China. Geography of China Today, China is home to 1.2B people About the geography o Mtn s and plateaus cover about 80% o 20% if China is level land

Transcription

1 China Geography of China Today, China is home to 1.2B people About the geography o Mtn s and plateaus cover about 80% o 20% if China is level land Major Rivers of China Yellow River (Huang He)..name comes from the yellow-brown soil Chang River (Yangzi) XI River People Approx. 95% are Han or ethnic Chinese ***Essential Question: What was the impact of the Yellow River on China s economy, culture, and development as a civilization? Yellow River This is where Archeologist first discovered early Chinese civilizations (Artifacts) ***Essential Question: What are artifacts? Provide examples Visuals Primary point for trade routes Starting point of the Silk Road ***Essential Question: What was the cultural impact of the Silk Road? Other important physical features of China Himalayas Yangtzi River or Chang River Gobi Desert Essential Question: What role did the Himalayas play in the development of Chinese culture? 1

2 Timeline of Chinese Dynasties 2

3 The Dynastic Cycle 3

4 Early Civilizations, Dynasties, and Rulers of China Yu and Xia Rulers: approx 2000 B.C., however, little exists to confirm their existence. Thus, little is known about these rulers/dynasties Ancestor Worshiping ***Essential Question: Why did the Chinese believe ancestor worshiping important? ***Essential Question: What is a Feudal System/Society? What is Ancestor Worshiping? Offering of respect, food, and wine to their ancestors Invite ancestors to a family feast, hopefully this would bring the family good luck Traditions still exists today a primary reason why having children is so important in China to have someone look after you after you die, to look after your spirit Shang Dynasty Important Facts: The first Chinese dynasty, the Shang, arose around 1766 B.C. and lasted until 1122 B.C. The dynasty was organized by clans. Most members of Shang society were peasants who led grueling lives working the fields. The cities supported artisans skilled in bronze work. The Shang dynasty ended in 1122 B.C. in a rebellion led by two Zhou warriors The first real dynasty of China, but not the first Empire of China 1300 B.C. Typical gov t during this era Cities with palaces, temples, and royal burial sites Well-organized armies of nobles, peasants, and slaves Shang rules supervised irrigation and flood control projects. Controlling these project benefited the people and strengthened the rulers Religion Believed that heaven was the home of many gods If god was pleased he sent good harvests if not the floods came The kin was the link b/t heaven and earth Ancestral worshipping Oracles a person or agency that communicates with the gods. Use of the oracle bone interpret the cracks in the bones after heating to interpret the message(s) from god. 4

5 Other developments Agriculture continued and developed Metalwork was popularized Feudal Society Components of a Feudal Society King Vassals Professional Priests During the Shang (1300 B.C.) first clear evidence of writings Warfare was commonplace against external barbarians Achievements Writing system using pictographs and ideographs (symbols) Zhou Dynasty Important Facts: The Shang dynasty ended in 1122 B.C. in a rebellion led by two Zhou warriors. The Zhou claimed a divine right to rule, calling it the Mandate of Heaven. Chinese argued that the dynastic cycle reflected heaven s judgment of good and bad governments. Under the Zhou dynasty, China became a feudal state. Under the Zhou, the first books were made; One them, The Book of Songs, depicted both farm and royal life in poetry and song. Zhou Dynasty (1027 BC); pronounced Joe Chou overthrows the Shang assumes Mandate of Heaven Important philosophies and characteristics of the Zhou Dynasty Mandate of Heaven emperor s were only allowed to stay on the throne as long as they were doing a good job ruling the people, as long as the heavens believed they were doing a good job The Mandate of Heaven is based on four principles: The right to rule is granted by Heaven. There is only one Heaven therefore there can be only one ruler. 5

6 The right to rule is based on the virtue of the ruler. The right to rule is not limited to one dynasty. Examples of the ways these principles converted into action and justification: It gives the ruler prestige and religious importance. It gives the ruler supreme power. It allows a new ruler to gain power quickly if the people believe he has the 'Mandate of Heaven'. A ruler's power must be kept in check by virtue. The Mandate of Heaven justifies rebellion as long as the rebellion is successful. Simply because it was successful, obviously then, the new ruler had to have had a Mandate from Heaven. Achievement During the Zhou Ironworking popularized ***Essential Question: Why was the discovery of iron influential in determining China path? key for agriculture and warfare The Birth of Reflective Thought ***Essential Question: What the three schools of thought that developed during this period Confucianism Daoism Legalism They were each different but each had similar concerns What principles should guide human conduct and ensure order in society Confucianism believed in a hierarchy in society (class structure), people were born into a specific class and stayed there, stressed the leaders should set a good example and the people will follow Confucius 550 B.C. Challenge the rich and powerful to change their evil ways Championed peace and justice Came to prominence during the Feudal Wars Born out of wedlock (concubine) Believed that if people are educated the distinctions b/t class will disappear Education was the meaning of life People become better through education Created a school included all classes (farmer s son could sit next to the son of a governor Become Superior Men In other words, aristocracy of noble character not noble birth One of his many decree s men and women walk on opposite sides of the street Welfare State?? The state should take care of the elderly and children Theory of society should be based upon the people Confucius s goal: to save China His radical ideas makes him dangerous Evaded several assassination attempts An oppressive gov t is much worse than a man-eating tiger Influenza Theory of Virtue first you get the rulers than the people will follow 6

