THE STRUCTURE OF UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC-AID TO UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES

Transcription

1 THE STRUCTURE OF UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC-AID TO UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES

2 THE STRUCTURE OF UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC-AID TO UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES BY DNER KIRDAR, Ph. D. (CANTAB.) Member of the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs WITH A PREFACE BY R. Y. JENNINGS Whewell Professor of International Law in the University of Cambridge SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V. 1966

3 ISBN DOI / ISBN (ebook) Springer Science+ Business Media Dordrecht 1966 Originally published by Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands in 1966 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1966 All rights reserved, including the right to translate or to reproduce this book or parts thereof in any form

4 To the memory of my father DR. L"OTFI KIRDAR ( )

5 PREFACE It is becoming increasingly evident that the existence together, in a diminishing world, of rich nations and very poor nations, is the critical problem of our time; and indeed other questions of international relations are rapidly taking on the appearance of being merely aspects of this central crux. According to some authorities it may only be a matter of a few years before the food and population question takes on such alarming proportions as to make our present troubles on the international scene seem slight by comparison. It is only against this background that we can fully appreciate the significance of the United Nations institutions and procedures for the mediation of aid, whether financial or technical, to developing countries; and indeed also for the flow of credit and skills between countries generally, for few nations or none belong wholly to one side in this matter, and the whole question is one that vitally affects the immediate futures of every one of the members of the international community. There is of course nothing new in the idea of one country helping another. But the idea of mediating and administering aid through international bodies instead of through bilateral arrangements is both new and offers the only sure way of advance in a world where poverty of resource so often goes hand in hand with an urgent and even bitter yearning for independence, and where on the other hand the nations able to give help, however generous their intent, are inescapably seized in particular political attitudes or alignments. In such a world it may almost be said that international aid is per se more constructive and positive in its benefits than bilateral aid. At the same time it is also true that there are few, if any, activities better calculated to strengthen and promote the growth of the United Nations itself than a well-administered programme of aid. For to the extent that this is achieved there is a true advance of international order in an area of first importance. Yet it is painfully evident that present programmes of aid are totally inadequate to the size of the problem. Dr. K1rdar therefore ends his study with a proposal: a blueprint for the establishment of a United

6 VIII PREFACE Nations Development Authority and the realization of an International Bill of Social Welfare. This imaginative programme deserves the most earnest and grave consideration by all men of good will. Of the importance of the task that Dr. Ktrdar has set himself there can then be no doubt whatever. It is, however, a task which requires more than one skill to accomplish. For in this kind of field that belongs to economics and politics as well as to law, it is all too easy for the mere lawyer to do in truth more harm than good. He who would handle this kind of topic usefully must therefore be economist as well as lawyer and must possess a lively appreciation of political issues and know what is politically possible and what is not. Dr. Kudar, as the reader will quickly appreciate, has all these skills in good measure, as well as a very considerable experience in the day to day handling of international matters. This whole subject of aid to developing countries is one that has attracted much attention in recent years. Yet much of the effort has come from particular and not entirely disinterested directions. Dr. Ktrdar, however, is a true internationalist who writes not only with insight and knowledge but also with that dedication and involvement that are the mark and strength of the true scholar. I esteem it a privilege to be allowed thus to introduce this important work of his. Cambridge 11 October 1965 R. Y.jENNINGS

7 CONTENTS Preface... Abbreviations Introduction. VII xvm XX PRELIMINARY "Underdeveloped Countries" and "Economic Aid" as defined in United Nations Practice A. Underdeveloped Countries. 1 B. Economic Aid TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE I. Historical Evolution of the Technical Assistance Programme The United Nations Regular Programmes of Technical Assistance The Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance The Technical Assistance Programmes of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) The Technical Assistance Programmes of the Other Specialized Agencies II. The United Nations Regular Technical Assistance Programmes. 18 A. Kinds of United Nations Technical Assistance Expert Advice and Assistance Individual Training Provision and Dissemination of Technical Information Supply of Equipment B. The Administration of the United Nations Technical Assistance Programmes C. General Rules Governing the United Nations Technical Assistance Operations D. Financing of the United Nations Technical Assistance Programmes

