CHAPTER-V LITERATURE OF NON-VIOLENCE. philosophy of abstention from violence because of moral or religious principle and second, it

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1 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 184 CHAPTER-V LITERATURE OF NON-VIOLENCE Gandhi was fully committed to the belief that while nonviolence had an impressive power to protest and disrupt, its real power was to create and reconstruct. (Nagler 1997: 4) 5.1. Non-Violence: Definition, Forms and History Non-violence has two (closely related) meanings. First, it can refer to a general philosophy of abstention from violence because of moral or religious principle and second, it can refer to the behaviour of people using nonviolent action. Non-violence according to Oxford Dictionary is the use of peaceful means, not force, to bring about political or social change. And non-violent resistance (or nonviolent action) is the practice of achieving goals through symbolic protests, civil disobedience, economic or political noncooperation, and other methods, without using violence. It is largely synonymous with civil resistance. The basic principles of non-violence encompass an abstention from using physical force to achieve an aim, but also a full engagement in resisting oppression, domination and any other forms of injustice. It can thus be applied to oppose both direct (physical) violence and structural violence. (a) Opposition to direct violence Gandhi, whose ideas and actions have most crucially influenced the development of non-violence in the twentieth century, described his moral philosophy through the religious precept of ahimsa, which means in Sanskrit the complete renunciation of violence in thought and action. Non-violence is indeed usually defined in opposition to physical violence, which could be described as the use of physical force against another s body, against that person s will, and that is expected to inflict physical injury or death upon that person (Bond 1994: 62). This definition does not imply, however, that all actions without violence have to be nonviolent. Non-violence might be described as a direct substitute for violent behaviour: it implies deliberate restraint from expected violence, in a context of contention between two or more adversaries.

2 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest Forms of Non-violence The forms of non-violence draw inspiration from both religious or ethical beliefs and political analysis. Religious or ethically based non-violence is sometimes referred to as principled, philosophical, or ethical non-violence, while non-violence based on political analysis is often referred to as tactical, strategic, or pragmatic non-violence. Commonly, both of these dimensions may be present within the thinking of particular movements or individuals. Love of the enemy, or the realization of the humanity of all people, is a fundamental concept of philosophical non-violence. The goal of this type of non-violence is not to defeat the enemy, but to win them over and create love and understanding between all. According to Mark Kurlansky, all religions discuss the power of non-violence and the evil of violence. Such principles or tenets can be found in each of the major Indian religious traditions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism) as well as in the major Abrahamic religious traditions ( Judaism, Christianity). The Chandogya Upanishad, which is part of the Upanishads, one of the principal scriptures of Hinduism that dates to the 8 th or 7 th century bars violence against all creatures ( sarva-bhuta) and establishes non-violence as a code of conduct for Hindus. Examples of non-violence found in religion and spirituality include the Sermon on the Mount in which Jesus urges his followers to love thine enemy, in the Taoist concept of wu-wei, or effortless action, in the philosophy of the martial art Aikido, in the Buddhist principle of metta, or loving-kindness towards all beings, in the principle of ahimsa, or non-violence toward any being, shared by Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. Additionally, focus on both non-violence and forgiveness of sin can be found in the story of Abel in the Quran; liberal movements within Islam have consequently used this story to promote Jewish ideals of non-violence. Non-violence is also part of modern pagan traditions. American author

3 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 186 Henry David Thoreau ( ) had a major impact on the philosophy of non-violence. Leo Tolstoy, Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. were influenced by Thoreau. The fundamental concept of pragmatic (or tactical or strategic) non-violence is to create a social dynamic or political movement that can effect social change without necessarily winning over those who wish to maintain the status quo. In modern industrial democracies, nonviolence has been used extensively by political sectors without mainstream political power such as labour, peace, environment and women's movements. Lesser known is the role that nonviolence has played and continues to play in undermining the power of repressive political regimes in the developing world and the former eastern bloc. As a technique for social struggle, non-violence has been described as the politics of ordinary people, reflecting its historically mass-based use by populations throughout the world and history. Perhaps the first instance of a nonviolent campaign with major political impact was the March 1 Movement in Korea, which was a catalyst for the establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai in April 1919 and influenced nonviolent resistance in India and many other countries. Struggles most often associated with nonviolence are the non-cooperation campaign for Indian independence led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the movement to attain civil rights for African Americans, led by Rev. Dr Martin Luther King and James Bevel, and the People Power Revolution in the Philippines. Also of primary significance is the notion that just means are the most likely to lead to just ends. When Gandhi said that the means may be likened to the seed, the end to a tree, he expressed the philosophical kernel of what some refer to as pre-figurative politics. Martin Luther King, a student of Gandhian non-violent resistance, concurred with this tenet, concluding that non-violence demands that the means we use must be as pure as the ends we seek. Proponents of nonviolence reason that the actions taken in the present inevitably re-

