United States History, Since 1877 Rosen, Progressive Era Lecture Notes

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1 Grassroots Progressivism Civilizing the City 1. Progressives tackled the problems of the city with many approaches, among which were the settlement house movement, the social gospel, and the social purity movement. 2. The settlement house movement, begun in England, came to the United States in 1886 with the opening of the University Settlement House in New York City. 3. Women, particularly college-educated women such as Jane Addams and Lillian Wald, formed the backbone of the settlement house movement and stood in the forefront of the progressive movement; the number of settlement houses grew from six in 1891 to more than four hundred by Some churches confronted the urban social problems by enunciating a new social gospel, one that saw its mission as to reform not only the individual, but also society. 5. Ministers also played an active role in the social purity movement, attacking vices such as prostitution, political corruption, and alcoholism. 6. Attacks on alcohol went hand in hand with the push for social purity and, not surprisingly, the temperance campaign heated up in the early twentieth century. 7. An element of nativism ran through the movement for prohibition, as it did in a number of progressive reforms. 8. Progressives' efforts to civilize the city demonstrated their willingness to take action, their belief that environment, not heredity alone, determined human behavior, and their optimism that conditions could be corrected through government action without radically altering American's economy or institutions. Progressives and the Working Class 1. Day-to-day contact with neighbors made settlement house workers particularly sympathetic to labor unions. 2. Attempts to forge a cross-class alliance became institutionalized in 1903 with the creation of the Women's Trade Union League (WTUL), which brought together women workers and middle-class allies in order to organize working women into unions under the auspices of the AFL. 3. The League's most notable success came in 1909 in the uprising of twenty thousand, a strike of women employees of the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in New York City to protest low wages, dangerous working conditions, and management's refusal to recognize the International Ladies' Garment Workers Union. 4. By the time the strike ended, the WTLU had contributed greatly to the effort; the workers had won some important demands and achieved a remarkable solidarity. 5. Despite the demonstration of solidarity and the uprising of twenty thousand workers, the strike failed to change the dangerous conditions facing women workers. 6. A fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in 1911, which killed 146 workers and injured scores more, tested the bonds of crossclass alliance. 7. Increasingly, the WTUL turned its efforts to lobbying for protective legislation laws that would limit hours and regulate working conditions. 8. The advocates of protective legislation won a major victory in 1908 when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled, in Muller v. Oregon, to uphold an Oregon law that limited the hours women could work to ten a day. 9. The National Consumers' league led by Florence Kelley fostered cross-class alliance by urging middle-class women to boycott stores and exert pressure for decent wages and working conditions for women employees. 10. Frustrated by the reluctance of the private sector to respond to the need for reform, progressive reformers turned to government at all levels. 11. Reform also fueled the fight for woman suffrage; the concept of municipal housekeeping encouraged women to put their talents to work in the service of society. Progressivism: Theory and Practice Reform Darwinism and Social Engineering 1. The active, interventionist approach of the progressives directly challenged social Darwinism, with its insistence that the world operated on the principle of survival of the fittest and that human beings stood powerless in the face of natural selection. 2. A new group of sociologists argued that evolution could advance more rapidly if men and women used their intellects to alter the environment; this new theory, dubbed reform Darwinism, condemned laissez-faire government, insisting that the liberal state should play a more active role in solving social problems. 3. Efficiency and expertise became the watchwords of the progressive vocabulary and, although they sought social justice, progressives believed experts should be put in charge. 4. Frederick Winslow Taylor epitomized the movement toward scientific management, pioneering systemized shop management, which aimed to elevate productivity and efficiency, but in the end, only succeeded in alienating the working class.