8 X CONTENTS Ill. The Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance for Economic Development of Underdeveloped Countries A. Purpose of the Expanded Programme B. The Organizations Participating in the Expanded Programme 24 C. Participating Countries in the Expanded Programme 24 D. Guiding Principles ofthe Expanded Programme General Principles Standards ofwork and Personnel Co-ordination of Effort Concentration and Economy Selection ofprojects E. Obligations of Governments Requesting Assistance 26 F. Organizational Structure of the Expanded Programme The Technical Assistance Committee (TAC) The Technical Assistance Board (TAB) The Executive Chairman The Resident Representatives G. Financing of the Expanded Programme Contributions of Member States Allocation of the Funds to Participating Organizations The Working Capital and Reserve Fund Utilization ofresources H. Programming I. The Technical Assistance Agreements Concluded under the Expanded Programme The Characteristics of the Agreements The Contents of the Agreements The Juridical Nature of the Agreements. 53 J. Examples of the Expanded Programme at Work. 59 IV. Two New Types of Technical Assistance The International Administrative Service (OPEX). 64 A. The Origin of the Service B. Legal Status ofopex Officer The General Legal Framework The Relationship ofthe OPEX Officer to the United Nations The Relationship of the OPEX Officer to the Employer Government C. Questions oflegal Responsibility for the Official Acts ofopex

9 CONTENTS XI Officers Responsibility ofopex Officers Responsibility of the Employer Government Responsibility of the United Nations Technical Assistance on a Reimbursable or Payment Basis. 83 V. General Appraisal of the United Nations Technical Assistance Programmes..... Introduction A. The Advantages of UN Programmes. B. The Shortcomings of UN Programmes FINANCING OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT I. The Establishment of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Introduction A. The Bretton Woods Conference B. The Attitude of Underdeveloped Countries at the Bretton Woods Conference II. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. 104 Introduction A. The Purposes of the Bank B. Membership and Shares of Capital Stock of the Bank 104 C. Organizational Structure Board of Governors Executive Directors The President and the Staff 109 D. Financial Structure The Capital Stock of the Bank Borrowings of the Bank in the Various Capital Markets. Ill a. Sales of Bank's Own Obligations Ill b. Sales ofborrowers' Obligations (Portfolio Sales) The Bank's Net Earnings a. The Interest Rates b. The Commitment Charges 115 c. Commissions d. Service Charges E. The Lending Policy of the Bank 116

10 XII CONTENTS 1. Repayment Prospect Repayment in the Currency Loaned Unavailability of Loan from Elsewhere Limitation to Foreign Exchange Requirements of the Project Specific Projects Provision Productive Purpose Study of Proposals and Inspection of Executions. 121 F. Legal Status, Immunities and Privileges, and Interpretation of the Articles of Agreement G. The Relationship of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development to the United Nations H. Loan and Gurantee Agreements Concluded by the Bank Characteristics of Loan and Guarantee Agreements Juridical Nature of Loan and Guarantee Agreements 138 a. Loan Agreements with Member Governments b. Guarantee Agreements with Member Governments. 141 c. The Loan Agreements with Non-Governmental Borrowers III. The International Monetary Fund. 144 Introduction A. Organizational Structure B. The Fund and the Problem of Development of the Underdeveloped Countries C. The Capital Structure of the Fund D. The Fund's Transactions with Its Member Countries 150 E. Conditions Governing the Fund's Transactions The Limits of Member's Drawings a. The Utilization of the Fund's Resources. 152 b. Limitations on Amount Purchased c. The Scarcity of a Particular Currency d. Ineligibility to Use the Fund's Resources The Repurchase a. Direct Repayment (Repurchase by the Borrower Member) b. Repayment by a Third Member The Terms of the Repurchase The Charges a. The Service Charge