7 ***Essential Question: Was Confucius an Enlightened Thinker? ***Essential Question: What had Confucius witnessed? The grim suffering of the people of china, which were being crushed by taxesm neglected by their rulers, and slaughtered by opposing armies Lesson Plan Ideas: Activity Idea: Analyze Confucius Proverbs/Sayings Activity Idea: Compare/Contrast Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism Activity Idea: Activity Idea: Daoism more of a religion, influenced by Buddhism, withdrawal from the world, to be in harmony with nature, be removed by the difficult and bad things of society, believed in immortality Legalism believes human-beings are not good, it is necessary to set up a system of laws, people are evil and thus, there is a need for laws to prevent this evil from coming out and destroying society The First Emperor and the Qin Dynasty Important Facts: Ended feudalism, unified China using a harsh system called Legalism to impose order. Standardized weights and measures Produced Qin coins Built roads One of Shi Huangdi s greatest accomplishments was to link existing feudal walls into the Great Wall. Qin (Ch in) Dynasty 221 and 206 BC Achievements and Acts of the First Empire: Supported by Legalism China (or what we now of as China) is born Abolished the old Feudal system Ruled by an emperor (one leader) and a strong central gov t, 1 st Emperor takes charge The First Emperor took the name Shi Huangdi or First Emperor The Great Wall ***Essential Question: What are the principals of legalist theory? Legalism 7

8 When the Chin gained imperial power after decades of civil war, they adopted the ideas of the Legalists as their political theory. In practice, under legalists (Chin dynasty ) involved a uniform totalitarianism. People were conscripted to labor for long periods of time on state projects, such as irrigation projects or the series of defensive walls in northern China which we know as the Great Wall All disagreement with the government was made a capital crime All alternative ways of thinking, which the Legalists saw as encouraging the natural fractiousness of humanity, were banned. Why did it fail? The policies eventually led to the downfall of the dynasty itself after only fourteen years in power. Local peoples began to revolt and the government did nothing about it, for local officials feared to bring these revolts to the attention of the authorities since the reports themselves might be construed as a criticism of the government and so result in their executions. The emperor's court did not discover these revolts until it was far too late, and the Ch'in and the policies they pursued were discredited for the rest of Chinese history. The upside to a totalitarian society Influenced future Chinese gov t They adopted utilitarianism, which is the only occupations that people should be engaged in should be occupations that materially benefited others, particularly agriculture. Most of the Ch'in laws were attempts to move people from useless activities, such as scholarship or philosophy, to useful ones. Utilitarianism would survive as a dynamic strain of Chinese political theory up to and including the Maoist revolution. Legalists invented what we call "rule of law," that is, the notion that the law is supreme over every individual, including individual rulers. The law should rule rather than individuals, who have authority only to administer the law. Legalists adopted Mo Tzu's (Taoism/Daoism) ideas of uniform standardization of law and culture. In order to be effective, the law has to be uniformly applied; no one is to be punished more or less severely because of their social standing. This notion of "equality before the law" would, with some changes, remain a central concept in theories of Chinese government. Uniform standards, the Chin undertook a project of standardizing Chinese culture: the writing system, the monetary system, weights and measures, and the philosophical systems (which they mainly accomplished by destroying rival schools of thought). This standardization profoundly affected the coherence of Chinese culture and the centralization of government; the attempt to standardize Chinese thought would lead in the early Han Buddhism Historians estimate that the founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama, lived from 566 to 480 B.C. Gautama wandered into the world in search of understanding. After encountering an old 8

9 man, an ill man, a corpse and an ascetic, Gautama was convinced that suffering lay at the end of all existence. He renounced his princely title and became a monk, depriving himself of worldly possessions in the hope of comprehending the truth of the world around him. The culmination of his search came while meditating beneath a tree, where he finally understood how to be free from suffering, and ultimately, to achieve salvation. Following this epiphany, Gautama was known as the Buddha, meaning the "Enlightened One." The Buddha spent the remainder of his life journeying about India, teaching others what he had come to understand. The Four Noble Truths 1.) The Four Noble Truths comprise the essence of Buddha's teachings 2.) They are the truth of suffering identifies the presence of suffering 3.) the truth of the cause of suffering.seeks to determine the cause of suffering 4.) the truth of the end of suffering. has dual meaning, suggesting either the end of suffering in this life, on earth, or in the spiritual life, through achieving Nirvana. When one has achieved Nirvana, which is a transcendent state free from suffering and our worldly cycle of birth and rebirth, spiritual enlightenment has been reached the truth of the path that leads to the end of suffering. More simply put, suffering exists; it has a cause; it has an end; and it has a cause to bring about its end. The notion of suffering is not intended to convey a negative world view, but rather, a pragmatic perspective that deals with the world as it is, and attempts to rectify it. The concept of pleasure is not denied, but acknowledged as fleeting. Pursuit of pleasure can only continue what is ultimately an unquenchable thirst. The same logic belies an understanding of happiness. charts the method for attaining the end of suffering, known to Buddhists as the Noble Eightfold Path. The steps of the Noble Eightfold Path are Right Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration. Moreover, there are three themes into which the Path is divided: good moral conduct (Understanding, Thought, Speech); meditation and mental development (Action, Livelihood, Effort), and wisdom or insight (Mindfulness and Concentration). In the end, only aging, sickness, and death are certain and unavoidable. In Buddhism, desire and ignorance lie at the root of suffering. By desire, Buddhists refer to craving pleasure, material goods, and immortality, all of which are wants that can never be satisfied. As a result, desiring them can only bring suffering. Ignorance, in comparison, relates to not seeing the world as it actually is. Without the capacity for mental concentration and insight, Buddhism explains, one's mind is left undeveloped, unable to grasp the true nature of things. Vices, such as greed, envy, hatred and anger, derive from this ignorance. Karma 9