2 Progressive Government: City and State 1. The politicians who became premier progressives were generally the followers, not the leaders, in a movement already well advanced at the grassroots level. 2. Progressivism burst forth at every level of government in 1900, but nowhere more forcefully than in Cleveland, Ohio, where voters elected as mayor Thomas Lofton Johnson, who had made millions in the street railroad business. 3. During his tenure as mayor, Johnson fought for fair taxation and municipal ownership of street railways and public utilities, even as he called for greater democracy through the use of the initiative, referendum, and recall devices that allowed the voters to have a direct say in legislative and judicial matters. 4. In Wisconsin, Robert M. La Follette capitalized on the grassroots movement for reform to launch his political career, first as governor ( ) and later as U.S. senator ( ). 5. La Follette was successful in uniting his supporters around issues that transcended old party loyalties, emphasizing true progressive reforms. 6. West of the Rockies, progressivism arrived somewhat later and found a champion in Hiram Johnson of California, who served as governor from 1911 to 1917 and as U.S. senator from 1917 to As governor, Johnson introduced the direct primary; supported the initiative, referendum, and recall; strengthened the state's railroad commission; supported conservation; and signed an employer's liability law. Progressivism Finds a President: Theodore Roosevelt The Square Deal 1. Theodore Roosevelt, a patrician by birth and an activist by temperament, learned politics from a local ward boss and devoted his energy to strengthening the power of the federal government and reining in big business. 2. Roosevelt believed that the most vital question facing the country was whether or not the government has the power to control the trusts. 3. Roosevelt used the Sherman Antitrust Act, which had been severely weakened by a conservative Supreme Court, to go after some of the nation's largest corporations, including Northern Securities Company, which held a monopoly on railroad traffic in the Northwest. 4. In 1904, Roosevelt's actions led the Supreme Court to uphold the Sherman Act and call for the dissolution of Northern Securities, putting Wall Street on notice that the president was willing to use the power of the government to control business. 5. Roosevelt went on to use the Sherman Act against forty-three trusts, punishing the bad trusts, which broke the law, and leaving the good ones alone. 6. In his handling of the anthracite coal strike in 1902, Roosevelt again demonstrated his willingness to assert the moral and political authority of the presidency, this time in mediating between labor and management. 7. When management refused to negotiate with representatives from the miners' union, the United Mine Workers, Roosevelt threatened to seize the mines and run them with federal troops. 8. The mine owners agreed to arbitration, conceding some points to the miners but refusing in the end to grant formal recognition to the union. 9. Taken together, Roosevelt's actions in the Northern Securities case and the coal strike marked a dramatic departure from the presidential passivity that had marked his predecessors in the Gilded Age. 10. The phrase Square Deal became Roosevelt's slogan in the 1904 election campaign; he won with the largest popular majority 57.9 percent of any candidate that had been polled to date. Roosevelt the Reformer 1. Roosevelt's stunning victory gave him a mandate for reform and he started with railroad reform, determined to give the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) real power to set rates and prevent discriminatory practices. 2. Roosevelt worked skillfully behind the scenes to ensure the passage of the Hepburn Act, a bill that increased the power of the ICC. 3. The passage of the Hepburn Act gave the ICC power to set rates subject to court review and marked the high point of Roosevelt's presidency, but by 1906, his term was starting to run out, and his influence on Congress and his party was waning. 4. During the period of Roosevelt's reforms, a growing appetite for reform fed by the revelations of corporate and political wrongdoing and social injustice filled the papers and boosted the sales of popular periodicals. 5. Muckraking journalism, a term Roosevelt coined, had been of enormous help in securing progressive legislation, including the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act. 6. In the waning years of his administration, Roosevelt moved farther to the left, allying with the more progressive elements of the Republican Party. 7. In the fall of 1907, economic panic struck and business interests blamed the president; in the end, J. P. Morgan stepped in to avert disaster by propping up weak institutions with funds he switched from one bank to another in exchange for Roosevelt's word not to institute antitrust proceedings against U.S. Steel when it acquired Tennessee Coal and Iron.

