structure and Mandate Structure of The Council Strategic Mechanisms of work Networking, Partnership and collaboration Research and Public Peace Education Conflict Prevention Strategies Conflict Indicators and Early Warning Systems Page iii

7 Preventive Diplomacy Confidence and trust building Conflict Management Strategies Conflict Resolution Strategies Summary Chapter 3: METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK Introduction Data Collection Techniques Qualitative interviews Secondary sources of data Study area Informants Informant Selection Sample Size Gaining Access to NPC Members and Politicians Methodological issues and field reflections Researcher s Position Selection of interviewees Interviewees influenced by the interview situation Confidentiality and Anonymity Issues Gatekeeping Interviewing Political elites Summary Chapter 4: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Introduction Peacebuilding Actors; Who are the Peacebuilders? Page iv

8 4.3.1 Local or National Ownership National Infrastructure for peace Infrastructure for Peace and Election violence Summary Chapter 5: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS Introduction Background of informants Age Education background and employment status Assessing the NPC s activities and mechanisms for Peace Building Peace through Partnership and Collaboration Assessing Conflict Prevention Mechanism and Activities Conflict management and resolution strategies Significant activities in recent elections Factors that challenge Election Peace promotion NPC lacking Authority to enforce Political control Weak institution in Africa Political culture and policies challenging peacebuilding in Ghana Winner-takes-all syndrome Open seat elections The Electoral Commission factor Intra-party violence and Party Foot Soldiers Activities The Media The neutrality of the security agencies Loyalty of the citizenry Summary Page v

9 Chapter 6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS Introduction Approaches Findings Analytical contribution Empowering institutions in Africa The Electoral commission Adopting policies that reduce political competitions Citizenry education Conclusion References Appendix 1: Semi-structured interview guide for political parties Page vi

10 Chapter 1: BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction and background Elections in Africa have attained a reputation of violence and fraud. Most countries on the continent have experienced several uncertainties and violence in the episodes of elections which has resulted in the destruction of lives, livelihoods and properties. Elections in countries such as Nigeria in 2003, Kenya in 2007, Zimbabwe in 2000 and many others recorded violence leading to injuries and deaths (Atuobi, 2008). Amidst these uncertainties and violence, the international community has often used Ghana s image as an example of African peace for other less democratic African countries to emulate (Amankwaah, 2013). The country is often perceived by the international community as one which enjoys peace. This perception is perhaps attributed to the fact that, Ghana has never experienced a full-blown conflict on the national level after its independence; also since the reinsertion of elections in 1992, the country has not experience a major election standoff and violent conflict like her counterparts in the sub-saharan Africa namely Togo, Ivory Coast, Kenya etc. Gyimah-Boadi affirms that, Ghana have been politically stable after recent elections and her success in the event has established her place as Africa s beacon of hope for democracy (2009, p. 138). The country has already had eight consecutive elections since 1992 in its fourth republic 1. These elections have succeeded in three successful transition of power between the two major political parties in the country. In the 2000 election, the incumbent political party, the National Democratic Congress (NDC) lost the presidential run-off election to the main opposition party, the New Patriotic Party (NPP). Against the fears of the international community and Ghanaians, the ruling party conceded defeat and submitted to the rule of the electorate. This act came at the back of having ruled for 19 years 2 as well as entrenched interest from beneficiaries of the government actively campaigning for the ruling party not to hand over power to the opposition candidate (Ojielo, 2007, p. 1). In the 2008 presidential run-off election, the then ruling NPP lost to the NDC this time around. Here again, even though tensions mounted in the final stages of the 1 The 4th Republic marks the era where military rule ended to reinstate election in It highlights the strides in the beginning of democracy-building, and examines the degree to which it foretells hope for sub-saharan Africa (Gyimah-Boadi, 2008). 2 The then ruling party was the National Democratic Party (NDC). It was an offshoot of the Provisional National Defense Council (PNDC), the military government which was headed by Ft. Lt. Jerry John Rawlings, which has been in power from 1981 to It won the first elections in the 4 th republic and continued to rule until See (Morrison, 2004). Page 1

