States Responses to Terrorism: Manual for Data Collection

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1 States Responses to Terrorism: Manual for Data Collection Disclaimer: This is a work in progress. Comments and feedback is strongly encouraged Mariya Y. Omelicheva omeliche@ku.edu I use event data collection technique for generating data on states responses to terrorism. The creation of event data involves the following steps: I. Developing conceptual framework for the analysis of events. II. Identifying sources of information about events. III. Developing a coding scheme. IV. Coding reports. V. Aggregating (scaling) event data for the purpose of statistical analysis. Conceptual Framework for the Analysis of Events. The two dimensions of counterterrorism singled out for the purpose of analysis of states responses to terrorism are the scope and brutality of counterterrorism policies. The scope dimension indicates the breadth of counterterrorism measures, and is accounted for by a number of counterterrorism actions that a state undertakes in different areas of public and foreign policy. The brutality dimension epitomizes the breaches of personal integrity rights that are prevalent in states counterterrorism practices, and is accounted for by the number of extrajudicial killings, instances of torture and physical abuse, unlawful detentions, trials, and disappearances of the suspects of terrorism, their relatives and supporters, and other individuals in connection with the prosecution for terrorism. To determine the areas of public and foreign policies on which to observe states counterterrorism actions, I used the framework for international and national counterterrorism measures developed by the UN Security Council Resolution 1269 (1999) and Resolution 1373 (2001) adopted under Chapter VII of the UN Charter. These areas and types of the states counterterrorism actions: I. Institutional measures Adopt/amend legislative acts and regulations relating to terrorism Criminalize terrorism and terrorism-related activities as serious criminal offences Establish a new counterterrorism agency, or change institutional framework for combating terrorism. II. Preventive measures Hold interdepartmental or inter-ministerial meetings and consultations aimed at developing counterterrorist strategies and tactics Control state borders, the movement of people, financial flows, and issuance of the identity papers Seize financial assets of terrorists Target-hardening Facilitate preparation of human and technical resources Use military and security forces against terrorist targets III. Punitive measures Use preemptive strikes against bases of terrorists 1

2 Liquidate terrorist groups Arrest terrorist suspects Hold trials over terrorist suspects IV. International cooperation Promise or provide economic, military, or other support for the purpose of combating terrorism V. International participation Hold/participate in international meetings, consultations devoted to the topic of terrorism and struggle with terrorism Take part in joint counterterrorism exercises Propose counterterrorism policy VI. Diplomatic efforts Sign bilateral, regional, or global counterterrorism agreements Agree to future efforts at combating terrorism. Another dimension of counterterrorism policies is the brutality of states responses to terrorism. The United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN OHCHR) prepared a digest in which it reviewed the most common violations of human rights in the name of combating terrorism (UN OHCHR 2003). Among those human rights violations are: Extrajudicial killings of the targets of prosecution Torture of the targets of prosecution Other physical and non-physical assaults on the targets of prosecution Unlawful detentions and arrests of the targets of prosecution Disappearances of the targets of prosecution Unfair trials of the targets of prosecution These types of human rights abuses are coded for the purpose of measuring the dimension of brutality of states responses to terrorism. Sources of Data. The primary source of information on both the scope and brutality of states responses to terrorism is the news reports downloaded using the LexisNexis Academic newswire service, which is available through the Purdue Library s subscription to the LexisNexis Academic and Library Solutions. Another source of data used for collecting information on the scope of states counterterrorism programs is the governments reports submitted to the Counter- Terrorism Committee (CTC) of the United Nations pursuant to Paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001). Reports can be found online on the CTC s website at < (accessed July 7, 2007). To gather additional information on the brutality of states responses to terror, I examined human rights reports of international and regional nongovernmental organizations Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch (HRW), and Memorial. Amnesty International reports can be downloaded from < (accessed July 7, 2007). 2