10 Contrary to what is accepted in contemporary society, the Buddhist interpretation of karma does not refer to preordained fate. Karma refers to good or bad actions a person takes during her lifetime. Good actions, which involve either the absence of bad actions, or actual positive acts, such as generosity, righteousness, and meditation, bring about happiness in the long run. Bad actions, such as lying, stealing or killing, bring about unhappiness in the long run. The weight that actions carry is determined by five conditions: frequent, repetitive action; determined, intentional action; action performed without regret; action against extraordinary persons; and action toward those who have helped one in the past. Finally, there is also neutral karma, which derives from acts such as breathing, eating or sleeping. Neutral karma has no benefits or costs. The Cycle of Rebirth Karma plays out in the Buddhism cycle of rebirth. There are six separate planes into which any living being can be reborn -- three fortunate realms, and three unfortunate realms. Those with favorable, positive karma are reborn into one of the fortunate realms: the realm of demigods, the realm of gods, and the realm of men. While the demigods and gods enjoy gratification unknown to men, they also suffer unceasing jealousy and envy. The realm of man is considered the highest realm of rebirth. Humanity lacks some of the extravagances of the demigods and gods, but is also free from their relentless conflict. Similarly, while inhabitants of the three unfortunate realms -- of animals, ghosts and hell -- suffer untold suffering, the suffering of the realm of man is far less. The realm of man also offers one other aspect lacking in the other five planes, an opportunity to achieve enlightenment, or Nirvana. Given the sheer number of living things, to be born human is to Buddhists a precious chance at spiritual bliss, a rarity that one should not forsake. The First Emperor of China Qin Shi Huang (259 BCE 210 BCE) Came to power through brutal force Conquered the kingdoms that comprised China After five centuries of wars After defeating the other kingdoms, Qin moved to unite all of China United China through a series of reforms Reforms and Changes to China Edicts or decrees come from heaven Simplified the Chinese language Language the same as today Essential Question: How does this change help historians, archivists, and archeologists interpret the development of China Primary reason for a unified language was to promote laws Weights and Measure system Built a road system New irrigation system Codified the monetary system His (Qin) law was the only law Outlawed other philosophies such as Confucianism and Daoism 10

11 Burned the books of these philosophies which promoted freedom of thought Executed those Intellectuals) who continued to promote their philosophies Quirks of the First Emperor Feared invasion from his enemies Built the Great Wall 1400 miles long (by way of the crow) or total 3000 miles 300K plus slave labor, estimates of a total 700K worked on the wall Only manmade object that can be seen from the surface of the moon Believed in immortality His quest for immortality would actually be the cause of his death mercury poisoning His Tomb Built because of his obsession with immortality The Terracotta Army Army their to protect him from the armies he defeated during his reign Qin s tomb discovered by farmers looking for a new water well in 1974 Han Dynasty The fall of the Qin Dynasty and the Rise of the Han Important Facts: With the death of Shi Huangdi in 210 B.C., the Qin dynasty ended. Emperor Gao Zu rose to power and the Han dynasty began. The most famous Han emperor, Wudi, strengthened government and the economy. improved canals and roads and imposed a monopoly on iron and salt. Eased Legalist polices and lowered taxes Emperor Gao Zu appointed Confucian scholars as advisers. linked China to the West with the creation of the Silk Road trade route. Han emperors made Confucianism the official belief system of the state. also held that civil servants should get their jobs by merit.; Under this system, a man would start in a clerical job. He could then take tests to advance to higher levels in the civil service. Han Dynasty (206 B.C. 220 A.D.) Peasant Revolt advances in poetry and visual art legalism is gone and Confucianism is back along with the exam system, land expansion total population around 60M 11

12 The Silk Road trade with Rome by way of India and Persia, trade route extends 7K miles, begins in the Yellow River, because of the route the spread of ideas and beliefs such as Buddhism, also another way to communicate with other cultures Buddhism Pagoda, multi-story building, odd number of floors, yin and yang, Feng Shui Essential Question: With a variety of different faiths and philosophies, what does this say about Chinese culture? Pattern of life of the Chinese Social Hierarchy of China Essentially, there were two classes. Gentry wealthy landlords who had been educated in the Confucian classics, they were the scholars, gov t officials, and tax collectors. They kept the peace and advised the emperor Peasantry majority of people; some owed and worked plots of land; others were tenant farmers who had to part of each harvest to the landowners; other were landless laborers; Social Mobility it was possible to move up the social ladder; through accumulated wealth, they would invest in the education of their children; through this education and possible acquisition of a gov t position the family could move up in status. Respect Confucius stressed the importance of family and respect for elders to maintain harmony. Children respected their elders Women obeyed men Children respected their mother Extended and Joint Family oldest male was the leader of the family Filial Piety respect for parents and ancestors; obey them, take care of them as they age, advise parents, and of course to love them. Loving one s parents and offering them respect is the spring from which other forms of filial piety flows. A relationship with parents must be centered on love and respect. Respect for Ancestors review ancestor worshiping; part of filial piety The Role of Women The Chinese believed that women were inferior to men; valued for their work and ability to produce children; birth of son equated to respect; 12