4 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 187 shape the social order in like form. They would argue, for instance, that it is fundamentally irrational to use violence to achieve a peaceful society. People have come to use nonviolent methods of struggle from a wide range of perspectives and traditions. A landless peasant in Brazil may non-violently occupy a parcel of land for purely practical motivations. If they do not, the family will starve. A Buddhist monk in Thailand may ordain trees in a threatened forest, drawing on the teachings of Buddha to resist its destruction. A waterside worker in England may go on strike in socialist and union political traditions. All the above are using nonviolent methods but from different standpoints. Likewise, secular political movements have utilized non-violence, either as a tactical tool or as a strategic program on purely pragmatic and strategic levels, relying on its political effectiveness rather than a claim to any religious, moral or ethical worthiness. Respect or love for opponents also has a pragmatic justification, in that the technique of separating the deeds from the doers allows for the possibility of the doers changing their behaviour, and perhaps their beliefs. Martin Luther King said, Non-violence means avoiding not only external physical violence, but also internal violence of spirit. You not only refuse to shoot a man, but you refuse to hate him. Finally, the notion of Satya, or truth, is central to the Gandhian conception of nonviolence. Gandhi saw truth as something that is multifaceted and unable to be grasped in its entirety by any one individual. All carry pieces of the truth, he believed, but all need the pieces of others truths in order to pursue the greater truth. This led him to believe in the inherent worth of dialogue with opponents, in order to understand motivations. On a practical level, the willingness to listen to another s point of view is largely dependent on reciprocity. In order to be heard by one s opponents, one must also be prepared to listen.

5 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest History of Non-violence The modern form of non-violent resistance was popularised and proven to be effective by the Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi in his efforts to gain independence from the British. The other non-violent resistance advocates include Leo Tolstoy, Mohandas Gandhi, Andrei Sakharov, Martin Luther King, Jr, Vaclav Havel, Gene Sharp, and Lech Walesa. The history of the 20th century is full of examples which demonstrate that violent resistance against unjust power systems, dictators or external occupation is likely to generate further violence (as seen, for example, in the Russian and Chinese revolutions or decolonisation wars in Africa and Asia). But it has also been characterized by many powerful non-violent struggles. Some of these are widely known (e.g. Gandhi s struggles in India and South Africa, Nelson Mandela s apartheid struggle in South Africa, Martin Luther King Jr. s civil rights campaign in the US), while many others are still largely ignored by the wider public and research community. Although the power of non-violent resistance does seem weak and inefficient in the face of acute power asymmetries, it has proven to be a very strategic tool in the hand of marginalised communities to redress structural imbalance and claim rights to justice or self-determination. A question which has not been analysed extensively so far, which this article seeks to address, is in which context and under which conditions nonviolent resistance can contribute to successful and sustainable conflict transformation processes. Nonviolent resistance and conflict transformation strategies share a common commitment to social change and increased justice through peaceful means (Lederach 995: 15). In fact, the discipline of conflict management/resolution originally arose from peace movements and social justice activism. However, one can argue that there has been since then a sharp divorce between the revolutionary and resolutionary camps, which seem to have grown in mutual ignorance-developing their own and distinct sets of activists and practitioners, theories and