3 HRW s reports are available on its website at < (accessed July 7, 2007). Memorial s report in English can be downloaded from < (accessed July 7, 2007), in Russian from < (accessed July 7, 2007). Coding Scheme and Coding Rules. The coding system identifies political actors that are coded for the purposes of analysis, establishes the categories of events and their codes, and specifies political interactions that constitute an event. For the purposes of data collection on states counterterrorism responses, only states and their agents governments, militaries, and ministries - are be considered as actors or sources of events. Other states, the world as a whole, as well as international and regional organizations, non-governmental organizations, including legal and banned organizations, movements, groups, and individuals can be the targets of states actions. Many actions of the governments coded for the purpose of this study will have no explicit target. For example, the events like, Kyrgyzstan seeks international coalition against terrorism, or Uzbekistan expresses its adherence to the destruction of international terrorism and its infrastructure have no explicit target audience. They are delivered for everyone and can be considered as events with the world as the target. In the events like, Kazakhstan stages anti-terrorism exercise, or Moldova passes new legislation broadening the functions of interior troops the target of action is intangible. It is terrorism and all individuals and groups associated with terrorism, not otherwise specified, that the state is targeting in its actions. The coding scheme that lists categories and types of events with their codes is presented below followed by the detailed description of the rules of coding for each event type included into the coding scheme. Most of the existing event data coding schemes have been developed for the purpose of studying international behavior. Although, the general principles of event data collection are consistent across different areas of scientific analysis, the coding schemes for studying international behavior are not quite applicable for studying a sub-set of domestic and international behavior identified in this study. This research singles out a subset of states behaviors (i.e., states responses to terrorism) and focuses on a limited set of actions, such as legislative initiatives, administrative actions, use of force, or violations of human rights by the governments. Most of the types of events included in the existing event data coding schemes are extraneous to this study. Therefore, I developed unique categories and types of events grounded in the framework of counterterrorism responses developed under the auspices of the United Nations. Where the types of events included into the existing event data coding schemes, such as the IDEA, WEIS, and PANDA, overlap with the types of events identified for this study, I tried to establish the categories and types of events consistent with the protocols of event data from other projects to attain greater compatibility of data collected within different projects. Particularly, for coding states foreign policy responses, I adopted some of the WEIS s event categories (McClelland and Hoggard 1969). Coding scheme. 3

4 Coding the Scope of National Counterterrorism Measures Code Name Brief Description Support (to terrorists) Economic support Military support Providing safe haven for planning, preparation, and perpetration of terrorist acts for financing of terrorist acts Cooperate with statessponsors of terrorism Fail Domestic Initiatives Fail legislative initiative Fail implementation of counterterrorism policies Intend Intend to pass legislation Intend to undertake executive action Intend to undertake actions at the level of different state agencies Assure Identify a need for counterterrorism policy Providing monetary aid (including financial guarantees) to persons and entities involved in terrorism Supplying arms, ammunitions, and other military aid to persons and entities involved in terrorism Providing state s territory for training and recruitment of terrorists Allowing to use a state s financial system for financing terrorism Maintain economic, military, or other relations with states considered as supporters of terrorist organizations Failure to ratify international counterterrorism conventions and protocols, rejection of new legislative acts and amendments to terrorism-related legislation, veto of legislative bills. Express intention to adopt new counterterrorism laws or regulations, or amend existing acts; express intention to sign/ratify conventions and protocol related to terrorism Express intention to undertake an administrative course of action Assure of ongoing effort to comply with international standards of counterterrorism 4

5 Adopt Approve a set of counterterrorism measures Adopt new legislation Establish new agency Amend counterterrorism law Adopt amendments to legislation Approve a counterterrorism program, a strategy of combating terrorism, a plan of action to combat terrorism Adopt, approve, accept law on combating terrorism, measures to prevent financing of terrorism; ratify a convention or a protocol relating to terrorism Create a new counterterrorism agency Introduce amendments to laws on combating different aspects of terrorism Make changes in the national legislation in the interest of state security and combating terrorism Change institutional framework Criminalize Criminalize terrorism Criminalize terrorismrelated offences Criminalize willful provision of funds Criminalize other forms of support of terrorism Give new authorities to existing state agencies, make changes in the structure of existing agencies, reform counterterrorism units Establish terrorism as a serious criminal offence Criminalize hijacking, hostage-taking, bombings, assassinations of internationally protected persons Establish willful provision or collection of funds with the intention that funds should be used, or in the knowledge that they are to be used for carrying out terrorist acts as a criminal offence Establish financing, planning, preparation, perpetration of terrorist acts, recruitment of people for carrying out terrorist acts, supplying weapons to terrorists as criminal offences Broaden definition of terrorism, increase punishment for terrorism and/or terrorism related offences 055 Amend criminal legislation 06 Collaborate Meetings, consultations, discussion, exchanges of information among state counterterrorism agencies, development of strategies and tactics of counterterrorism responses in different areas of public and foreign policy Control Control of the movement of people Intensify surveillance Border control Improve technical Set up databanks of issued identity papers, visas issued; prepare lists of terrorists; establish stricter rules of issuance of identity papers, visas, travel documents Boost security measures (e.g., introduce wiretapping, access to private information) Set up new border posts Establish new technologies for detecting forged and 5