11 CONTENTS XIII b. The Interest Charge F. Fund Resources and Underdeveloped Countries Countries Exporting a Specific Primary Product Underdeveloped Countries which are in Chronic Economic Difficulties Underdeveloped Countries which have Special Demographic Difficulties Underdeveloped Countries which have Multiple and Discriminatory Currency Rates. 160 G. The Form of the Transactions 161 H. Stand-by Arrangements. 162 I. The Fund at Work IV. Lending Activities of the World Bank and the Problem of Financing the Development of Underdeveloped Countries in The United Nations Forum V. The International Finance Corporation. 176 Introduction A. Functions of the Corporation B. Organizational Structure of the Corporation 180 C. Capital Structure of the Corporation D. The Relationship Between the Corporation and the Bank. 181 E. The Financing Operations of the Corporation Forms of Financing The Principles which Govern the Operations of the Corporation a. Participation of Private Investors b. Unavailability of Private Investment c. Lack of Objection by the Member Countries. 186 d. Spending in a Particular Country. 187 e. Management of the Enterprises f. Appropriate Conditions and Terms Repayment of the Funds of the Corporation Guarantees Borrowing Power of the Corporation F. Immunity Rules Peculiar to the Corporation. 191 G. Agreements Concluded by the Corporation for its Investments Characteristics of Agreements Concluded by the Corporation for Its Investments

12 XIV CONTENTS 2. Juridical Nature of Agreements Concluded by the Corporation for Its Investments H. The Investments of the Corporation in Practice. VI. From SUNFED Ideal to Special Fund Reality VII. The United Nations Special Fund Introduction A. Purposes and Functions of the Special Fund 204 B. Organizational Structure of the Special Fund Governing Council Managing Director Consultative Board C. Financing of the Special Fund Financial Structure Utilization of Contributions Allocation of the Funds Reserve Fund D. Criteria applied by the Special Fund For Its Operations Concentration on Relatively Large Projects Urgency ofneeds Prospect of Early and Tangible Results Wide Geographical Distribution Technical, Administrative and Financial Possibilities Effective Co-ordination No Political Interference Early Transfer of Responsibilities E. The Agreements Concluded by the Special Fund The Status of the Special Fund Basic Agreement Concluded with Recipient Governments Standard Agreements Concluded with Executing Agencies Plans of Operations F. The Special Fund in Practice VIII. Developments since the Establishment of the Special Fund. 225 Introduction A. The Establishment of a United Nations Capital Development Fund B. Effects of Disarmament on the Economic Development of Underdeveloped Countries

13 CONTENTS XV C. Survey of the Right to Permanent Sovereignty of Peoples and Nations over their Natural Wealth and Resources 231 D. World Food Programme E. International Credit and Investment Insurances F. Declaration on International Economic Co-operation 237 G. United Nations Development Decade H. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development The Old Order and GATT Problems before UNCTAD Constitution ofunctad A Consolidation of the Recommendations ofunctad. 246 a. Principles b. International Commodity Problems c. Trade in Manufactures and Semi-Manufactures d. Financing for an Expansion of International Trade and Improvement of the Invisible Trade ofdeveloping Countries A New Trade and Development Machinery IX. The International Development Association. 259 Introduction A. Purposes of the Association B. Organizational Structure of the Association The Membership The Administration C. Financial Structure of the Association The Subscriptions of the Members Supplementary Resources D. Financing Policies of the Association Conditions Governing the Financing 266 a. Eligibility b. High Development Priority c. Unavailability of Financing d. Analysis of the Request by a Competent Committee. 268 e. Lack of Objection by the Member Country Forms and Terms of Financing. 269 a. Forms b. Terms of Repayment c. Interest Rates and Services Charges. 270 E. The Development Credit Agreements of the Association 270

14 XVI CONTENTS 1. Characteristics of Development Credit Agreements Juridical Nature of Development Credit Agreements. 278 F. The Association at Work X. The Bilateral Economic Aid of the Members of the United Nations and Regional Assistance Programmes A. The United States Mutual Security Programme a. International Co-operation Administration 283 b. Development Loan Fund Export- Import Bank Public Law B. France C. The United Kingdom D. The Federal Republic of Germany 286 E. Japan F. Belgium G. The Netherlands. 287 H. Italy I. Australia, Canada and New Zealand. 288 J. Communist Bloc Countries K. Regional Assistance Programmes Colombo Plan European Economic Community Development Fund Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Development Assistance Committee The Inter-American Bank The Charter of Punta del Este and the Declaration to Peoples of America Some other Programmes and Proposals RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT Introduction A. The Amount of the United Nations Assistance to Underdeveloped Countries B. The Attitudes of Member States in UN in Regard to the Assistance to Underdeveloped Countries C. The Bilateral Assistance of the Members of UN: Their Amounts,