6 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 189 scholars, interpretative frames and ranges of techniques, research centres and education programmes, organisations and forums, constituencies and institutional allies. This research aims to project that non-violence should instead be seen as an integral part of conflict transformation, offering one possible approach to achieving peace and justice, alongside other methods of conflict intervention focusing on dialogue, problem-solving and the restoration of cooperative relationships (e.g. mediation, negotiation, restorative justice, etc.). It is especially relevant for the early transitional stage of latent asymmetric conflicts, as a strategy for empowering grievance groups (oppressed minorities or disempowered majorities) looking for constructive and efficient ways to attain justice, human rights and democracy without recourse to violence. Non-violence is the greatest force at the disposal of mankind. It is mightier than the mightiest weapon of destruction devised by the ingenuity of man. The first condition of non-violence is justice. Non-violence to be a potent force must begin with the mind. Nonviolence of the mere body without the cooperation of the mind is non-violence of the weak or the cowardly and has therefore no potency. Non-violence does not mean inaction or apathy. Sometimes, the consequence of one s inaction may be as terrible as that of one s action. Nonviolence means engaging in an outgoing struggle or movement for justice, freedom and peace mindfully and compassionately. At present, non-violence is not merely ethically and morally pertinent and essential: it is the very prerequisite for human survival and environmental sustainability. Put another way, non-violence is closely related to the democratic participation of ordinary citizens in matters that affect their lives, the more an issue impacts a group of people, the more influence that group must have in influencing it. Non-violence is a crucial way to help restore meaning and substance to what we call democracy today, to constructively answer the reverberating wails or cries of suffering in the world. Before we

7 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 190 engage in non-violent direct action we first need to understand that violence is often the culmination of greed, hatred and delusion. Equally important, simultaneously with the cultivation of seeds of peace within, we need to envisage and struggle for alternative futures, relying on non-violence Methods of Non-violence There are practically three facets of applying nonviolence: (a) Acts of Protest and Persuasion, (b) Noncooperation, and (c) Non-violent Intervention. Acts of protest: Non-violent acts of protest and persuasion are symbolic actions performed by a group of people to show their support or disapproval of something. The goal of this kind of action is to bring public awareness to an issue, persuade or influence a particular group of people, or to facilitate future non-violent action. The message can be directed toward the public, opponents, or people affected by the issue. Methods of protest and persuasion include speeches, public communications, petitions, symbolic acts, art, processions (marches), and other public assemblies. Non-cooperation: Non-cooperation involves the purposeful withholding of cooperation or the unwillingness to initiate in cooperation with an opponent. The goal of non- -cooperation is to halt or hinder an industry, political system, or economic process. Methods of non-cooperation include labour strikes, economic boycotts, civil disobedience, sex strike, tax refusal, and general disobedience and fasts. Non-violent intervention: Compared with protest and non-cooperation, non-violent intervention is a more direct method of non-violent action. Non-violent intervention can be used defensively, for example to maintain an institution or independent initiative - or

8 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 191 offensively- for example, to drastically forward a nonviolent struggle into the opponent's territory. Intervention is often more immediate and effective than the other two methods, but is also harder to maintain and more taxing to the participants involved. Tactics must be carefully chosen, taking into account political, social, religious and cultural circumstances, and form part of a larger plan or strategy. Successful non-violent cross-border intervention projects include the Guatemala Accompaniment Project, Peace Brigades International and Christian Peacemaker Teams. Developed in the early 1980s, and originally inspired by the Gandhian Shanti Sena, the primary tools of these organizations have been nonviolent protective accompaniment, backed up by a global support network which can respond to threats, local and regional grassroots diplomatic and peace-building efforts, human rights observation and witnessing, and reporting. Non-violence has obtained a level of institutional recognition and endorsement at the global level. On November 10, 1998, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the first decade of the 21 st century and the third millennium, the years 2001 to 2010, as the International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World. In the light of these findings the life and works of Mahatma Gandhi will be examined with special focus on his My Non-violence (1960), to heighten the understanding, influence, impact and the relevance of nonviolence in literature Civil Disobedience Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a government, or of an occupying international power. Civil disobedience is commonly, though not always, defined as being non-violent resistance. It is one form of civil resistance. In one view (in India, known as ahimsa or satyagraha) it could be said that it is

9 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 192 compassion in the form of respectful disagreement. One of its earliest massive implementations was brought about by Egyptians against the British occupation in 1919 Revolution. Civil disobedience is one of the many ways people have rebelled against what they deem to be unfair laws. It has been used in many nonviolent resistance movements in India (Gandhi s campaigns for independence from the British Empire), in Czechoslovakia s Velvet Revolution and in East Germany to oust their communist governments, in South Africa in the fight against apartheid, in the American Civil Rights Movement, in the Singing Revolution to bring independence to the Baltic countries from the Soviet Union, recently with the 2003 Rose Revolution in Georgia and the 2004 Orange Revolution in Ukraine, among other various movements worldwide. One of the oldest depictions of civil disobedience is in Sophocles play Antigone, in which Antigone, one of the daughters of former King of Thebes, Oedipus, defies Creon, the current King of Thebes, who is trying to stop her from giving her brother Polynices a proper burial. She gives a stirring speech in which she tells him that she must obey her conscience rather than human law. She is not at all afraid of the death he threatens her with (and eventually carries out), but she is afraid of how her conscience will smite her if she does not do this. Following the Peterloo massacre of 1819, poet Percy Shelley wrote the political poem The Mask of Anarchy later that year, that begins with the images of what he thought to be the unjust forms of authority of his time and then imagines the stirrings of a new form of social action. It is perhaps the first modern statement of the principle of non-violent protest. A version was taken up by the author Henry David Thoreau in his essay Civil Disobedience, and later by Gandhi in his doctrine of Satyagraha. Gandhi s Satyagraha was partially influenced and inspired by Shelley s non-violence in protest and political action. In particular, it is