6 equipment Databases Border guards training Other measures counterfeited documents Establish databases of individuals wanted by the lawenforcement structures of other states, etc. Increase the presence of border troops at the most dangerous/porous parts of state border Control of financial flows Ban Foil attempt at terrorist attack Seize Identify suspects Freeze accounts Seize weapons Seize smuggled goods Target Hardening of High-risk activities Embassies, internationally protected persons Transport and communication systems Weapons and explosives storage areas Prepare human and technical resources Train Personnel Upgrade technical resources Strike Deploy troops Define suspicious financial operations, distribute lists of organizations and persons related to terrorist attacks to all financial institutions; compel to report about all suspicious operations Place ban on operation of terrorist groups; prohibit activities of terrorist organizations; establish certain groups and organizations as illegal Freeze fund or other assets; impose sequestrations Undertake additional measures of protection during mass public events, public appearances by highprofile politicians Introduce additional measures of protection of embassies, diplomats, and other internationally protected persons Protection of the system of transportation (including aviation security) and communication Safety measures in the storage areas of weapons and explosives Recruit, train, maintain human resources for specialized counterterrorism units; stage simulation exercises; enhance preparedness of law-enforcement officials Introduce (upgrade) technology for surveillance, eavesdropping/interception, satellites, detectors 6

7 Preemptive strikes Kill terrorist suspects Preemptive strikes against bases of terrorists; raids on the headquarters of terrorists or communities harbouring them (for arrest and/or neutralization); rescue operations Coding the Severity of National Counterterrorism Measures Use of Force in Domestic Politics Apply death penalty Extrajudicial executions of terrorism suspects relatives and supporters of the terrorism suspects extrajudicial executions in connection with prosecution for terrorism Shootings, killings, assassinations, beatings resulted in death When applied to detained, held in the custody, chased suspects of terrorism When applied to the families and supporters of the suspects of terrorism When applied to by-standers of the anti-terrorism raids, or individuals distantly related to the cause of terrorism prosecution 122 Disappearances Captures, abductions, clandestine detentions Torture torture of the terrorist suspects torture of the relatives and supporters of the terrorist suspects torture in connection with prosecution for terrorism Assaults Physical assaults Boiling, drowning, isolation, mock executions, rape, sleep deprivation, whipping, severe beatings, electrocution, threats to use torture When applied to detained, held in the custody of state terrorism suspects When applied to the families and supporters of the terrorism suspects When applied to individuals only distantly related to the cause of terrorism prosecution Use of non-military physical force in assaults against people suspected of being related to terrorism; 7

8 132 Psychological assaults Prosecution Unlawful detentions of beatings, muggings Threats with or without specific negative sanctions; intimidation, stalking, harassment Incommunicado detentions, prolonged detentions, arbitrary detentions, abductions terrorist suspects relatives and supporters of the terrorist suspects unlawful detentions in connection with prosecution for terrorism Unfair trials When applied to terrorism suspects When applied to the families and supporters of the terrorism suspects When applied to individuals only distantly related to the cause of terrorism prosecution Violation of the presumption of innocence, constraints on adequate legal counseling, closed hearing terrorist suspects relatives and supporters of the terrorist suspects unfair trials in connection with prosecution for terrorism 15 Denial of freedom When applied to terrorism suspects When applied to the families and supporters of the terrorism suspects When applied to individuals only distantly related to the cause of terrorism prosecution Denials of the freedom of thought, conscience, religion, expression, association, or peaceful assembly as a part of the counterterrorism efforts Coding the Scope of International Counterterrorism Measures 8

9 Support Verbal support Promise economic support Promise military support Promise humanitarian support Promise other forms of support Extend economic aid Extend military assistance Provide humanitarian support Provide information Assist in criminal matters Provide other forms of assistance Express verbal support to the counterterrorism policies Pledge or promise economic aid to fund programs promoting economic and political stability as a measure of preventing terrorism Promise military assistance supply of military equipment, military services, and training - for combating terrorism Promise humanitarian aid, emergency relief supplies or assistance. Promise to open air space for military flights; promise to supply information. Provide economic (monetary) aid to combat terrorism or eliminate it causes Provide military assistance to combat terrorism. Send humanitarian aid, emergency relief supplies Provide early warning, supply information upon request, exchange information Conduct searches upon requests from other states, acquire testimony, extradite Request Ask for information Ask for economic aid Ask for military aid Ask for other support Participate Discuss Offer proposal Call for action Explain policy position(s) Travel to meet Host a meeting Request information, send inquires Request economic or financial assistance Solicit military assistance Solicit for other forms of material and non-material assistance Discussions, negotiations, in person or via telecommunications Propose to adopt/amend/expand counterterrorism policy; advance an initiative; suggest changes to counterterrorism legislation. Urge action or policy Give details, clarify policy position(s) on terrorism or counterterrorism Visit international conferences, meetings, seminars, etc. concerning international cooperation in combating terrorism Host international conferences, meetings, seminars, etc. concerning international cooperation in combating 9