15 CONTENTS XVII Their Motives and the Disadvantages D. The Advantages of Multilateral Aid The Widening Gap Between the Rich and Poor Nations and its Impact F. International Law and the Problem of Economic Aid to Underdeveloped Countries G. International Economic Aid as a Legal Obligation. 329 H. A United Nations Development Authority The Governing Board The President The General Council The Departments The Special Court The Inquiry Commission 338 I. A Bridge between the United Nations Development Authority and International Private Investment Bibliography 348 Index

16 ABBREVIATIONS ACC AJIL BTAO BYIL Cmnd. CSOP DAC DAG Doc. ECOSOC EPTA FAO G.A. GATT IAEA IBRD ICA ICJ IDA IFC ILC ILO IMF OEEC OECD OPEX Administrative Committee on Co-ordination Americanjournal oflnternational Law Bureau of Technical Assistance Operations (United Nations) British Year book of International Law British Command Papers Commission to Study the Organization of Peace of the Carnegie Endowment Development Assistance Committee of OEEC Development Assistance Group ofoecd United Nations documents Economic and Social Council Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations General Assembly (United Nations) General Agreement on Tariff and Trade International Atomic Energy Agency International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Co-operation Administration (United States) International Court ofjustice International Development Association International Finance Corporation International Law Commission International Labour Organization International Monetary Fund Organization for European Economic Co-operation Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development International Administrative Service: Operational, Executive and Administrative Personnel (United Nations)

17 ABBREVIATIONS XIX Recueil des Cours SUNFED TAA TAB TAC UKTS UN UNESCO UNICEF UNKRA UNRRA UNRWA UNTS WHO WMO Recueil des Cours, Academie de Droit lnternationa] dela Haye Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development Technical Assistance Administration (United Nations) Technical Assistance Board Technical Assistance Committee United Kingdom Treaty Series United Nations United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations Children's Fund United Nations Korean Reconstruction Agency United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees United Nations Treaty Series World Health Organization World Meteorological Organization

18 INTRODUCTION "Hoc maxime officii est, ut quisque maxime opis indigeat, ita ei potissimum opitulari"1 (Cicero, De Officiis, Bki, Ch. 15, Sec. 49) The idea of helping the economically weak is not new. In national communities the concept of aiding the poor appears at first to have been regarded as a moral obligation, for example, in ancient Rome as is shown by the above quotation. The advent of Christianity and oflslam2 strengthened the moral obligation by giving it a religious basis. Finally, the concept acquired the form of a legal obligation. In modern Western Welfare States it is now an essential and legally imposed duty, enforced through the mechanism of taxation, for the rich members of the community to help the poor to raise their standard of living. In the international sphere, before the Second World War there had been occasional cases of a State assisting another for the latter's wellbeing. 3 Since the war such assistance between States has become much more frequent and in some cases has even been established on a continuous basis. In spite of its short history, today economic aid between international persons occupies a very important place in the field of international relations. In the development of this new concept and in the shaping of this 1 "This is our special duty, that if anyone specially needs our help, we should give him such help to the utmost of our power." 1 The Qur'an divides the worship of God into five categories. The Fourth worship is alms and charity, to bring about equitable economic adjustments within the community. This could be both collective and individual and both prescribed and voluntary. On the occasion of the 'ld al-fitr' (the festival of the breaking of the Fast) it is obligatory upon every Muslim to offer three pounds of wheat or com or its equivalent in money as a contribution towards helping the poor. Even the poorest person is not exempt from this obligation. The :Cakat (Qur'an, ch. 9, verse 5) is leviable from every person who possesses a certain minimum quantity of cash or goods or cattle, its assessment varies according to case and its object is to provide means for the promotion of the welfare of the economically less favoured sections of the community and to discourage the hoarding of money and commodities, to ensure their brisk circulation for resulting healthy economic adjustments. See The Holy Q.UT'an, Ilmi Printing Press, Lahore, 1960, pp For a detailed study of the Zakat see: Aghnides, N.P., Mohammedan Theories of Finance, Premier Book House, Lahore, 1961, pp For example, the United States, the largest donor of today, granted a sum of money as early as 1794 for the relief of refugees in Santo Domingo and in 1812 to citizens ofvenezuela suffering from the calamity of an earthquake. In 1921, she sent a relief mission to Soviet Russia, then suffering from famine and a little later granted funds to Japan, for the relief of an earthquake. On these points see: Groseclose, E., "Diplomacy of Altruism," Foreign Aid Re-examined, edited by J. W. Wiggins & H. Schoeck, Public Affairs Press, Washington, D.C., 1958, pp

