WOMEN AND POLITICS: THE PURSUIT OF EQUALITY

Transcription

1 A WOMEN AND POLITICS: THE PURSUIT OF EQUALITY Lynne E. Ford As? COLLEGE OF CHARLESTON Houghton Miff I in Company Boston New York

2 Contents Preface xiii CHAPTER 1. TWO PATHS TO EQUALITY 1 Politics and Women's Pursuit of Equality 4 Defining Women's Politics 5 Distinguishing Sex from Gender 7 The First Path: The Legal Equality Doctrine 8 Roots of Women's Claims to Legal Equality 9 Patriarchy and Limits to Legal Equality 10 The Second Path: The Fairness Doctrine 14 Separate Spheres Ideology 14 Separate and Unequal Becomes the Law 15 The Basis of Restricted Citizenship for Married Women 16 Feminism's Direct Challenge to Gender Relations 19 Approaches to Feminism 20 Liberal Feminism 21 Radical Feminism 23 Marxist/Socialist Feminism 24 Global Feminism 24 Black Feminism 25 Ecofeminism 26 Gender Feminism 27

3 Using Politics to Bring About Change 28 The Plan for this Book 28 Memorializing Women's History 2 The Case of Pregnant Working Women 12 CHAPTER 2. ALL RIGHTS ARE NOT EQUAL: SUFFRAGE VERSUS THE EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT 34 From Seneca Falls to Suffrage: Three Generations of Women Work for the Vote 35 Female Social Activists Discover the Suffrage Cause: Suffragists Disagree over Amending the U.S. Constitution: The Final Push: Never Underestimate the Value of One Vote 50 Opposition to Women's Suffrage 51 Post-Suffrage Divisions: The Equal Rights Amendment or Special Protections for Women? 53 The Fight for an Equal Rights Amendment: The First Generation 55 The Second Generation 57 The Failure of the ERA 59 Women Opposed to the Equal Rights Amendment 61 > Three Political Lessons About Gender Equality 62 Conclusion 65 Two Means to the Same End: A Contrast in the Styles of Alice Paul and Carrie Chapman Catt 46 CHAPTER 3. SUFFRAGE ACCOMPLISHED: WOMEN AS POLITICAL PARTICIPANTS 70 Women Enter the Electorate as Voters 71 Women Voters Outnumber Men at the Polls 72 Twenty-Something Citizens 74

4 The Gender Gap 75 The Source of the Gender Gap 77 Gender Differences in Political Participation Beyond the Ballot 78 Do Men and Women Specialize in Forms of Political Participation? 79 3) Access to Monetary and Political Resources 80 Do Men and Women Speak in Different Political Voices? 81 Levels of Political Interest Among Men and Women 82 Explaining the Patterns of Participation 83 ^Socialization 83 ^Structural Barriers to Women's Participation 86 > Cultural Messages: Counterpressures to Political Activity 87 Mobilizing Women's Political Participation 89 Political Events and Issues Stimulate Interest and Raise Gender Consciousness 90 Organizations 94 ^ Role of Political Parties 95 Conclusion 96 When Should a Woman "Blow the Whistle"? 92 CHAPTER 4. WOMEN SEEKING OFFICE: THE NEXT PHASE OF POLITICAL INTEGRATION 102 Women Candidates are as Likely to Win Elections as Men 104 * Women are NOT as Likely to be Candidates 106 Perception of Electability 106 Political Parties: A Help or a Hindrance? 109 The Pressure to Raise Money 111 Gender Stereotypes and the Campaign Experience 113 K Can Women Candidates Expect Support from Women Voters? 117 fc Systemic Sources of Electoral Bias Against Women Candidates 119 Incumbency and the Potential of Term Limits 119 Single Districts Versus Multimember Districts 121 Initiatives Designed to Increase the Number of Women Candidates 121 Political Appointments: An Alternative Path to Political Office 124 Conclusion 126