10 187 Take part in joint exercises 19 Approve 191 Praise Empathize Condemn Agree Assent to a bilateral treaty Assent to a regional treaty Assent to an international treaty Agree to a formation of supranational bodies Agree to future actions Reject Reject proposal Refuse to allow terrorism Participate in joint counterterrorism simulations and exercises Praise, hail or laud counterterrorism actions of other international actors Express condolences, offer sympathy Assent, approve, sign, certify to a bilateral treaty relating to terrorism Assent, approve, sign, certify to a regional treaty relating to terrorism Assent, approve, sign, certify to an international treaty relating to terrorism Support the establishment of a new supra-national counterterrorism agency Agree to future action, policy, procedure; agree to meet Refuse to sign, veto, decline Disallow (prohibit) using one s territory, resources, troops for combating terrorism Charge, criticize, blame, denounce 22 Accuse 221 Opposition 23 Protest Complain or protest policies, actions, or positions 24 Deny Deny an accusation, deny an attributed policy, action, or position 25 Demand Insist, demand compliance, order Threaten Warn Threaten without indication of sanctions Threaten non-military sanctions Give warning; wield diplomatic pressure Threaten to use unspecified negative sanctions Threaten to use specific non-military sanctions; nonmilitary ultimatums Threaten to use force Demonstrate Use negative sanctions Reduce international activity Break relations diplomatic Threat with force specified, military ultimatums Armed force mobilization, military exercise and/or display as a threat Cancel or postpone planned event, reduce routine international activity, reduce or cut-off aid or assistance Declare a diplomat persona non grata, order personnel out of country, expel organization or group 10

11 Use of force in international politics Seize Non-military destructive acts Military engagement Seize possessions, property, or positions Coding Rules. 01. Support to Terrorists In its resolutions, the Security Council repeatedly called upon states to refrain from providing any support, active or passive, to entities and persons involved in terrorist acts. In gross violation of their international obligations, some states continue to supply military goods, transfer monetary resources, or abet terrorist groups and individuals affiliated with terrorist organizations in other direct or indirect ways. Code 011 (economic support) is used when a report cites allegations by a major international actor US, UN, a specialized body within the UN, another state or international organization that are at the forefront of international struggle with terrorism about engagement of any of the state s agencies into provision of monetary aid to individuals or entities involved in terrorist acts. The latter, among other things, includes provision of aid to the states - sponsors of international terrorism. The lists of those entities and individuals are maintained by the U.S. Government, the UN, and within some of the regional systems. Code 012 (military support) is used when a report cites allegations of a major international actor about engagement of any of the state s agencies into provision of military aid, including supply of weapons and ammunitions, to entities or persons involved in terrorist acts. Code 0131 (provide safe haven for planning and perpetrating terrorist acts) is used when it follows from the report that a state allowed its territory to be used for training or recruitment of individuals for participation in activities of terrorist organizations and commission of terrorist acts. Code 0132 (providing safe have for financing of terrorist acts) is used when it follows from the report that a state allowed its financial system to be used for financing entities and individuals involved in terrorist acts. For the state s actions to be coded as one of the forms of support to terrorists it is not required that some or all of the state s military or economic aid reaches individuals and entities involved in terrorist acts. When monetary or military aid destined for terrorists is intercepted by agencies of other states, this aid should be considered as a type of support to entities and individuals involved in terrorist acts. 02. Fail Domestic Initiative The Security Council s resolutions call upon states to become parties to the international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism and bring their national 11