10 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 193 known that Gandhi would often quote Shelley s Masque of Anarchy to vast audiences during the campaign for a free India. Thoreau s 1848 essay Civil Disobedience, originally titled Resistance to Civil Government, has had a wide influence on many later practitioners of civil disobedience. The driving idea behind the essay is that citizens are morally responsible for their support of aggressors, even when such support is required by law. In the essay, Thoreau explained his reasons for having refused to pay taxes as an act of protest against slavery and against the Mexican-American War. He writes, If I devote myself to other pursuits and contemplations, I must first see, at least, that I do not pursue them sitting upon another man s shoulders. I must get off him first, that he may pursue his contemplations too. See what gross inconsistency is tolerated. I have heard some of my townsmen say, I should like to have them order me out to help put down an insurrection of the slaves, or to march to Mexico; see if I would go ; and yet these very men have each, directly by their allegiance, and so indirectly, at least, by their money, furnished a substitute. Civil Disobedience by Henry David Thoreau One night in July, 1846, while Henry David Thoreau was living a quiet life on the shores of Walden Pond, near Concord, Massachusetts, he was jailed for failing to pay his taxes. He was released the next day because someone, probably his aunt, paid the tax. He gave a public lecture in 1848 at the Concord Lyceum to explain to his community his reasons for refusing to pay the tax. The text of that lecture was first published in 1849, under the title Resistance to Civil Government. The essay, now known as Civil Disobedience, was written to argue the moral necessity of resisting the institution of slavery, which the United States war against Mexico sought to extend. Civil Disobedience has become one of the ethical cornerstones of

11 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 194 nonviolent resistance movements. It is known to have been an inspiration to Mohandas Gandhi, who led the passive resistance movement for the liberation of India from British colonial rule. Thoreau s ideas also influenced Martin Luther King, Jr. s Civil Rights movement and the American struggle to end the Vietnam War. Thoreau did not find his identity in association with other people who shared his background. Rather, he believed his truest identity would be found in differentiating himself from the common herd of humanity, which he saw as mediocre, morally lazy, and cowardly. He was an individualist; he held that each person s responsibility is to follow the highest leadings of personal conscience. Ultimate moral authority emanates from individual judgment, and getting out of its way is one of the most important things a just government can do. Civil law and the power of the democratic majority are secondary to the higher moral law as it is discerned by the individual. In cases in which civil government conflicts with personal conscience, Thoreau advocates withdrawing all support from that government immediately, without waiting to change the law or public opinion. Withdrawal of support such as the refusal to pay taxes or to serve in the military is likely to be met with punishment, and Thoreau advocates accepting the penalty imposed. Even if that penalty involves imprisonment, he claims that bodily confinement is trivial when compared to the spiritual liberty of thought and conscience that comes from following the higher law. Persons who obey a law or fight a war that they think is wrong become less than fully human they lose their identities, they become machines. Thoreau s 1849 essay Resistance to Civil Government was eventually renamed Essay on Civil Disobedience. After his landmark lectures were published in 1866, the term began to appear in numerous sermons and lectures relating to slavery and the war in Mexico. Thus, by the time Thoreau s lectures were first published under the title Civil Disobedience, in 1866, four years after his death, the term had achieved fairly widespread usage.