3 8. Roosevelt, convinced that regulation, not trust-busting, was the best way to deal with big business, never acknowledged that his regulatory politics fostered an alliance between business and government an alliance that today is known as corporate liberalism. Roosevelt and Conservation 1. During his administration, Roosevelt sought to conserve the nation's natural resources, tripling the number of acres of land in government reserves and fighting western cattle barons, lumber kings, mining interests, and powerful leaders in Congress. 2. During the 1890s, concern for the unchecked exploitation of natural resources led Congress to pass legislation giving the president the power to reserve forest land from commercial development by executive proclamation. 3. Roosevelt did not hesitate to use that power, advocating conservation, and the managed use of natural resources. 4. Roosevelt's conservation policies drew criticism: preservationists such as John Muir, founder of the Sierra Club, believed the wilderness needed to be protected from all commercial exploitation and clashed with Roosevelt. 5. Progressives took issue with the Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902, which established a Reclamation Bureau within the Department of the Interior and provided federal funding for irrigation projects, encouraging large-scale farming at the expense of the small farmer. 6. In 1907, Congress put the brakes on Roosevelt's environmental efforts by passing a law limiting his power to create forest reserves in six western states. 7. Today, the six national parks, sixteen national monuments, and fifty-one wildlife refuges stand witness to Roosevelt's accomplishments as a conservationist. The Big Stick 1. Roosevelt's activism extended to his foreign policy, where he worked to buttress the nation's newly won place among world leaders. 2. Roosevelt was convinced of Congress' ineptitude in foreign affairs, and relied on executive power to affect a vigorous foreign policy, sometimes stretching the powers of the presidency beyond the legal limits in his pursuit of American interests. 3. In the Caribbean, Roosevelt jealously guarded the Monroe Doctrine's American sphere of influence and his proprietary attitude toward the Western Hemisphere became further evident in his Panama Canal dealings. 4. In 1904, Roosevelt announced what became known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine: The United States would not intervene in Latin America as long as nations conducted their affairs with decency. 5. The Roosevelt Corollary in effect made the United States the policeman of the Western Hemisphere and served notice to the European powers to keep out. 6. In Asia, Roosevelt inherited the Open Door policy established by Secretary of State John Hay that ensured U.S. commercial entry into China. 7. In his relations with Europe, Roosevelt sought to establish the United States, fresh from its victory over Spain, as a rising force in world affairs. 8. Roosevelt earned the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for his role in negotiating an end to the Russo-Japanese War, which had broken out when the Japanese invaded Chinese Manchuria, threatening Russia's sphere of influence in the area. 9. To demonstrate America's naval power and to counter Japan's growing bellicosity, Roosevelt dispatched the Great White Fleet, sixteen of the navy's most up-to-date battleships, on a goodwill mission around the world. 10. American relations with Japan improved, and in the 1908 Root-Takahira agreement, the two nations pledged to maintain the Open Door and support the status quo in the Pacific. Progressivism Stalled The Troubled Presidency of William Howard Taft 1. Once in office, William Howard Taft proved a perfect tool in the hands of Republicans who yearned for a return to the days of a less active executive. 2. Taft's troubles began on the eve of his inaugural when he called a special session of Congress to deal with lowering the tariff. 3. Contrary to his intentions, the Payne-Aldrich bill that emerged actually raised the tariff, benefiting big business and trusts at the expense of consumers, but as if paralyzed, Taft neither fought for changes nor vetoed the measure. 4. Taft did not use Roosevelt's methods of bending the law to protect the nation's resources, and actually undid some of Roosevelt's work to preserve hydroelectric power sites when he learned they had been improperly designed as ranger stations. 5. By late summer, 1910, after returning from abroad, Roosevelt had taken sides with the progressive insurgents in his party, beginning to sound more and more like a candidate. 6. With the Republican Party divided, the Democrats swept the congressional elections of 1910 and the new Democratic majority in the House, working with progressive Republicans in the Senate, achieved a number of key reforms that included legislation to regulate mine and railroad safety, to create a Children's Bureau in the Department of Labor, and to establish an eight-hour workday for federal workers. 7. The Congress sent to the states two significant constitutional amendments: the Sixteenth Amendment, which provided for a modest graduated income tax, and the Seventeenth Amendment, which called for the direct election of senators.