12 legislation in line with standards set within the framework of action against terrorism established by the Security Council. Under code 02 (fail domestic initiatives) should be recorded those actions of states that defy legislative work in the area of counterterrorism. Those include rejections of legislative bills introducing or amending terrorism-related acts to make those conform to international standards, presidential veto of bills adopted by national parliaments, and failures to ratify international counterterrorism conventions. 03. Intend The Counter-Terrorism Committee established by the Council s Resolution 1373 (2001) expects all states to report about those legislative and executive measures that are still being contemplated by the government in order to bring all aspects of their legislative and administrative systems pertinent to the struggle with terrorism in accordance with international guidelines. Code 031 (intend to pass legislation) should be used when a state in its report expresses an explicit intent to pass legislation (a new law, regulation, or an amendment to existing legislation) pertinent to the struggle with terrorism, or reveals its intentions regarding signing and/or ratifying the conventions and protocols relating to terrorism. Code 032 (intend to undertake executive action) should be used when a state in its report expresses an intent to undertake a (non-legislative) course of action, such as a reform of the executive bodies responsible for coordinating counterterrorism efforts, changes to the financial system to prevent its use for financing terrorism, of the reform of security forces. Code 033 (assure) should be used when a state provides assurances of ongoing national efforts to fully comply with the provisions of the Security Council s Resolution 1373 (2001) without specifying exact legislative or executive steps that are being contemplated by the government. 04. Adopt The adopt category is used to code all counterterrorism actions that a state enacts on paper counterterrorism laws, regulations, and acts establishing counterterrorism executive machinery. It is singled out to differentiate state s written counterterrorism policies from their actual implementation coded in separate categories. The date of adoption of a legislative act, a regulation, or an amendment to legislation should be coded as a date of state action. Code 041 (approve a set of counterterrorism measures) is used for recording the adoption of counterterrorism programs, strategies of combating terrorism, or plans of action at the national level (by a key executive figure of the state), or at the level of state ministries or other state agencies in the status of a ministry. Those are the documents that outline a course of counterterrorism action in different areas of national and foreign policy. These acts, typically, cannot be enforced directly without adopting pertinent legislation and regulations detailing their implementation. Code 042 (adopt new legislation) is assigned to a state s legislative activity, i.e., adoption of new legislation relating to terrorism. This includes adoption of new acts on combating terrorism, counterterrorism laws, acts on measures to prevent the financing of terrorism, and acts of ratification of international and regional conventions and protocols. Note: criminal legislation should not be included under this event type. 12

13 Code 043 (establish new agency) is assigned when a state adopts a law or a regulation in which it establishes a new agency with authority to combat terrorism. The date of establishing a state s counterterrorism agency is usually different from the date when the agency commences its operations. If a report indicates both the date of an establishment of an agency and the date when it starts its operation, code the former with 043 and the latter in accordance with the type of action carried out by the new agency (e.g., if a state establishes a financial intelligence unit on December 1, 2003 and the unit begins reviewing information about suspicious financial operations received from national banks, then the former action should be coded as 043; whereas the latter as 073). Only the establishment of state agencies that have not existed before should be coded as 043. These agencies may include financial intelligence services, counterterrorism committees, counterterrorism units within existing governmental structures (given that similar units had not existed within the structure of a governmental agency before), or special fast-response units of security forces. Code 044 (adopt amendments to legislation) is used to record any amendments to national legislation that is not directly related to terrorism. These amendments are introduced to modify the existing legislative framework to suit national security interests. Examples of this type of amendments are introducing changes to the legislation on political parties or non-governmental organizations to prevent terrorists from using the institutions of national political system and civil society. Note: changes to criminal legislation should not be included under this event type. Code 045 (amend counterterrorism law) is used specifically for recording amendments to a state s counterterrorism legislation acts on combating terrorism, laws on the measures to prevent the financing of terrorism, and counterterrorism laws. Code 046 (change institutional framework) is used to record amendments to acts that establish states counterterrorism agencies. These amendments introduce changes to the existing institutional framework of state counterterrorism bodies and include expanding the authority of existing state structures (e.g., giving law-enforcement organs authority to freeze assets of the terrorist suspects) and reforming the existing government structures 05. Criminalize The Security Council s Resolution 1373 (2001) requires states to establish terrorism as a serious criminal offence in national legislation and criminalize other forms of support to terrorist organizations and persons involved in commission or preparation of terrorist acts. The date of adoption of a criminal code (or other act of the criminal legislation) in which a state criminalizes terrorism, terrorism-related offences, or support for terrorism should be coded as a date of the state s action (the date of criminalization). If the date of the introduction of new articles criminalizing terrorism or any forms of support to terrorism is different from the date of adoption of the act of criminal legislation, the former date should be used for coding the action of criminalization. Code 051 (criminalize terrorism) is used when a state defines terrorism as a serious criminal offence in its criminal legislation and introduces punishment that duly reflects the seriousness of this type of crime during the period being coded. An act on combating terrorism or other national legislation pertinent to the struggle with terrorism may define terrorism as a criminal offence without stipulating punishment for it. Unless 13