11 elections, there was a peaceful transition of power from the ruling party to the opposition. Again, the successes of the 2012 elections further deepened Ghana s democratic status. Upon the opposition party s reluctance in accepting the results of the presidential election, they resorted to court to contest the election outcome which they deemed unfair and stolen (Amankwaah, 2013). The opposition party s decision to take the matter to court abetted the avoidance of unrest in the aftermaths of the elections. Another peaceful power transition happened in the 2016 elections which the NDC transferred power to the NPP. Due to these instances, scholars like Gyimah-Boadi (2008), Ojielo (2007) etc. have tended to agree with the international community 3 that; Ghana is peaceful and enjoys free and fair elections, and for that matter, it is in plainly contrast to many of its counterparts in Africa. But this assumption is not entirely the case when one critically examine the Ghanaian political culture as well as its electoral process. Like most of its counterparts on the continent, Ghana has experienced a series of coup d état and military regimes in the past; it has also seen numerous ethnic and identity conflict especially in the northern part of the country; also, chieftaincy and violent land disputes as well as election violence have all been experienced in most of its communities. For these reasons, Ghana is also prone to the civil wars faced by other African countries. Also, Jockers, Kohnert, and Nugent (2010, p. 95) has warned that, Ghana s successful elections and transition of power should not be used to cover the existence of what appears to be a long history of election malpractices 4 in the country. In their opinion, the country s fraudulent voting record has amounted to a dangerous time bomb of unresolved conflicts that can detonate during elections in the future. Hence, the perception of peace and stability cannot be used as a guarantee for long term peace especially when there has been continues evidence of myriad conflicts at the community and local level resulting from civil and labor unrest, chieftaincy, land disputes, inter/intra political conflict and among others (Ojielo, 2007). 5 These types of conflict I have just indicated coupled with the pockets of violence which arises during elections in the country have the potential to produce violent conflict on a large scale. Hence to disregard the incidents that befall throughout elections in Ghana is also possibly to overlook the warning signs of potential explosion of violence on the national scale (Jockers et al., 2010). Elections in Ghana have continuously been characterized by some forms of electoral fraud resulting from over 3 Amankwaah states that, the international community has framed Ghana as a unique bastion of democracy and peace on the continent of Africa (2013, p. 5). 4 Election malpractices in Ghana includes vote rigging, ballot box stuffing, and stealing of ballot boxes (Bob-Milliar, 2014). 5 In some cases, these types of conflicts in Ghana are exacerbated during elections for political gains. Page 2

12 voting, stealing of ballot boxes by macho men 6, and intimidations from opposing parties in the so-called strongholds of the main political parties. The country has a long history of fraudulent voting, block voting and rigging which has compounded in electoral malpractices. These electoral malpractices and the evidence of election violence often creates fear in the public and threatens the stability of the country (Amankwaah, 2013; Jockers et al., 2010). To curb these tensions and threats of potential national level violence, several state and non-state actors in and outside the country have been involved in peace promotion during elections. The National Peace Council (NPC), which is the center of this study is the institution with the constitutional mandate to act as an umbrella body to promote stable peace in the country. Since its establishment in 2006, the NPC has been actively involved in promoting peace across the length and breadth of the country. Their activities have included promoting peace through a diplomatic mechanism on cases ranging from chieftaincy disputes, land, inter-tribal conflict etc. But as some scholars like C. Kumar (2011, p. 395) perceives elections to be a vital tool for a country s stability if it is free, fair and peaceful, and the opposite as a sign for a failing government or a destabilizing country, Awinador-Kanyirige (2014) says that, the National Peace Council have been actively involved in dealing with the violence that comes with elections in Ghana. But the study asserts that, even though the NPC acknowledges election-related violence as a potential cause of a major violent conflict in Ghana, its work has not been able to eradicate the violence that occurs during elections. The reason for this could be that, the mechanisms and strategies used by the NPC are unable to provide enabling environment for peaceful elections or there may be other factors in the Ghanaian political system which are out of the jurisdiction of the Peace council obstructing the promotion of peaceful elections. The study therefore attempts to research into the reasons behind the continues violence in Ghanaian elections. 1.2 Problem statement The study is of the view that, since the reintroduction of elections in 1992 in Ghana, almost all elections conducted has been characterized with violence. We would have thought that the existence of the NPC since 2006 would improve or prevent this election-related violence. Despite the presence of the NPC, the Ghanaian society becomes polarized before, during and after elections. What then could be behind the occurrence of these violence? Does the NPC s approach, strategy and mechanism promote peace (or have shortfalls)? Or are there other 6 Macho men is a general term in Ghana used to refer to men who have progressively built their bodies. Page 3