13 After the fall of the Han Important facts: Han Dynasty collapses in 220 AD Before the rise of the Sui and Tang Dynasties, China broke apart and remained divided for 400 years. Yet, China escaped the decay that disrupted Europe after the fall of Rome. Farm production expanded and technology slowly improved. Buddhism spread, while learning and the arts continued to flourish. Sui Dynasty Important Facts: Lasted from The Emperor reunited the north and the south China was not restored to its earlier glory until the rise of the Tang Dynasty Tang Dynasty Important Facts: The Tang dynasty was forged in China in 618. Li Yuan crushed rivals with his son, Li Shimin, and became the first Tang emperor. Eight years later, Li Shimin took the throne as Tang Taizong. Tang rulers built a sizeable empire, forcing neighboring lands to become tributary states. Empress Wu Zhao and other Tang emperors restored uniform government throughout the empire and set up schools. Tang rulers instituted land reform to strengthen central government and weaken large landholders; broke up large land holdings and redistributed tracts to peasants. Song Dynasty Important Facts: The Tang dynasty ended in 907. In 960, the Song dynasty was founded. It was forged by a general named Zhao Kuangyin. It lasted for 319 years, but controlled less territory than the Tang. 13

14 It was a time of great wealth and cultural achievement for China. The economy grew under the Song dynasty for many reasons. Its emperors had an open border policy that encouraged foreign trade and imports. Farming methods improved and farmers produced two crops a year, creating a surplus. Use of the Grand Canal linking the Huang River to the Chang River reached its height during this time China was a very ordered society under both the Tang and the Song dynasties. The two main classes were the gentry, or landholders, and the peasants. The gentry studied to pass the civil service exam. The peasants worked the land and produced handicraft items such as baskets. Some merchants became wealthy in the market towns of China. they had lower social status than peasants; This was due to Confucian tradition. Families in China valued boys more than girls, and women had a subordinate position in society. Women often managed a household s servants and finances, but they could not keep their dowry. The painful custom of foot binding was widely practiced and greatly limited a woman s ability to leave the home. Foot Binding Foot binding was a way to construct femininity in this softer, weaker, more compliant vein. Ebrey also noted the Chinese reaction against the nomadic cultures on the northern and western borders as another possible factor in promoting the spread of foot binding that came to be seen as a marker of China s unique civilization in contrast to its nomadic neighbors. In its most extreme form, foot binding was the act of wrapping a three- to five-year old girl's feet with binding so as to bend the toes under, break the bones and force the back of the foot together. Its purpose was to produce a tiny foot, the "golden lotus", which was three inches long and thought to be both lovely and alluring The first documented reference to the actual binding of a foot is from the court of the Southern Tang dynasty in Nanjing, which celebrates the fame of its dancing girls renowned for their tiny feet and beautiful bow shoes. The practice apparently became the standard for feminine beauty in the imperial court, spreading downward socially and geographically as the lower classes strove to imitate the style of the elite. A rich culture developed under the Tang and Song and was expressed in painting, architecture, porcelain, and poetry. The gentry learned to paint and do calligraphy and sought to express balance and harmony with nature in their works. 14

15 In architecture, the Chinese pagoda evolved. Sculptors expressed Buddhist themes. Tang and Song writers produced prose and poetry as well as works on philosophy and history. Poetry was the most respected form of Chinese literature. The greatest Tang poet was Li Bo. He wrote 2,000 poems about the passage of time and harmony with nature. Mongols Take China The Mongols conquered the steppes first with a force of skilled horsemen. To attack walled cities in China, they used cannons. Though Genghis Khan did not finish the conquest of China, his heirs expanded the Mongol empire and dominated Asia for 150 years. Once Mongols conquered a territory, they ruled tolerantly and established peace and order. Khan respected scholars and artists and listened to their ideas. During the 1200s and 1300s, Mongols maintained order, a period now called the Pax Mongolica by historians. Political stability led to economic growth and flourishing trade. Cultures mixed as tools and inventions spread. Genghis Khan s grandson Kublai Khan completed the task of conquering China when he toppled the Song dynasty in He ruled China, Korea, and Tibet from his capital at Khanbaliq, modern Beijing. He decreed that only Mongols could serve in the military. Kublai Khan adopted the Chinese name Yuan for his dynasty. Marco Polo He left Venice in 1271 and spent 17 years in the service of Kublai Kahn. Polo returned to Italy and wrote of his time in China, describing its wealth and efficient mail system. His writing sparked European interest in Asia. When Kublai Kahn died in 1294, the Yuan dynasty declined. There were frequent uprisings due to heavy taxes and corruption. A peasant leader, Zhu Yuanzhang, created a rebel army and toppled the Mongols. 15