5 Elizabeth Dole's Campaign and the Press 114 Is this a Sign of Progress? 122 CHAPTER 5. WOMEN AS POLITICAL ACTORS: EMERGING INSIDERS AND SEASONED OUTSIDERS 131 Political Representation 132 Are Women Unique as Representatives? 136 Political Insiders: How Do Men and Women Differ? 137 Ideology and Attitudes 137 "Styles" of Political Behavior 139 Policy Priorities 141 How Effectively Do Women Stand for Women's Interests? 143 The Role of a Women's Caucus in Facilitating Legislation for Women 144 The Difficulty in Defining "Women's Interests" 148 Seasoned Outsiders: Women as Political Activists and Agitators 151 The Politics of Direct Action and Community Organizing 152 Case #1: Increasing Funding for Public Education in Emerson, Massachusetts 154 Case #2: MAD RE: An International Human Rights Organization 155 Case #3: New Right Women Fighting to Preserve Traditional Gender Roles 156 Case #4: Women's EDGE: Trade Is a Woman's Issue 157 International Agreements and Gender Equality 158 Rating the United States on Progress Toward Gender Equality 160 CEDAW: Establishing an International Standard for Women's Equality 161 Conclusion 165 Women and World Politics 162

6 ix CHAPTER 6. EDUCATION AND THE PURSUIT OF EQUALITY 173 A Brief History of the Education of Women 174 Legislating Gender Equity in Education: Title IX and the WEEA 177 Title IX and Equity in Athletics 179 Title IX's Broad Impact on Access to Education 182 WEEA: Women's Educational Equity Act 185 Equity in Action: How Girls and Boys Experience School 186 The Backlash: How Schools Cheat Boys 187 Education's Long-Term Impact on Women's Status Worldwide 189 Education Issues Facing Future Generations in the United States 190 The Unique Nature of Education as a Public Good 191 Single-Sex Schools 192 Conclusion 195 What About Men? 194 CHAPTER 7. WOMEN AND WORK: IN PURSUIT OF ECONOMIC EQUALITY 199 Women Enter the Workforce: A Brief History 201 Gender Socialization and Attitudes About Work 204 Legal Paths to Equality: Equal Pay, Title VII, and Affirmative Action 206 The Equal Pay Act of Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act 208 Affirmative Action Policies: Executive Orders and The Impact of Federal Policies on Women's Work Experiences 216 Women in the Professions 216 Sexual Harassment 218 The Pay Gap 219 Limits of the Legal Equality Doctrine in Promoting Economic Equality 223 The Glass Ceiling 224 Comparable Worth 225 Child Care 226 Strengthening Family and Medical Leave 230 Women in Retirement: Social Security and Private Pensions 231

7 The Consequences of a Gendered Economy: The Demographics of Poverty 234 The Gender Implications of Welfare Policy and Welfare Reform 236 Conclusion 239 Equal Protection Versus Protectionism 208 CHAPTER 8. THE POLITICS OF FAMILY AND FERTILITY: THE LAST BATTLEGROUND IN THE PURSUIT OF EQUALITY? 244 The Demographics of Modern Families 245 Creating Families Through Marriage 247 The Development of Contemporary Marriage 249 The Legacy of Patriarchy 253 Names 253 Domicile Laws 254 Property Rights 254 Divorce 255 Property, Benefits and Support After Divorce 256 Toward a Genuine Family Policy in the United States: What Would It Take? 258 Controlling Reproduction 260 Individual Access to Contraception 261 Individual Access to Abortion Services 263 RU-486 Gains Approval 265 The Demographics of Abortion 265 Public Opinion on Abortion 267 Women's Rights versus Fetal Rights 268 When Rights Are in Conflict: State Intervention 270 Technology, Reproduction, and Gender Ideologies 274 Conclusion 276 Domestic Violence Then and Now 250 Can a Feminist Be Against Abortion? 268

8 xi CHAPTER 9. CONCLUSION: NEW CHALLENGES IN THE PURSUIT OF EQUALITY 280 <?"> Elective Franchise and Political Representation 282 Marriage and Family Rights 285 Education, Employment, and Economic Opportunities 287 Where Do We Go from Here? 289 Will You Have to Move in Pursuit of Equality? 282 Suggested Readings and Web Resources 293