13 external factors which are out of the hands of the NPC affecting the promotion of peaceful elections? These can be understood by critically assessing the activities or roles of the NPC in the presence of elections in Ghana. The research will seek to study the composition and some of the activities that the council performs before, during and after elections to promote peace. It will also focus on how the NPC s approaches have been successful in preventing elections-related violence as well as how it has been problematic Objective of the study The main objective of this study is to find out if the roles and the approaches of the NPC really promotes peace before, during and after elections in Ghana. The study also intends to research the factors that causes the continues violence in the Ghanaian election Research questions a) What are the activities and mechanisms used by the NPC to promote peace during elections in Ghana? How well did these activities and mechanisms promote peace in the recent elections? b) What are the constraints and challenges that affect the NPC s promotion of peace during elections. Recent elections is used here to represent the presidential and parliamentary elections in 2008, 2012, and The study s motive of using these elections as a point of discussion is that, the NPC was established in the year 2006 and it was very instrumental in these three elections. So, using these elections will help us to critically analyse and compare the roles they played in the elections. 1.3 Instances of Electoral Violence in Africa This section briefly outlines instances to support the argument that election violence indeed exist in Africa and Ghana is not insulated from it. Following the end of the Cold War, the institutionalisation of multi-party democracy was considered indispensable for establishing peace and political stability in Africa. Odukoya (2007) asserts that, the fundamental notion behind this position undertaken by western democracies was to use liberal democracy and elections on the African continent as mechanisms for peacebuilding. Elections are therefore considered a crucial element of democracy. However, unlike Page 4

14 those in the developed world, elections in most African countries are characterised with violence, fraud and doubts of post-election peace. This is due to the likelihood of violence which may occur at different periods of the electoral process i.e. before, during or after elections. In Nigeria for instance, at least 100 people were killed and many more injured in the 2003 federal and state elections (Atuobi, 2008). Also reports indicates that, over 300 lives were lost by the end of the 2007 elections Nigerian election (Collier & Vicente, 2014, p. 331). 7 In the Ivory Coast, two candidates claimed victory in the presidential elections in This was followed by a continues post-election standoff and chaos for about four month. Goldsmith (2015, p. 818) indicates that, over a thousand Ivoirians lost their lives with a million fleeing their country for safety. Togo, which also shares close borders with Ghana also experienced similar situation in its 2005 presidential election. The opposition group s position to reject the outcome of the election results resulted in several days of intense social unrest (Jones, 2009, p. 62). According to Aljazeera news, the UN reported that the death toll was between 400 to 500 as results of disputed election outcome in Similarly, about 600 people were reported killed during the December 2007 elections following disputes and clashes over the results of the Kenyan presidential elections (Atuobi, 2008, p. 10). The figures are just alarming. We can continue with the recent case of the Gambia elections in December 2016 which also resulted in a standoff for several months. Also the August 2007 runoff elections in Sierra Leone, Zimbabwe in 2000 and 2005, Uganda, Ethiopia, Chad, Zambia have all had their share of violence elections 9. These examples attest to the fact that elections and its related malpractices and violence exist in almost all elections in the democratic developing countries of Africa. Unlike in consolidated democracies and the developed world where election processes are orderly coordinated, in third world countries, elections are frequently marred with uncertainties, rigging, intimidation of voters, electoral fraud, fear and panic, fleeing and displacement of citizens and even deaths from civil war. Ghana s election is not free from the features I have mentioned above. In most of the country s elections, there have been reported cases of electoral malpractices and violence. Like her African counterparts, such features are capable of erupting into a major violence or unrest especially when they have 7 Also reported by the Human Rights Watch; Online: 8 Al Jazeera news (06 March :55 GMT), Protests over Togo election results. 9 Atuobi (2008) Page 5