16 The Mongols and more historical facts Quality over Quantity their military superiority did not rely on possessing overwhelming numbers, but relied on out-smarting their opponent. From clothing to weapons, Mongols held advantages over their opponents. javelin-throwers and catapults of different kinds, which might be disassembled and loaded on pack horses Religious Toleration - Mongols determined early on that aggressive imposition of their native religion on their subjects would be counter-productive. Instead, they sought to ingratiate themselves with the leading foreign clerics in order to facilitate governance of the newly subjugated territories. They even offered tax benefits to the clerics of Buddhism, Islam, Daoism, and Nestorian Christianity in order to win the support of those religions. The Mongols and China eliminated one of the most basic of Chinese institutions the civil service examinations. Societal hierarchy The Mongols perceived China as just one section of their vast empire. And they classified the population of their domain in China into a hierarchy of four groups with the native Chinese at the bottom. The Mongols, of course, were at the top; then came the non-han, mostly Islamic population that was brought to China by the Mongols to help them rule; third were the northern Chinese; and at the very bottom of the rung were the southern Chinese. Distrusted Confucian Scholars Mongols did initiate many policies especially under the rule of Khubilai Khan that supported and helped the Chinese economy, as well as social and political life in China. he Mongols gave strong support to the peasants and peasant economy of China, believing that the success of the peasant economy would bring in additional tax revenues and ultimately benefit the Mongols themselves. Traditionally, the Chinese prized the products produced by artisans jades, bronzes, ceramics, porcelains but did not accord the artisans themselves a high social status. The Mongols, on the other hand, valued crafts and artisanship immensely and implemented many policies that favored artisans.same with the merchants Ming Dynasty Important Facts: The Ming dynasty was founded in 1368 by the rebel leader. Ming rulers worked to restore Chinese greatness. They restored the civil service exam, restored the primacy of Confucianism, and rooted out corruption. Under the Ming, the economy once again grew, thanks to improved farming methods and trade. 16

17 Ming China fostered a revival of the arts. Ming blue and white porcelain vases became the most valuable Chinese products exported to the West. A new form of popular literature, the novel, emerged. One example, The Water Margin, was about ending injustice. Ming emperors sent fleets of Chinese ships to distant places. Zheng He traveled as far as East Africa. One notable voyage included 262 vessels and 28,000 sailors. The goals of these expeditions were to promote trade, collect tribute, and show local rulers the power of the Chinese. In 1435, the Ming emperor banned the building of seagoing ships. Historians think he may have done so because fleets were expensive or because Confucian scholars wanted to preserve ancient Chinese culture without outside interaction. Fewer than 60 years after this decision, Christopher Columbus sailed and made Spain a major power. Qing Dynasty **(Pronounced: Ching)** Essential Question: Manchu s, the role of non-chinese was this fact a driving force during the Nationalist era? Important Facts: European interest in Asia grew, but the Ming emperors in China had no interest in foreigners. European textiles and metalwork were perceived as inferior to those of China. Because they had nothing the Chinese wanted, the Europeans had to pay for Chinese products in gold or silver. Dutch, English, and others were allowed to trade near Canton. Foreigners could only trade if supervised by imperial officials. At the end of the trading season, all foreigners had to leave. Portuguese missionaries arrived with the traders and merchants. They were followed by Jesuits, who were welcomed for their scholarship, but who made few converts. In the early 1600s the Ming dynasty was in decay. Revolts erupted and Manchu invaders pushed through the Great Wall. 17

18 The Manchu came from the northeast and Manchuria. In 1644, victorious Manchu forces took Beijing and made it their capital The Manchu established the Qing dynasty The Manchu won support of scholar-officials by adopting a Confucian form of government. Local government remained in the hands of local Chinese officials. Manchu soldiers were stationed across the empire to ensure loyalty. Each top government position had two officials, one Qing and one Manchu. The most brilliant age of the Qing dynasty was under Emperor Kangxi ( ) and his grandson Qianlong ( ). Kangxi extended Chinese power into central Asia and expanded Chinese culture. Qianlong expanded the borders and ruled the largest area in the nation s history. Qianlong retired after 60 years because he did not want to reign longer than his grandfather had. In 1793 British diplomat Lord MaCartney sought greater trading rights. The diplomat s behavior offended the emperor, who saw British products as crude and outsiders such as Macartney as barbarians. Emperor Qianglong s attitude seemed justified by China s accomplishments Under the Qing dynasty, China grew and prospered. New crops such as potatoes and corn boosted food production. The population grew to 300 million by The silk, cotton, and porcelain industries grew. Internal trade and demand for Chinese goods grew. **** However, in the late 1800s, China would pay a heavy price for ignoring Westerners and their technology. European Imperialism: The Race to Divide China Event and Timeline 18

19 1st Opium War Taiping Rebellion nd Opium War Boxer Movement Sphere of Influence Throughout the nineteenth century, China's emperors had watched as foreigners encroached further and further upon their land. Time and again, foreigners forced China to make humiliating concessions. Foreign regiments, armed with modern weapons, consistently defeated entire imperial armies. Now, as a new century was about to begin, the Ching Dynasty searched for a way to rid her empire of foreign parasites. Open Door Policy China was in political and economic disarray as the end of the 19th century approached. The giant was not recognized as a sovereign nation by the major powers, who were busy elbowing one another for trading privileges and plotting how the country could be partitioned. The imperial nations sought spheres of influence and claimed extraterritorial rights in China. The United States took Far Eastern matters more seriously after the Spanish-American War, when they came into possession of the Philippines. In the fall of 1898, President McKinley stated his desire for the creation of an "open door" that would allow all trading nations access to the Chinese market. The following year, Secretary of State John Hay sought a formal endorsement of the concept by circulating diplomatic notes among the major powers, enabling the secretary to be credited with authoring the Open Door policy. The Beginning of the End Collapse of the Ching and the end of Imperial Rule 19