19 INTRODUCTION XXI relationship, the United Nations and its specialized agencies have played a prominent role. This book is concerned with this aspect of the subject of international aid. The book is based on the thesis submitted for the degree of Ph.D. of the University of Cambridge. It is an attempt to analyse the structure of economic aid to underdeveloped countries given by the United Nations and its related specialized agencies. Mter examining the meaning of the terms of "underdeveloped countries" and "economic aid" in the practice of the United Nations, the study will develop in three parts. The first part, dealing with UN technical assistance activities, will provide an examination of the United Nations Regular Technical Assistance Programme, the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance, the International Administrative Service (OPEX) and the technical assistance on a reimbursable or payment basis. The second part will be an analysis of the measures undertaken to finance the economic development of underdeveloped countries and in it the following main questions will be discussed: Under what circumstances and in what manner the present international financing agencies (IBRD, IMF, IFC, IDA and UN Special Fund) were created? How do these organizations work? What are the different financing techniques adopted by them? Furthermore, this second part will contain a study of the organizational and financial structure of these agencies, the form and conditions governing their operations, and the characteristics and juridical nature of the agreements concluded by them for their operations. Moreover, the recent activities of the United Nations for stimulating the development process of underdeveloped countries will be shortly described and the bilateral economic aid given by the members of UN briefly reviewed. The third part will be devoted to an analytical examination of the following subjects: the amount of UN economic assistance; the attitudes of member States in UN with regard to assistance to underdeveloped countries; the amounts, motives and disadvantages ofbilateral aid; the advantages of multilateral aid; the impact of the widening gap between the rich and poor nations; international law and the problem of economic aid; economic aid as a legal obligation; a United Nations Development Authority; and the possibility of a bridge between this Authority and international private investment. Although all the specialized agencies of UN, within the scope of their objects, help underdeveloped countries in their process of development,

20 XXII INTRODUCTION in this thesis only those which finance economic development will be studied. Because, as the title indicates, we are concerned here mainly with economic aid. Nevertheless, reference will be made if necessary to the other specialized agencies during the examination of technical assistance programmes. In 1946, the early formative period of the concept of economic assistance, two American legal writers, A. Coudert and A. Lans, in their article on foreign investment to underdeveloped countries have emphasised that: The discussion of International Law, unaffected by the trend of recent legal writing in other fields, has persisted in its preoccupation with high-level abstractions. It is time that attempts were made to bridge the gap between the realities of practice and the arid legalisms of the literature.1 The same authors have also correctly asserted that "the international lawyer is remiss in his function unless he is prepared to deal with a wide variety of non-legal factors in collaboration with specialists in economic, political and psychological problems."2 These two considerations acquire greater value every day, with the increasing complexity of inter-state economic activities and the establishment of different types of international economic organization. Therefore, the analysis and the arguments in this study are made primarilyfrom a practical point of view. Moreover, they are not limited to the legal aspects ofthe problems. When relevant, economic and political matters are also discussed. Two main reasons can be given for this. Firstly, although the study is undertaken from a legal angle, the topic belongs essentially to international economics. However, it is a well recognized fact that an intimate connection exists between international law and international economics, especially on matters dealing with international trade, financing and investment. It has even been said that economics and law are merely different ways of talking about the same thing.3 Without overemphasizing this point, it is right to accept the point of view once expressed by a German professor in his lecture at the Hague Academy of International Law. Dealing with such matters falling within the 1 Coudert, A. & Laos, A., "Direct Foreign Investment in Underdeveloped Countries: Some practical problems," Law and ContempOTary Problems, 1946, Vol. XI, No.4, p. 741, see p Ibid. 8 See: Gardner, R. N., "Legal Economic Problems of International Trade," Columbia Law Review, 1961, Vol. 61, No. 3, p The well-known professor, in his same article states that: "the combination of these two disciplines first began to pay handsome dividends in the study of tax, corporate, and antitrust problems. Since the Second World War another area oflegal-economic analysis has developed with extraordinary vitality, the field ofinternational trade and investment."