15 continuously and conveniently been roofed, yet the international community considers its elections as free, fair and peaceful. The next section reveals some similar cases of election related violence which are even more dangerous because they have not been dealt with overtime and have the possibility of exploding to jeopardise the peace of the country Violence and electoral malpractices in Ghana s elections The occurrence of election-related violence on the African continent is so high that even an election which is thought to be free and fair in electoral process and outcome may not have been free of violence during its process. In Africa, elections are periods during which a country s stability and security are constantly in a precarious condition and this is as a results of the danger of violence which happens in relation to the elections (Atuobi, 2008, p. 11). The case of Ghana is not an exception to this fact but as Amankwaah (2013) has revealed, media reports in the event of violence in Ghanaian elections are often infrequent and a few studies prioritize the issue of violence. In 1992, the NPP complained of massive irregularities in the presidential elections. They therefore rejected the results of the elections and refused to partake in the parliamentary elections that followed. Jeffries and Thomas (1993, p. 331) emphasizes that, due to this, the opposition NPP and other anti-(p)ndc groups organized demonstrations which at some point ended in public riots, curfews and bombings 10 in some parts of the country which included Kumasi, Tema, Accra and Tamale. Although these incidents were later calmed by traditional and religious leaders who convinced the opposition party and the public allow peace to reign, there were several reported injuries and destruction of state properties. A research carried out by Bob-Milliar (2014, p. 136) also indicates that, there were reports of widespread stealing and padding 11 of ballot boxes in 1992, 1996, 2000 and the 2004 elections. In all these elections, there has also been reported cases of electoral fraud, the presence of macho men molestation and intimidations of voters by the two main opposing parties in the stronghold of each opponent, and dissatisfaction of results in some polling stations. These acts led to violence involving supporters of both the ruling party and the opposition (Amankwaah, 10 There were riots in Kumasi which led to the nuisance of a dusk-to-dawn curfew until 9 November. Also, three bombs were blasted in Tema and Accra which resulted in massive injuries (Jeffries & Thomas, 1993). 11 Padding or stuffing of ballot boxes here refers to where pre-cast ballot papers are put into ballot boxes prior to the scheduled casting of votes (Bob-Milliar, 2014, p. 136). Page 6

16 2013; Bob-Milliar, 2014). Further, Ojielo (2007) indicates that in the aftermath of the 2000 presidential election which the NPP (John Agyekum Kuffour ) won, most supporters of the then ruling NDC actively campaigned and charged their president (Jerry John Rawlings ) who have been in power for 19 years not to hand over power to the winning opposition candidate heightening fear and panic in the country in that period. The 2004 and 2008 presidential and parliamentary elections were not different from the cases I have indicated. Even though Bob-Milliar (2014) has stressed that, violence was less in the former because there was no obvious open seat for presidency, he highlights the increase of violence in the 2008 elections. He indicates that, the increased violence was caused by of the keen competition for power between the two main parties Elections reawaken chieftaincy disputes Another violence which occurs during elections is when long standing chieftaincy feuds are rekindled by the activities of the two main political parties in competition. The case of Yendi and Bawku in the northern part of Ghana is a typical example of this conflict. Amankwaah (2013) emphasizes that, people in these areas of Ghana are critical of elections since the possibility of gaining rights and support of the political party which wins the elections have the capability to influence chieftaincy disputes. The two Dagomba faction groups are directly tied to their preferred party in the hope that it wins the election. By this, the two-major political parties have managed to aggravate series of clashes between the Dagomba faction groups especially before elections to benefit from the divisions to gain votes The 2012 elections The 2012 election was characterized with provocative insults and verbal attacks on political figures of the opposite camps by the two main political parties (NPP and NDC). Also, Bob- Milliar (2014) indicates that, the activities of staunch supporters of political parties who are referred as foot soldiers 12 were created violence during the elections. Party foot soldiers activities include using illegal means to seize local control of income-generating community facilities (such as municipal parking lots and pay toilets) from appointed custodians, who are perpetually identified as supporters of the opposing party. 13 Further, they point out the do-or- 12 Foot soldiers in the Ghanaian political system is the term or name given to activists who offer a kind of wholeheartedness support to their respective political party and its candidates during election period and, in turn, are rewarded with private pay-offs in return for their continued devotion and activities. 13 Gyimah-Boadi and Prempeh (2012, pp. 101,102) Page 7

17 die adventure by both parties during the election campaigns 14. Amankwaah (2013) also indicates the series of accusations and counter- accusations by political parties concerning cheating and buying of votes. In highlighting some of the key challenges of the 2012 Ghana elections in their statement, WANEP (2012) also reported cases involving burning and attempted snatching of ballots boxes in some polling areas 15. In the end the opposition NPP rejected the results of the presidential elections which the EC presented to Ghanaians. Fears were however calmed when the opposition NPP decided to go to court to contest the election results The 2016 elections In the December 2016 elections, the violent features in the Ghanaian politics did not change. The country experienced several cases which increasingly doubts its touted democratic and peaceful election status. Prior to the election, the political atmosphere was not only filled with insults, provocative utterances and verbal attacks on political figures as seen in the previous elections, but also physical confrontations and intimidations between the ruling NDC and the opposition NPP which posed treat to the country s peace and stability. Notably of these events is the killing of a top NPP politician who also happens to be a member of parliament for Abuakwa North, J.B. Danquah at his residence in February Police investigations could not prove the incident was an act of robbery leading to many believing his death was linked to the vehement political atmosphere (or a contract killing 17 ). 18 In the following month, three South African nationals were arrested and deported by the Bureau of National Investigation (BNI); their charge was that, they have been involved in using weapons to train personal bodyguards for the flagbearer and running mate of the opposition party. The BNI and the Police suspected that, they were not only training bodyguards but also, men who could be used for other intended purposes. 19 This security and government intimidations did not stop. Rather it was followed in few days later by the National security and the Police who also raided a think tank group called the Danquah institute 14 Gyimah-Boadi and Prempeh (2012) (Myjoyonline.com/Ghana) 17 It should be obvious to everybody that this is contract killing. We trust that very soon, it will come to the fore as to who is responsible for this dastardly act of murder. lawyer Atta Akyea. (citifmonline.com/ghana) 18 (Myjoyonline.com/Ghana) 19 (Myjoyonline.com/Ghana) Page 8