20 The Opium Wars and Unequal Treaties Essential Question: Examine the effects of the Opium War on the opening of China. Moreover, how do the Opium Wars affect social, economical, political, and intellectual levels during this period of Chinese history? China before the Opium War was closed to the West. Foreign trade was strictly controlled by the government. The Chinese had a false sense of superiority, believed that they had nothing to gain by trading with the "barbarians" the West. After China's defeat in the Opium War, it was forced open. Moreover, the weaknesses of China's political and social system were exposed and the sense of superiority was shattered. The Manchu government could no longer represent and protect the Chinese people. The Treaty of Nanjing, signed after the Opium War, opened Chinese ports and markets to Western merchants, caused the inflow of cheap Western machine-made products and collapsed the Chinese economy. However, the remaining businesses adapted and evolved to survive, this stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism. As the Chinese economy collapsed, unemployment skyrocketed. Coupled by poverty and government's inability to control the situation, riots, social insurrection and chaos spread over the country. The Opium War caused Chinese officials and intellectuals to realize that in order for China to catch up, they must learn from the West. Consequently, officials madly imported Western technologies and industries, while intellectuals proposed a parliamentary government. The Opium War forcefully and suddenly opened China to the world. The consequences of such abrupt exposure were deep and long lasting. China Before the West arrived - China before 1840 was completely closed, isolated from the rest of the world, except for the limited foreign trade in the city of Canton. The Western countries that wanted to penetrate the huge Chinese market, used the opium incident to wage the Opium War. China was soon overwhelmed and signed the Treaty of Nanjing. According to the Treaty, China opened its ports and markets to Western merchants, concessions were created in major cities and China became a semi-feudal semi-colonial state. Facing the rising China, the world has raised many questions. Essential questions: What role will China play at the international level? What style of foreign policy will China follow? How will China administer Hong Kong after the British handover in 1997? Will China continue its economic reforms and its "Open-Door Policy" which are the main contributors to its successes? Answer All of these questions can be answered by examining the effects when China was first opened, forcefully, by British gun-boats and battle ships in the Opium War. The humiliation and the 20

21 lessons learned at the Opium War 150 years ago are deeply rooted in Chinese mentality and still guides Chinese thinking in international relations. What effects did the Opium War have on the opening of China? The inflow of cheaper Western machine-made products shattered Chinese native industries. The Chinese economy had to adapt and reform in order to compete with Western countries. The disastrous defeat of the Chinese army in the Opium War convinced every Chinese that China was no longer the "Heavenly Middle Kingdom". Western ideas were brought in, and their consequences were felt at every level of society. Intellectuals believed that the root of China's weaknesses lay within its backward political structures, and initiated many short lived political reforms. The forced opening of China subjected China partially to foreign rule. It collapsed the Chinese economy, created social chaos and uprisings, and generated political instability. Yet ironically, the Opium War also awakened China from its fantasies and exposed it to the reality of progress. China was able to measure itself on the international level and realized that it was no longer on the top of the world. The Opium War gave China a sense of purpose, a desire to catch up. It signaled the beginning of the awakening of the giant. The Closed China In order to examine the effects of opening China, we must first study how and why China was closed. Before 1840, China was closed, or more accurately, it highly controlled its contacts with the outside world. The trade relationships were organized into the so called "Canton Trade System", since only the port of Canton was opened for foreign trade. Having reached Canton, the Western merchants could only deal with a group of government appointed merchants called "Gong Hang" ("officially authorized firms") which had a monopoly on the trade with the West. The volume of the trade and the prices as well as the personal activities of Western merchants were also regulated by the Gong Hang, which in turn was responsible to the Governor- General of Liangguang. The Western merchants were forbidden to have any contact with the Chinese except in trade and they had to live within a specific district in the city. Essential Question: Why did China impose such limitations on trade? Two main reasons were present. China's foreign policy at that time were dominated by its sense of superiority. The Chinese believed that the Heaven was round, and the Earth was a square. The Heaven projected its circular shadow onto the centre of the Earth. The area under the shadow, "Tian Xia" ("Zone Beneath the Heaven") was China itself. Hence China was the "Heavenly Middle Kingdom". The corners of the square not under the celestial emanation were ruled by foreign "yi" ("barbarians"). Thus morally to the Chinese, the "foreign devils" could not be on equal grounds with the Emperor, the "Son of Heaven". On the economic level, China had a self-reliant economy and a self-sufficient domestic trade. The Chinese had the feeling that China had much to loose and nothing to gain from foreign trade. As Evariste Huc noted in 1844 after his journey through China, "One excellent reason why China is only moderately fond of trading with foreigners is that her home trade is immense... China is such a vast, rich and varied country that internal trade is more than enough to occupy the part of the nation which can perform commercial operations... there is everywhere to be seen movement and a feverish activity which is not to be found in the largest towns of Europe. 21