14 terrorism is defined in the criminal legislation that also establishes punishment for this criminal offence, codes 042 or 045 should be used instead of 051. Code 052 (criminalize terrorism-related offences) is used when a state defines different methods of committing terrorism as separate criminal offences in the criminal legislation. These may include bombings, hijacking, hostage-taking, assassinations of internationally protected persons, and nuclear terrorism. Code 053 (criminalize willful provision of funds) is used when a state criminalizes the willful provision or collection, by any means, directly or indirectly, of funds with the intention that the funds should be used, or in the knowledge that they are to be used, in order to carry out terrorist acts. Criminalization of financial support should be coded as 054. Criminalization of money-laundering does not count as criminalization of the willful provision of funds for assisting in carrying out terrorist acts. Code 054 (criminalize other forms of support of terrorism) is used for recording criminalization of all other forms of support to terrorism, such provision of financial or other material aid, recruitment of terrorists, supply of weapons to terrorist groups, or organization of a terrorist group. Code 055 (amend criminal legislation) is used for recording any amendments to criminal legislation that relate to the crime of terrorism, such as changes in the severity of punishment for terrorism and terrorism-related crimes, or expansion of the definition of terrorism or terrorism-related activities. 06. Collaborate Code 06 (collaborate) is used to record interdepartmental or inter-ministerial meetings, consultations of heads of various counterterrorism agencies, and meetings of the representatives of units within the same department or ministry during which the questions of coordination and development of strategies and tactics of counterterrorism responses are discussed. Exchanges of information pertinent to terrorism among different governmental agencies should also be assigned code 06. The date of a meeting or information exchange should be coded as a date of a state s action. 07. Control Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) requires states to take measures to prevent the movement of terrorists and financial flows to entities and persons related to terrorism, and to identify and bring to justice the perpetrators of terrorist acts. These measures include controls on the issuance of identity papers and travel documents, intensified border controls, and regulations of financial transactions. Use code 071 (control of the movement of people ) when a state establishes, improves, or expands databanks containing information on any of the individual metrics, identity documents, or visas, and any other measures for preventing counterfeiting, forgery or fraudulent use of identify papers and travel documents (e.g., increasing the security level of passports). This event type also includes compiling lists of the persons responsible for perpetration of terrorist acts. Codes 072 (border controls) is used to record state s actions aimed at intensification of border controls by supplying border posts with necessary border control equipment, or increasing the presence of border troops at the most dangerous parts of the state border. Code 073 (control of financial flows) is used to record a state s measures to protect its financial system. These measures include defining suspicious operations, 14

15 listing individuals and groups associated with terrorism for the purpose of freezing their financial assets, instructing banks and other institutions on measures to be taken to prevent the utilization of finances and other assets for commission of terrorist acts. This event code also covers monitoring activities of national banks and financial intelligence units. Code 074 (ban) is assigned when a state establishes a ban on functioning of terrorist groups on its territory, or prohibits activities of banned organizations. This event type also includes courts decision declaring certain groups and organizations illegal. 08. Seize Code 08 (seize) is used to record various forms of sanctions imposed on the assets of individuals and groups related to terrorism. It includes freezes of accounts, bans on the flow of funds, and sequestration of assets. 09. Target hardening Use code 091 (target hardening of high-risk activities) to record measures that a state implements to ensure protection of people during high-risk mass activities, such as sporting events, shows, and public appearances of celebrities or high-profile politicians. Use code 092 (target hardening of embassies and internationally protected persons) to record additional measures of protection of embassies and diplomatic representations of states and international organizations. This event code includes measures of protection of diplomats and other internationally protected persons. Use code 093 (target hardening of transport and communication systems) to record measures of protection of the systems of transportation railway, air and naval transport, as well as the systems of communication, including mailing and internet services. Use code 094 (target hardening of weapons and explosives storage areas) to record any additional safety measures in the storage areas of weapons and explosives. 10. Prepare Human and Technical Resources Code 101 (train personnel) is used to record any of the following measures aimed at improving human resources for combating terrorism: recruiting and training human resources for high alert counter-terrorist special reaction force teams (including hostage rescue units); training bomb disposal teams or other special units to deal with terrorist threat or offensive; carrying out simulation exercises; or enhancing the capacity of law enforcement officials to handle terrorist threats. Code 102 (upgrade technical resources) is assigned when a state develops, applies, or modifies its technological reserves used to prevent or respond to terrorist attacks. This includes surveillance devices, means for eavesdropping/interception, satellites, and detectors 11. Strike Code 111 (strike) is used to record any military or non-military punitive reactions to terrorist attacks. This includes preemptive strikes against bases of terrorists, raids on the headquarters of terrorists (for arrest and/or neutralization), punitive retaliatory action against a location or a community hosting terrorists, as well as rescue operations for liberation of kidnap victims or hostages. 12. Extrajudicial execution Extrajudicial executions refer to the killings by government officials without due process of law. These killings may result from the deliberate, illegal, and excessive use of 15