18 which is an affiliate of the opposition NPP. 20 The events triggered dozens of NPP supporters to gather at the Nima residence of the NPP flagbearer, Nana Akuffo Addo to protect him. In the aftermaths of the 2016 elections, there were series of intimidations by supporters of the party that won the elections. They claim that they had faced a similar situation when the NDC won power in Right after the inauguration of the new president, there were several reported cases of attacks in some areas against supporter of the newly opposition NDC. Among these included some youth of the governing NPP who were on rampage locking and completely taking over some state institutions illegally in Tamale, Kumasi and Accra. The invincible forces as they were called claimed that, they were exacting vengeance for what they went through in the hands NDC when it won power in the 2008 elections. They besieged offices like the passport office in Accra, the National Health insurance offices, the Rattray Park in Kumasi, the Youth Employment Agency (YEA) and National Disaster Management Office (NADMO) in Sagnerigu district 21. These by force office takeovers led to a series of violent clashes and tensions around the country between supporters of the ruling NPP and the opposition NDC. In Ejura in the Ashanti region for instance, at least four people were shot following a clash between members of the NPP and the opposition NDC over school feeding in one of the public schools 22 ; Also, in Begoro of the Fanteakwa district of the Eastern region, tension erupted between the two groups of supporters in the wake of the sacking of all Municipal, Metropolitan and District Chief Executives by the new President 23 ; also at Agbogbloshie in Accra, the timely intervention by Police and the Ghana Armed Forces prevented what could have been a bloody confrontation between supporters of NPP and NDC. We continue to praise Ghana as a peaceful and democratic nation which other African counterparts should follow as example of peace and democracy, but we forget that the country s election violence has the capacity to explode into a full conflict which can result in several people getting injured and some losing their lives. We can consider the position of the NPP to resolve the 2012 presidential election in court to be democratically correct and a step forward in deepening democracy in Ghana, but what if it has 20 (Myjoyonline.com/Ghana) 21 (Myjoyonline.com/Ghana) Page 9

19 decided against a court procedure or even did not agree with the verdict of the court which they eventually lost. What could have happened then? Also, there seem to be an act of vengeance in the minds of supporters of the two major political parties and this has been left to continue without proper measures to curb it. Can African countries have elections like the western countries where not a single soul will be lost? The instances above clearly contradict the perceptions that the international community have about Ghana s elections. The cases therefore vindicate the intuitive questions I have earlier raised and quest for alternatives that can enhance election free violence. In response to the violence however, several groups including the NPC have been working to promote peace and stability. Chapter two will discuss in detail the mandate, structure and work of the peace council. Now the next section will briefly outline other groups which also get involve in peace promotion in Ghana. Most of these groups often partner with the National Peace Council in undertaking its activities. 1.4 Contribution by civil society organizations Several institutions, traditional leaders, non-state and state agencies have been actively being involved in managing or curbing the situations to prevent them from escalating into war. Some of these agencies includes Non-State Organizations such as the Ark Foundation, Musicians Union of Ghana (MUSIGA); also, chiefs, religious leaders, media groups and other influential personalities gets involve in the peace promotion process. Moreover, the work of some key state institutions like the National Security Council and security agencies like the Ghana police service and army, the National House of Chiefs, National Peace Council etc. cannot be left out. The MUSIGA for example composes peace songs to notify the youth of the importance of peace in the country (Tekpor, 2016). In churches pastors and leaders get involve to preach peace to the public. Also chiefs like the Otumfuo of the Ashanti kingdom occasionally call upon political leaders to allow peace to reign (Kotia & Aubyn, 2013a). Also, celebrities, footballers, the media groups organize peace walks and games during election period avoid violence. Moreover, international groups like West African Network for Peace (WANEP), UNDP, and the USAID also partner with the peace council to execute its peace activities. In all these, the National Peace Council is the constitutionally mandated group which is tasked with making sure that the country s peace is not disturbed not by elections alone but all occurrences that can potentially disturb the country s peace. Page 10