22 The second and the most important reason China closed its doors to Western countries was its desire to protect itself. After the Industrial Revolution, imperialism rose in Europe. In the rush to find new resources and new markets, Europeans madly explored and colonized "less civilized" countries. China was closed, but it was not so isolated that it did not know the Western conquest of the Philippines, the penetration of Malaysia, the rebellion of Christian converts in Japan. The British penetration and ultimately the conquest of China's old neighbor, India, shocked the Chinese Emperor. In China, the overthrow of a dynasty was often successful when external threats were coupled with internal disturbances. The Manchu themselves used the civil unrest in China to conquer China and set up their Qing Dynasty. At a time when the Manchu rule in China was becoming weaker, the rulers could not permit any forms of foreign power to enter China that may help to overthrown them. The weaker the Manchu rule in China, the stricter their control on the foreign trade. From the stand point of the Manchu rulers, they were afraid that foreigners would learn China's weaknesses, but they were even more afraid that Chinese would collaborate with foreigners. What was a better way to prevent all of these than to seal off China from the European powers who had proven themselves to be violent and destructive in their dealings with China's neighbors? The hypothesis that China closed its doors due to its anxiety to protect itself rather than xenophobic hostility towards foreigners was confirmed by the fact that the "closed-door" policy did not apply to Russia. From the 17th century, China's relations with Russia were based on equal participation. A well-balanced trade existed between the two countries. China welcomed peaceful merchants to the north while resisting the ones in the south. China closed its doors to the West because of its false sense of superiority and most importantly, its desire to protect itself. China tried to resist foreign political and economic penetrations by restricting foreign trade. Yet its attempts to seal itself off invited an even more devastating penetration, the Opium War. The Opium War and Its Background Despite strict government regulations, foreign trade in China expanded during the late 18th century and early 19th century. As trade grew, the West found themselves to have a large and rising trade deficit with China. They were increasingly anxious to balance their trade. Yet the Chinese, having a self-sufficient economy, showed little interest in Western products. Finally, in 1820, the West found a product which China did not have, opium. Between 1829 and 1855, opium smuggling developed rapidly along China's South Coast. In 1820, 9,708 chests of opium was smuggled in per year. 15 years later, the smuggled opium rose to 35,445 chests, a growth of 400%. In the 1830's, opium had became a vice in China. Virtually all men under 40 smoked opium. The entire army was addicted. It affected all classes of people, from rich merchants to Taoists. The total number of addicts in China in the 1830's was as high as 12 million. Due to the smuggle of opium, the trade deficit Western countries had with China quickly turned into a trade surplus. China could not export enough tea and silk to balance the trade. Instead the difference in trade was made up by the export of Chinese silver, which was highly valued for its fine qualities. In the fiscal year alone, China exported 4.5 million Spanish dollars worth of silver. In 1839, the Chinese opium smokers spent 100 million taels, while the government's entire annual revenue was only 40 million taels. The drain of silver greatly weakened the Chinese government. One government official wrote, "If we continue to allow this trade to flourish, in a few dozen years, we will find ourselves not only with no soldiers to resist the enemy, but also with no money to equip the army." 22

23 Faced with this problem, the Chinese government opened a debate among Manchus and senior officials. The debate lasted for two years, in the end, a minority group which favored an uncompromising stand prevailed. In 1839, the emperor issued 39 articles which imposed extremely severe punishments, including death, for smoking and trading opium. Special Commissioner Lin Zexu was sent to Canton to ensure the rules were carried out. Lin, while in Canton, made 1,600 arrests and confiscated 11,000 pounds of opium in two months. In June, Lin forced foreign merchants to hand over 20,000 chests of opium. He burned the opium in a public demonstration and scattered the ashes across the sea. When Lin gave the order that Canton should be completely closed to foreign trade, the British opened hostilities and started the Opium War. China, with its backward army, was overwhelmed and backed down. Commissioner Lin was recalled in disgrace and sent to exile in the Northwest. The first of the unequal treaties, the Treaty of Nanjing was signed. The Opium War, which lasted from 1840 to 1842, ended with China losing in shame. The Opening of China Essential Question: What was the Opium War really about? The War, although entitled "The Opium War" was in fact not about opium at all. As President John Quincy Adams said, "The seizer of a few thousand chests of opium smuggled into China by the Chinese government was no more the cause of the Opium War than the throwing overboard of the tea in the Boston harbor was the cause of North American Revolution." In the race to colonize the world, China represented the last prize in the Far East for European countries. The Opium War was the first step designed to open China along with its markets and resources for exploitation. The War itself physically opened China. However, it was the aftermath of the War that exposed China, economically, socially, politically and ideologically to the outside world. The unequal treaties signed after the Opium War were the primary mechanisms to open China. Unfair and Unequal Treaties and Their Effects The Treaty of Nanjing (August, 1842) and supplement treaties (July and October 1843) signed between the British and the Chinese were the first of the humiliating "unequal treaties". It radically increased the openings for trade in China and expanded the scope of British activities. The treaties opened five ports, Canton, Fuzhou, Xiamen, Linbou and Shanghai to conduct foreign trade as treaty ports. The surrender of Hong Kong breached China's territorial integrity. The Treaty stated that all custom duties must be negotiated with other countries. It therefore took away China's control of its own customs. Furthermore, the import duties were lowered from 65% to 5%, this effectively shattered China's home industries. The Nanjing Treaty abolished the system of Gong Hang. This allowed British merchants free trade in China. The Treaty exempted British nationals from Chinese law, thus permitting the operation of extraterritorial law on Chinese soil. Furthermore, any Chinese who either dealt with the British, or lived with them or were employed by them were also exempted from Chinese law. This made foreign concessions a haven for Chinese criminals. 23