4 8. Taft also had a difficult time following in Roosevelt's footsteps regarding foreign policy. 9. Lacking Roosevelt's understanding of power politics, Taft championed dollar diplomacy, naively believing he could substitute dollars for bullets. 10. In the Caribbean, he provoked anti-american feeling by attempting to force commercial treaties on Nicaragua and Honduras, and by dispatching the U.S. Marines to Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic in 1912, pursuant to the Roosevelt Corollary. 11. In Asia, he openly avowed his intent to promote in China active intervention to secure for... our capitalists opportunity for profitable investment. 12. Taft hoped to encourage world peace through the use of a world court and arbitration but was unsuccessful in sponsoring arbitration treaties, drawing strong criticism from Roosevelt in The final breach between Taft and Roosevelt came in 1911, when Taft's attorney general filed an antitrust suit against U.S. Steel, citing Roosevelt's agreement with the Morgan interests in the 1907 acquisition of Tennessee Coal and Iron. Progressive Insurgency and the Election of In February 1912, Roosevelt challenged Taft for the Republican nomination, but by that time, despite his continued popularity, he had lost control of the party machine and Taft refused to step aside. 2. Roosevelt ran in thirteen primaries and won 278 delegates to Taft's 48, but Taft's bosses refused to seat the Roosevelt delegates at the Chicago convention. 3. A hastily organized Progressive Party met to nominate Roosevelt. 4. Progressive Party planks called for woman suffrage, presidential primaries, conservation of natural resources, minimum wages for women, an end to child labor, workers' compensation, social security, and a federal income tax. 5. Despite accepting the nomination the new party was doomed, and Roosevelt knew it. 6. The Democrats, delighted at the split in the Republican ranks, smelled victory and nominated Woodrow Wilson. 7. Voters in 1912 chose from four candidates who claimed to be progressives Taft, Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and the Socialist candidate, Eugene V. Debs. 8. The real contest for the presidency was between Roosevelt and Wilson and the two political philosophies that summed up their campaign slogans: The New Nationalism and The New Freedom. 9. Roosevelt's New Nationalism enunciated his belief in federal planning and regulation while Wilson's New Freedom, based on the Democratic principles of limited government and states' rights, promised to use antitrust legislation to get rid of big corporations and give small businesses and farmers better opportunities in the marketplace. 10. Wilson and Roosevelt fought it out, but in the end, the Republican vote was split while the Democrats remained united and Wilson won a decisive victory in the electoral college. Woodrow Wilson and Progressivism at High Tide Wilson's Reforms: Tariff, Banking, and the Trusts 1. At Wilson's urging, Congress passed the Underwood tariff, which lowered rates by 15 percent; to compensate for lost revenue the House approved a moderate federal income tax. 2. Wilson, concerned about J.P. Morgan and Company's control of 341 directorships in 112 corporations and control of more than $22 billion in assets, next turned his attention to banking. 3. The Federal Reserve Act of 1913, the most significant domestic legislation of Wilson's presidency, established a national banking system composed of twelve regional banks, privately controlled but regulated and supervised by a Federal Reserve Board appointed by the president. 4. The Federal Reserve gave the United States its first efficient banking and currency system, provided for a greater degree of government control over banking, and made currency more elastic and credit adequate for the needs of business and agriculture. 5. Wilson, flushed with success, tackled the trust issue next, supporting the Clayton Antitrust Act, which outlawed price discrimination and interlocking directorates, regulating rather than breaking up big business as he had promised to do. 6. Wilson also supported the establishment of the Federal Trade Commission, which had wide investigatory powers and the authority to prosecute corporations for unfair trade practices and to enforce its judgment by issuing cease and desist orders. 7. By the fall of 1914, Wilson had exhausted the stock of ideas that made up the New Freedom and drew criticism from progressives for his conservative appointments. Wilson, Reluctant Progressive 1. Progressives watched in dismay as Wilson repeatedly obstructed or obstinately refused to endorse further progressive reforms. 2. The Republican Party, no longer split, won significant gains in the congressional elections of 1914, signaling to Democrats that voters wanted further progressive reforms. 3. Wilson responded belatedly to this political pressure by championing reform in the months leading up to the presidential election of 1916; he appointed progressive Louis Brandeis to the Supreme Court, threw his support behind legislation to obtain rural credits for farmers, supported workers' compensation and the Keating-Owen child-labor law, and encouraged Congress to establish an eight-hour day on the railroads.