20 1.5 Related Literature Several studies give credence to election- related violence among African countries. In these studies, the researches have given much emphasis on issues which relates to the undemocratic and malpractices that mars the electoral process as well as the violence that come with them. In the case of Nigeria, Togo, Kenya, and the Ivory coast, cases which includes intimidation of voters, electoral malpractices, and the many unruly strategies which politicians use to arrive at their goals. The literatures indicate that these and similar related issues are the consequences of state turmoil, persons displacement, loss of lives and destruction of property (Atuobi, 2008; Collier & Vicente, 2014; Goldsmith, 2015; Jones, 2009; Rawlence & Albin-Lackey, 2007) Whiles researchers like Gyimah-Boadi (2008, 2009); Ojielo (2007) tend to commend Ghana for its continues democratic and urges other African countries to use her as an example, scholars like Amankwaah (2013); Bob-Milliar (2014); Jeffries and Thomas (1993) has however indicated that, violence occurs during elections in Ghana. Bob-Milliar (2014) for instance indicates how lowintensity electoral violence in Ghana poses a threat to the peace and security of the country. In his submissions, he justifies how the activities of foot soldiers of both the NPP and NDC have resulted in violence in bye elections, and both parliamentary and presidential elections in Ghana. In the work of Amankwaah (2013), factors like ethnicity, employment and chieftaincy are presented as key causes of violence. She indicates for example how the political parties are tied to the factions involved in the Yendi and Bawku chieftaincy disputes. In the works of these scholars, not much was said about building national mechanisms to prevent this violence that comes with elections in African countries. I must acknowledge that, scholars like Paul Van Tongeren, Chetan Kumar and De la Haye have all done extensive work on building Infrastructure for Peace on some developing countries (which includes Ghana) around the world. However, in all their works, none of them extensively discuss the architecture in the presence of election related violence. Van Tongeren for instance offer a broad description on the formation and compositions of the national architectures for peace around the world. Also, C. Kumar (2011) outlines the UN assistance for internally created infrastructures that deals with the solutions to violent conflict in general. In his article, he compares these Infrastructures to the Traditional approaches to conflict prevention. One area of research which has not been explored in relation to the case of Ghana is the in-depth study of the NPC and its task of preventing election-related violence in Ghana. The areas which scholarly articles have not yet explored include; the reasons why the council has not guaranteed a Page 11

21 violence free elections in the country; and how issues such as winner-takes-all, party foot soldiers etc. which might be out of grips of the Council continues to be the key causes of violence during elections. Even though scholars like Ojielo (2007) and Kotia and Aubyn (2013a) appears to have worked on the NPC, both focused on its general mandate. In the work of these scholars for example, they presented the role of the national infrastructure for peace extensively in the light of all types of causes of violence in Ghana. This then creates a vacuum for an extensive work to be done on the Council in the light of elections and its related violence. Van Tongeren (2011a, p. 53) in a closing remarks conceivably acknowledges that, there is the need for a rigorous assessment of the impact of peace structures to establish the best design or structures for solutions to conflict. One approach to this is to monitor election and the violence that comes with it with an existing peace structure like the National Peace Council of Ghana. This study therefore attempts to assess the role of the NPC in promoting peace during Ghanaian elections. 1.6 Edifice of the Thesis The study is arranged into six chapters. The opening chapter has provided the background and introduced the main issues that informs the study. It has indicated the research problem, the significance of the study the research questions and discussed some scholarly works which are related to the core issues of this study. The succeeding chapter will primarily focus on the profile of the NPC; it will outline its composition, structure, task and some peace work it has executed in relation to elections in Ghana. The third chapter will present in detail the method used in getting data for the study. It will also share light on methodological issues which the researcher encountered during data collection from the research field. In the fourth chapter, conceptual issues that forms the fundamental notion of the study will be discussed in details. Issues which includes the concept of peacebuilding and national ownership as well as the concept of infrastructure for peace and elections is presented and discussed in the chapter to us know what informs the work of the NPC. Data obtained from the researcher s fieldwork in Ghana will be presented and analysed in the fifth chapter. In this chapter, narratives of informants are outlines under topics that forms the basis of our discussion and analytical contribution in the final chapter. The analytical contributions in the final chapter focuses on key issues which the study believes that through them peaceful elections can be achieved in Ghana. Page 12