16 lethal force by police, security forces, or other agents of states (Cingranelli and Richards 1999). Code every instance of an extrajudicial execution (persons killed) that occurred in a country during the period being coded. Code 1211 (extrajudicial executions of terrorist suspects) is assigned when extrajudicial punishment (killing, assassination) is used against persecuted, detained, or held in the custody terrorist suspects. Special cases that fall under this code are: (a) Executions after unfair trials. When a report cites executions of individuals charged with terrorism and terrorism-related crimes during the analyzed period, check whether the executed individuals had unfair trials. If trials for the executed defendants were coded as unfair, code their death sentences as extrajudicial punishment. (b) Deaths resulted from torture. If a report mentions a death, which occurred while prisoners were in the custody of government or its agents as a result of torture (see definition of torture and methods of torture below), then code this death as an extrajudicial killing. (c) Political killings. Assassinations of individuals by state s agents because of their political views or for the purpose of intimidating communities should be coded as extrajudicial executions of terrorist suspects when these individuals are referred to as terrorists, or as those whose political views pose threats to national security of the state. Code 1212 (extrajudicial killings of relatives and supporters of the terrorism suspects) is assigned when extrajudicial executions are used against members of the families of the terrorist suspects or their supporters. Code 1213 (extrajudicial killings in connection with prosecution for terrorism) is used when extrajudicial killings result from indiscriminate fire, use of excessive lethal forth during raids on the terrorist cells, for dispersing demonstrations, or meetings allegedly posing threat to national security of the state Disappearances Disappearances refer to the cases in which people have disappeared and have not been found. There is usually political motivation beyond disappearance in that the victims (disappeared) vanish because of their views or activities (Cingranelli and Richards 1999). Code 122 (disappearances) is assigned to the cases of disappearance of individuals allegedly associated with the terrorist threat to state national security. This includes cases of persons that are held in the so-called clandestine detention, i.e., it is apparent that individuals are held in state custody but their whereabouts are not known Torture Torture refers to the purposeful inflicting of extreme pain, whether mental or physical, by agents of the government or by private individuals at the instigation of government officials. Torture is typically used as a tool for extraction of information or confessions, for the purposes of punishment or intimidation, or merely as an expression of cruelty (Cingranelli and Richards 1999). Code all instances of torture (persons tortured) that occurred in a country during the period being coded. Any of the following practices should be considered and coded as torture: boiling, drowning, prolonged solitary confinement, mock executions, rape, sleep deprivation, and whipping. Other types of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment that should be considered 16

17 and coded as torture are severe beatings and physical violence, administering shocks or electrocution, threats to use force or torture against a targeted individual or his/her relatives. If the target of torture is charged with terrorism or terrorism-related crimes, code the case as 1231 (torture of terrorism suspects). If the target of torture is a relative or supporter of an individual or a group charged with terrorism-related activities, code the case as 1232 (torture of relatives and supporters of terrorism suspects). If the target of torture is an individual detained in connection with investigation of or prosecution for terrorism and terrorism related-crimes, code the case as Assaults Assaults are all other instances of inhuman and degrading treatment of individuals that do not fall under the definition of extrajudicial executions or torture. Physical assaults (code 131) include all other uses of non-military physical force that do not result in deaths or severe pain. These include light beatings, muggings, and slapping. Psychological assault (code 132) involve intimidation, harassment, threat of the use of force or other negative sanctions, or threats without specific negative sanctions of individuals in connection with their alleged linked to terrorist groups. 14. Unlawful arrests and detentions The presence of any of the following elements constitute an unlawful arrest (detention): (a) Incommunicado detention, i.e., the family of a detained individual is not informed of the arrest; the members of the detainee s family are not allowed to visit the detainee; the detainee is not allowed to speak or write to anyone, or receive correspondence while in detention; (b) Refusal to seek legal council, i.e., the detainee is not provided with a legal representative to discuss the charges, or is prohibited from seeking legal counsel; (c) Violations of the right to be informed of the reasons for arrest or legal charges, i.e., when the detainee and/or his/her legal representative is not informed promptly of the reasons for arrest and detention; (d) Lack of judicial control over arrest and detention, i.e., the legality of arrest and detention is not checked by a court or a supervisory institution, or the request to hear the case of the legality of arrest or detention is turned down; (e) Prolonged detention, i.e., the detainee is held in pre-trial custody beyond the terms specified in criminal legislation; the prolongation of detention was not decided by an impartial court. (f) Detention of individuals who do not personally threaten state security but are kept as bargaining chips in order to receive testimonies, confessions, or promote negotiations with other parties, such as political opponents who were granted political asylum in other states; (g) When abductions are used to bring an individual under the custody of state. Use code 1411 when unlawful detentions and arrests are used against terrorism suspects. Use code 1412 when unlawful detentions and arrests are used against families and supporters of the terrorism suspects. Use code 1413 when unlawful detentions and arrests are used in connection with prosecution for terrorist acts as a means of threatening communities. This includes detention of individuals because of their sympathies to the alleged terrorists. 17