5 The Limits of Progressive Reform Radical Alternatives 1. In 1900, the socialists broke away from the dogmatic Socialist Labor Party and founded the Socialist Party in an effort to attract a broad mass of disaffected Americans. 2. The Socialist Party chose Eugene V. Debs as its leader; Debs ran five times for president but never got more than 6 percent of the popular vote. 3. Farther to the left of the socialists stood the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), a union dedicated to organizing the most destitute segment of the workforce, the unskilled workers disdained by Samuel Gompers's AFL. 4. The IWW unhesitatingly advocated direct action, sabotage, and the general strike tactics designed to trigger a workers' uprising. 5. In contrast to political radicals such as Debs and Haywood, Margaret Sanger promoted her cause, birth control, as a movement for social change. 6. Sanger and her followers saw birth control not only as a sexual and medical reform, but also as a means to alter social and political power relationships and to alleviate human misery. 7. Birth control became linked with freedom of speech when Margaret Sanger's feminist journal, The Woman Rebel, was confiscated by the post office for violating social purity laws, and Sanger faced arrest, forcing her to flee to Europe. 8. When charges were dropped under public pressure, Sanger returned to the United States and turned to direct action, opening the nation's first birth control clinic in Brooklyn, New York. 9. Although the birth control movement would become less radical after World War I, in its infancy, it was part of a radical vision for reforming the world that made common cause with the socialists and the IWW in challenging the limits of progressive reform. Progressivism for White Men Only 1. The day before President Woodrow Wilson's inauguration in March 1913, more than five thousand demonstrators marched in Washington to demand the vote for women. 2. The march served as a reminder that the political gains of progressivism were not spread equally in the population. 3. Alice Paul launched an effort to lobby for a federal amendment to give women the vote and in 1916, Paul founded the militant National Woman's Party (NWP), which became the radical voice of the suffrage movement. 4. Carrie Chapman Catt became the head of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1915 and directed an effort that worked on several levels. 5. Catt's winning plan succeeded, taking only four years to get the constitutional amendment for woman suffrage ratified. 6. Women were not the only group left out in progressive reform; in the West and South, progressivism was tainted with racism and sought to limit the rights of African and Asian Americans. 7. Hiram Johnson, governor of California, caved in to near unanimous pressure and signed the Alien Land Law, which barred Japanese immigrants from purchasing land in the state. 8. In the South, progressives preached the disfranchisement of black voters as reform and also witnessed the rise of Jim Crow legislation to segregate public facilities. 9. In the face of this growing repression, Booker T. Washington, the preeminent black leader of the day, urged caution and restraint, introducing the Atlanta Compromise, an accommodationist policy that appealed to whites. 10. The Supreme Court upheld the legality of racial segregation, affirming in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) the constitutionality of the doctrine of separate but equal. 11. When Woodrow Wilson came to power, he brought with him southern attitudes toward race and racial segregation, and while in office instituted segregation in the federal workforce and approved segregated facilities in the nation's capital, insisting that segregation was in the interest of the Negro. 12. Booker T. Washington's strategy of gradualism and accommodation was called into question after a major race riot in Atlanta left 250 African Americans dead. 13. Faced with intolerance and open persecution, educated blacks in the North began to support Harvard-educated W. E. B. Du Bois, who, in 1905, founded the Niagara movement calling for universal male suffrage, civil rights, and black intellectual elite. 14. In 1909 the Niagara movement helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), a coalition of blacks and whites that sought legal and political rights for African Americans through the courts.

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