22 Chapter 2: PROFILE OF THE NPC 2.1 Introduction In this chapter, I present a detail profile of the National Peace Council of Ghana. The chapter will feature a brief background, history and a detail description of the structure, mandate and composition of the NPC. Also, the strategic mechanisms used by the NPC to tackle conflict issues will be outlined. The chapter make use of information from documents such as the National Peace Councils Act, the five-year strategic plan document which spans from 2013 to 2017, and other scholarly articles on the NPC. 2.2 Background of the NPC The National Peace Council of Ghana is an example of a national level Infrastructure for Peace (I4Ps) which Van Tongeren describes in his article Increasing interest in Infrastructures for Peace as a development of institutional mechanisms, appropriate to each country s culture, which promotes...a cooperative problem-solving approach to conflict based on dialogue and nonviolence which includes all stakeholders (2011a, p. 49). Such an establishment involves enacting statutory measures with appropriate budget to form peace councils at the national, district and local levels which comprises of highly respected and reliable persons. Their task is to bring together divisions created by politics and other factors and transform conflicts for a stable peace and democracy (Van Tongeren, 2011a, p. 49). The NPC of Ghana is the country s mandated infrastructure for peace at the national level enshrined in the constitution. It is an independent constitutional national peace institution established by the eight hundred and eighteenth (818) Act of the Parliament of the Republic of Ghana, called The National Peace Council Act, This means that, all activities undertaken by the Council are derived from the Act 818 of the parliament of Ghana. The main task of the Council is to facilitate and develop mechanisms to prevent, manage, and resolve conflict and to build sustainable peace. The Peace council enjoys the autonomy to establish its priorities and regulates the use of allocated resources. This is stated emphatically in the Act; Except as provided in the Constitution, the Council is not subject to the direction, control of any person or authority in the performance of its functions. 24 The Council does have and values this sought of independence provided by the Act. This enables the governing board the freedom of establishing 24 National Peace Council Act 818, Page 13

23 committees from members or non-members or both to perform to operate on certain issues. Members of the Council are precluded from participating in active party politics. 25 Although the Act 818 of the NPC was enacted in the year 2011, the council has been in existence and operational since Brief history of the formation of the NPC The NPC came into being due to the successful works of the Northern Region Peace Advisory Committee (NRPAC) and another peace group which was established in 2005 in the Volta region of Ghana. The NRPAC was made up of representatives of Traditional Chiefs, Christians and Muslim bodies, Women and Youth groups as well as security agencies. The NRPAC was set up after the 2002 Dagbon Chieftaincy conflict 26 as an arbitration and conflict resolving mechanism to promote trust among the conflicting groups and bring back mutual belief and peaceful relations (Kotia & Aubyn, 2013a). The successes of the NRPAC and that of the Volta peace committee which was established by the Volta Regional Coordinating Council in 2005 to conciliate on the Nkonya-Alavanyo conflict in the Volta region of Ghana prompted the government of Ghana to use the opportunity to create an akin group for the country (Awinador- Kanyirige, 2014; Van Tongeren, 2011b). Through UNDP s technical and financial support and the assistance of relevant key national stakeholders such as the National Security Council (NSC), the Council was formed during a review workshop on the work of the NRPAC. The Ministry of Interior s proposal for the establishment of the NPC received a comprehensive consent of parliament as well as various political parties and other stakeholders 27. The formation of the NPC was also in accordance with the outcome of the conference on stability, security and development in Africa which was held in Durban in Ghana s effort in implementing the resolution of the African Leaders during the meeting pushed for the creation of a National Architecture for Peace in the country, i.e. the NPC. 28 According to Van Tongeren (2011b, p. 407), the NPC of Ghana is the first official national level program on promoting peace on the continent of Africa. 25 National Peace Council Act 818, The Dagbon chieftaincy conflict involves members of two clans (the Abudu and Andani) both of whom are making claim of choosing the next Ya Na, the king of the people of Dagomba. (Tonah, 2012) 27 (Kotia & Aubyn, 2013a) 28 (Van Tongeren, 2011b) Page 14