21 INTRODUCTION XXIII scope of both law and economics, the lawyer has to be on his guard against simplification, what the German professor called ''juridicism" meaning "the mental habit of thinking primarily in legal terms and of laying all the stress on the legal framework of society without consulting the complex reality of which the economic and social facts are an extremely important part." 1 According to the same professor, what we need today in the social sciences (including law) is above all the realization by economists and lawyers of the importance of studying those problems which lie in the borderland of both sciences with synthesis, co-operation and the sense of interdependence. 2 The second reason for giving place in this study to economic and political arguments can be summarized as follows: International law with respect to many problems is still in a laissez-faire stage.3 This is especially true for international constitutional law. As the late Secretary General Dag Hammarskjold has observed, "we are still in a transition between institutional systems of international coexistence and constitutional systems of international co-operation" and "it is natural that, at such a stage of transition, theory is still vague, mixed with elements of a political nature."4 It is a recent phenomenon that international law has acquired an operational character in matters concerning welfare.5 The measures taken even by the League ofnations were of a defensive and protective nature, e.g. conventions on work conditions, in the field of health, etc. As Dr. C. W. Jenks noted, the Covenant pledged members of the League to "the firm establishment of the understanding of international law as the actual role of conduct among governments," whereas, the Charter transferred the emphasis from the rule oflaw as such to the creation of political and economic conditions under which the rule of law can be maintained, by stating that the aim of the United Nations is "to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources ofinternationallaw can be maintained. " 6 1 Ropke, W., "Economic Order and International Law," Recueil des Cours, 1954, Vol. 86, p. 207, seep Ibid., p On this point see also Brierly, J. L., The Outlook for International Law, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1944, p Hammarskjold, D., "The Development of a Constitutional Framework for International Co-operation," U.N. Review, 1960, Vol. 6, No. 12, p On this point see also Jenks, C. W., The Common Law of Mankind, Stevens & Sons, London, 1958, pp However, according to Dr. Jenks the development by international organizations of operational activities in the economic and social field is primarily a political and economic phenomenon. 0 Ibid., p. 64.

22 XXIV INTRODUCTION With this shift of emphasis, a number of specialized agencies have been established to apply more operational means such as direct assistance to countries. However, despite all the new measures and the establishment of international agencies for co-operation the world is still a long way from having an adequate system for the realization of its welfare.l A recent UN study states:... standards, in the form of international conventions or recommendations or otherwise, can become powerful tools of economic and social development, particularly if in appropriate cases they are concerned and concluded in terms of goals to be achieved through development, rather than as legal principles for immediate application, and if they are entered upon with a sense of commitment.1 Consequently, it is assumed that for the effective and operational functioning of international law in the field of international economic co-operation, the problems involved must be studied from their different angles. It should also be emphasized that all arguments put forward in this book take their origin from a deep belief in the necessity of the rule of law as the primary basis for all international relations. The criticisms made have the same source. The opinions expressed are personal and not to be construed as reflecting the views of the Turkish Foreign Ministry. It only remains for me to express my deep gratitude to Mr. J. E. S. Fawcett, the former General Counsel of IMF and Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, for his unfailing kindness, generous advice, constant encouragement, inspiration and patience shown to me during the preparation of this study. I would like to express my appreciation to Professor R. Y. Jennings for his kind decision to write a valuable preface to this book. I am very grateful to Dr. G. White for correcting the English mistakes in the manuscript and preparing the Index. Many thanks are due to Dr. D. W. Bowett for many personal kindnesses shown to me during my period of research at Cambridge. I would like to assert also my special debt of gratitude to the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs which granted me two years leave of absence and made possible my stay in Cambridge. Finally, no list of indebtedness would be complete without mention of Giil, whose patience and constant encouragement helped me over many rough moments in the course of my research; without her support this study would never be completed. 1 See also Gardner, op. cit., p Fiw-Tear PwspectivtJ ( ), (Doc.E/3347/Rev.l), p. 85.