24 To Chinese officials, this clause also gave foreign invaders the legal right to setup and protect their spy and criminal networks. The treaties also allowed every treaty port to have one British military ship. Thus for the first time foreign warships were allowed free entrance to Chinese waters. The Nanjing Treaty allowed British merchants to bring families to live in the treaty ports. Furthermore, it also stated that Chinese local authorities must provide housing or other foundations which British merchants could rent. The Chinese officials believed that such a system would eliminate disputes in the treaty ports, and were quite happy to agree to it. To their surprise, this system was used to establish concession areas by foreigners in the treaty ports. The Treaty of Nanjing included the so called "most favored nation" clause. This in effect gave the British any privileges extorted from China by any other country. The "most favored nation" clause later was extended to all the foreign countries that dealt with China, giving all Western countries that dealt with China the same rights as the British. The Treaty of Nanjing and supplement treaties opened China to the world. China became a semi-feudal semi-colonial state. Its influences were far reaching and long lasting. However because the Treaty of Nanjing was designed to obtain free trade, its economic effects were the most severe Social, Political and Ideological Effects After China's disastrous defeat in the Opium War, the Chinese realized that they were no longer the "Heavenly Middle Kingdom Chinese intellectuals recognized that in order to deal with the strangers from the West, they must understand the Westerners and the place they came from. Before the Opium War, the Chinese concept of European countries was very vague and in some cases, even preposterous. After the Opium War, China intellectually discovered the West. Western political ideas, social structures, and in some areas, technology were introduced to China. Western ideas of parliamentary democracy and capitalism were vaguely made known. International diplomacy became a concept. One of the writers, Wei Yuan, first proposed that in order to fight the West, China must learn from the West. Wei's proposal received huge responses. After all, China lost to Westerner's "strong ships and sharp weapons". Under such circumstances, China for the first time established what was the equivalent of a foreign ministry. The foreign ministry was mainly occupied with the study of Western technology, modernization of the Chinese army and the open of modern factories. The first factories opened were for the military, and specialized in the production of modern weapons and ships. Because the products of these factories were not merchandise, making money was not a concern. The running of these factories did not depend on the profit it made, nor the demands of the market. Thus administration techniques of managing a large commercial enterprise were not yet developed. Nevertheless, seeing that Western enterprises made a profit, the Chinese government began to establish commercial enterprises. Immediately after the Opium War, Western merchants had not yet fully penetrated the Chinese market. The Manchu government, although short in 24

25 revenue, could still find enough funds to start new industries. The private sector also was quite wealthy. With the collapse of the feudalistic economy and the stimulations by Western capitalism, it was willing to invest in modern enterprises. At the same time, Western companies absorbed some Chinese capital. It could be said that shortly after the Opium War, Chinese capitalism had a good opportunity to develop. However, the enterprises established were controlled by the feudal bureaucrats. The private sector invested, but had no say over the administration of the businesses. The bureaucrats ran the commercial enterprises as if they were running the non-profit military industries. They also used their powers to monopolize the markets, which prevented the growth of Chinese private sector industries. Many new enterprises went bankrupt due to poor administration, a few that made money rarely reinvested their profits. As for the bureaucrats that ran the enterprises, they became extremely wealthy regardless of whether the company made a profit or not. However, the establishment of modern industries inevitably advanced the socialeconomic development of China. Attempts at forming modern enterprises, although failed, still stimulated the growth of Chinese capitalism. The Opium War exposed the weaknesses of the Chinese feudal system. The cost of the war and later the war indemnity all fell on the shoulders of the farmers. The Manchu government could no longer protect, and govern its people. As China's economy collapsed, poverty was wide spread, insurrection sprang up all over the country. The Manchu government showed its weaknesses when it signed the Treaty of Nanjing without exhausting all possibilities of resistance. The Opium War helped to discredit the Manchu government and encouraged popular movements. Seeing the social chaos and the weakening of the Manchu dynasty, Chinese intellectuals sought to make China strong. Unlike the government, the intellectuals believed that simply adapting Western technologies and industries was not enough, rather China must undergo political changes. They, like the officials, believed that the government should allow and protect the growth of capitalism and that the army must be modernized to fight Westerners on the battlefields. But most importantly, private enterprises should be formed without government interventions and companies must be created to compete in the market place. The intellectuals also proposed a parliamentary system. This proposal was the first attempt of private citizens to get involved in the government. Essential Question: Was the Opium War an event that opened China's doors to the outside world. Response: Before 1842, China was closed and self isolated. The Chinese believed that their country was the "Heavenly Middle Kingdom", their emperor was the "Son of Heaven". The Opium War, in effect, shattered China's false sense of superiority. It physically forced open China, and in doing so, exposed the inadequacies of Chinese social and political structures. The Treaties signed after the war opened Chinese ports, and along with it, Chinese markets to Western capitalism. This almost entirely collapsed China's economy. However, it also forced China's economy to quickly adapt and evolve. The war speeded up China's development of capitalism. The Opium War greatly weakened the Manchu rule, and this, coupled with a collapsed economy, resulted in swelling poverty over the country. This gave rise to social chaos and 25