18 142. Unfair trials The violation of any of the listed rights is equivalent to an unfair trial: (a) Accused were not presumed innocent (human rights reports typically mention violations of the presumption of innocence); (b) Accused were not granted fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal. This includes hearings closed to public and international observers, lack of legal representation, or when accused and/or their representatives were not properly informed of the charges. It also includes situations when defendants and lawyers are constrained in the number and length of their meetings, when attorneys are not given proper access to the case before the hearing until it is very late, or, when lawyers are given limited or no opportunity to introduce evidence for the defense. (c) When torture was used during investigation and the court did not pay due consideration to the fact of torture, particularly when a defendant pleas guilty (violation of the right not to incriminate oneself); (d) When the defendant is tried on the charges that did not constitute a crime at the time it was committed. Use code 1421 when terrorism suspects are subjected to unfair trials. Use code 1422 when families and supporters of the terrorism suspects are subjected to unfair trials. Use code 1423 unfair trials are used against other individuals in connection with prosecution for terrorist acts or as a means of threatening communities. This includes trials of persons because of their sympathies to the alleged terrorists. 15. Denial of Freedoms Code 15 (denial of freedoms) is used to record instances of the state s denial of the freedom of thought, conscience, religion, expression, association, or peaceful assembly as a part of its counterterrorism efforts. Since the freedom of thought, conscious and religion cannot be derogated, any violation of these rights and freedoms (even under a state of emergency) is equivalent to the unlawful denial of rights and freedoms. This includes attacks on and harassment of persons for their religious or political beliefs under the pretext of fighting terrorism. International law allows derogations of the right to political participation and freedoms of expression, opinion and assembly in times of emergency that threatens the life of the nation, provided that they follow the specific requirements pertaining to the declaration of emergency. For example, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 1966 stipulates that emergency legislation curtailing certain rights must be of exceptional character, strictly limited in time and to the extent required by the exigencies of the situation, and subject to regular review. Whenever a state violates the right to political participation and freedoms of expression, opinion and assembly under the pretext of fighting terrorism without declaring the state of emergency (or, in the absence of an emergency without following the specific reasons mentioned in relevant human rights treaties to which it is a party), those actions should be coded as denials of freedoms. 16. Support 18

19 The support category encompasses all types of events that describe states promises of various kinds of support or provision of different forms of assistance to other actors of international politics. Code 161 (promise verbal support) is used to record non-specific promises of assistance and verbal support for the counterterrorism policies of other international actors. It also includes the endorsements of other actors counterterrorism policies. Code 1621 (promise economic support) is assigned to states promises of various forms of economic aid or financial assistance to other international actors with the view that this aid should be used to promote economic and political stability in other states as a long-term measure of prevention of terrorism. This excludes financial aid that is promised for purchasing military equipment or for military training. Code 1622 (promise military support) is used to record states promises of military support, including promises to supply military equipment, troops, services, or training, and promises of monetary aid to purchase military supplies. Code 1623 (promise humanitarian support) is used to record promises of humanitarian aid and emergency relief supplies. Code 1624 (promise other forms of support) is used to record promises of all other forms of support to international actors in their effort to combat terrorism. This includes promises to open a state s airspace for military flights or letting other states or coalitions of states to use ground military bases for the purpose of fighting the war on terrorism; promises of non-military training (e.g., training of law-enforcement officers); promises of providing information or assistance in criminal and administrative investigations. Code 1631 (extend economic aid) is assigned when a state transfers (sends, allocates, provides) funds to other international actors with the view that this aid should be used to promote economic and political stability in other states as a long-term measure of prevention of terrorism. This excludes financial aid that is given with the purpose of purchasing military equipment or for military training. Code 1632 (extend military aid) is used when a state sends troops, provides military training, transfer funds for purchasing military equipment or provides other forms of military assistance to international actors for fighting terrorism. Code 1633 (provide humanitarian aid) is assigned when a state provides humanitarian aid or emergency relief aid to other international actors. Code 1634 (provide information) is used to record exchanges of information among states on all terrorism-related issues. It includes providing early warning to other states but excludes providing information on criminal matters. Code 1635 (assist in criminal matters) is used for recording all forms of assistance provided in relation to the investigation of crimes of terrorism or terrorism-related offences. It includes provision of information on criminal matters, conducting searches, issuing warrants for arrests, or collecting testimonies. Code 1636 (provide other forms of assistance) is used to record all other forms of assistance that do not fall under any of the described above support categories. 17. Request Code 171 (ask for information) is assigned to a state s request of any type of information or data from other states. 19

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