24 2.4 Structure and Mandate The governing body of the NPC as stipulated in Act 818 is a board which consist of thirteen distinguished members who are selected by Christian and Muslim bodies, Traditional groups and other identifiable groups. The president of the republic is also mandated to nominate two people to the governing board. The Act refers to identifiable groups as groups that includes institutions of higher learning and civil society organisations involved in conflict resolution and peace building;. The council members are individuals who are highly respected across the country. They are also seen as people who are truthful and can be trusted. They possess professional integrity and have good moral standing. In Van Tongeren view, the calibre of the NPC s members, which is the truthfulness and decency they hold (both individually and together as a group) makes the council a nonpartisan body enabling a platform for structuring collaborative problem solving mechanisms on possible conflict-ridden issues as well as promoting reconciliation nation-wide (2011a). The table below indicates how members of the governing board at the national level are selected to the council by their groups. Table 1. Membership of the Governing Board of the National Peace Council One representative from each of the following religious and traditional bodies who are nominated by the concerned bodies. Christian groups Muslim groups Traditional bodies Catholic Bishops Ahmadiyya Practitioners of Conference. Muslim African Christian Council Mission Traditional Ghana Pentecostal Al-Sunnah Religions. Council Muslims National House National Council for Tijaaniya of Chiefs. Christians and Muslim group Charismatic Churches Presidential nominees and nominations by identifiable groups. Two persons nominated by the president of Ghana, one of whom must be a woman. Two other persons nominated by identifiable groups. Source: National Peace Council Act 818, National Peace Council Act 818, Page 15

25 It can be realised from the table that; the religious bodies and traditional groups nominate a member each from their ranks. The other four members are nominated by the president of the republic and identifiable groups which includes institutions of higher learning and civil society groups who are involved in conflict resolution and peace building. Among the two-presidential nominees, one must be a female. Although the tenure of office for members is four years, persons can be re-appointed by their groups. The governing board of the council meets at least once every month to deliberate on matters of concerned. However, they may also meet upon the request of not less than one third of the board in writing for extra ordinary meetings. In the event of deliberation, matters before the board are determined by consensus, but in a situation where it is not possible, a simple majority of the available members is used. The board can also co-opt a person for advices or assistance during meetings. 30 From the table, we also realize that whiles the Christian bodies provide four individuals, the Muslim bodies and the traditional bodies provide three and two persons respectively. According to Kotia and Aubyn (2013a), the number of individuals representing each of the religious groupings reflects their percentage distribution of Ghana s population. They further assert that; the representation of the bodies mirrors the high level of respect Ghanaians give to religious leaders; often they are not partial and stay away from partisan politics. Also, they are people who possess the capability of resolving conflicting issues due to the social nature of their activities. Nomination of members to the council is done based on agreement by each of the religious groups. 30 National Peace Council Act 818, Page 16

26 In a phone interview with a staff of the NPC, she expressed that, the current members as at December 2016 of the national governing board. Below is table 2 which outlines the names of these members and the respective bodies they represent. Names of Current Members Bodies or Groups of Representation 1 Most Rev. Vincent Sowah Boi Nai Catholic Bishop's Conference 2 Rev. Dr. Ernest Adu Gyamfi Christian Council 3 Apostle Prof. Opoku Onyinah Ghana Pentecostal Council 4 Arch Bishop Nicholas Duncan Williams National Council for Christian and charismatic Churches 5 Maulvi Mohammed Bin Salih Ahmadiyya Muslim Mission 6 Shiekh Mahmoud Gedel Al-Sunnah Muslim Mission 7 Imam Awal Shaibu Tijaaniya Muslim Group 8 Osofo Kofi Atabuatsi Practitioners of African Traditional Religion 9 Nana Susubribi Krobea Asante National House of Chiefs 10 Mr. Shaibu Abubakar Identifiable Group 11 Rev. Dr. Nii Amoo Darku Identifiable Group 12 Most Rev. Prof. Emmanuel K. President's Nominee Asante 13 Nana Agyakoma Difie II President's Nominee Structure of The Council The National Peace Council, as recognised by law, has a structure of three distinct levels. These levels consist of the national governing body, the ten administrative regions and the 212 districts of Ghana. At all levels, membership consist of thirteen persons nominated as indicated in the table 1 above. The nature of the structure enhances the involvement of all stakeholders in the prevention, resolution and management of conflicts at all levels of the Ghanaian society. In one of my interviews, an informant from the council revealed that, nine regions out of ten (i.e. apart from the Greater Accra Regional Peace Council-RPC) regional peace councils had been established. It was also revealed in the same interview that only three 31 of the District Peace Councils (DPCs) have been established. The representative pattern of the RPCs and DPCs is not 31 They included the Nadowli Kaleo, Asunafo North and the Winneba DPCs. Page 17