12 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 195 LeGrande writes that the formulation of a single all-encompassing definition of the term is extremely difficult, if not impossible. In reviewing the voluminous literature on the subject, the student of civil disobedience rapidly finds himself surrounded by a maze of semantical problems and grammatical niceties. Like Alice in Wonderland, he often finds that specific terminology has no more (or no less) meaning than the indivi dual orator intends it to have. He encourages a distinction between lawful protest demonstration, nonviolent civil disobedience, and violent civil disobedience. In seeking an active form of civil disobedience, one may choose to deliberately break certain laws, such as by forming a peaceful blockade or occupying a facility illegally, though sometimes violence has been known to occur. Protesters practice this non-violent form of civil disorder with the expectation that they will be arrested. Others also expect to be attacked or even beaten by the authorities. Protesters often undergo training in advance on how to react to arrest or to attack, so that they will do so in a manner that quietly or limply resists without threatening the authorities. Mahatma Gandhi outlined several rules for civil resisters (or satyagrahi) in the time when he was leading India in the struggle for Independence from the British Empire. For instance, they were to express no anger, never retaliate, submit to the opponent's orders and assaults, submit to arrest by the authorities, surrender personal property when confiscated by the authorities but refuse to surrender property held in trust, refrain from swearing and insults (which are contrary to ahimsa), refrain from saluting the Union flag, and protect officials from insults and assaults even at the risk of the resister s own life. Civil disobedience is usually defined as pertaining to a citizen s relation to the state and its laws, as distinguished from a constitutional impasse in which two public agencies, especially two equally sovereign branches of government, conflict. For instance, if the head of government of a country were to refuse to enforce a decision of that country s highest court, it

13 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 196 would not be civil disobedience, since the head of government would be acting in her or his capacity as public official rather than private citizen. There have been debates as to whether civil disobedience need be non-violent. Black s Law Dictionary includes nonviolence in its definition of civil disobedience. Christian Bay s encyclopedia article states that civil disobedience requires carefully chosen and legitimate means, but holds that they do not have to be nonviolent. It has been argued that, while both civil disobedience and civil rebellion are justified by appeal to constitutional defects, rebellion is much more destructive; therefore, the defects justifying rebellion must be much more serious than those justifying disobedience, and if one cannot justify civil rebellion, then one cannot justify a civil disobedients use of force and violence and refusal to submit to arrest. Civil disobedients refraining from violence is also said to help preserve society s tolerance of civil disobedience Civil Disobedience in India Under the leadership of Gandhiji, the Civil Disobedience Movement was launched in AD It began with the Dandi March. On 12 March 1930, Gandiji with some of his followers left the Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad and made their way towards Dandi, a village on the west coast of India. After travelling for twenty-five days and covering a distance of three hundred and eighty-five kms, the group reached Dandi on 6 April Here, Gandhiji protested against the Salt Law (salt was a monopoly of the government and no one was allowed to make salt) by making slat himself and throwing up a challenge to the British government. The Dandi March signified the start of the Civil Disobedience Movement. The movement spread and salt laws were challenged in other parts of the country. Salt became the symbol of people s defiance of the government. In Tamil Nadu, C

14 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 197 Rajagopalchari led a similar march from Trichinopoly to Vedaranyam. In Gujarat, Sarojini Naidu pretested in front of the slat depots. Lakhs of people including a large number of women participated actively in these protests. The Civil Disobedience Movement carried forward the unfinished work of the Non- Cooperation Movement. Practically the whole country became involved in it. Hartals put life at a standstill. There were large-scale boycotts of schools, colleges and offices. Foreign goods were burnt in bonfires. People stopped paying taxes. In the North-West Frontier Province, the movement was led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, popularly known as Frontier Gandhi. For a few days, British control over Peshawar and Sholapur ended. People faced the batons and bullets of the police with supreme courage. No one retaliated or said anything to the police. As reports and photographs of this extraordinary protest began to appear in newspapers across the world, there was a growing tide of support for India s freedom struggle Life and Works of Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( ) was born on October 2, 1869 in Porbandar, India. He became one of the most respected spiritual and political leaders of the 1900 s. Gandhiji helped free the Indian people from British rule through nonviolent resistance, and is honoured by Indians as the Father of the Indian Nation. The Indian people called Gandhiji Mahatma, meaning Great Soul. At the age of 13 Gandhi married Kasturba, a girl of the same age. Their parents arranged the marriage. They had four children. Gandhi studied law in London and returned to India in 1891 to practice. In 1893 he took on a oneyear contract to do legal work in South Africa. At the time the British controlled South Africa. When he attempted to claim his rights as a British subject he was abused, and soon saw that all Indians suffered similar treatment. He stayed in South Africa for 21 years working to

15 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 198 secure rights for Indian people. He developed a method of action based upon the principles of courage, non-violence and truth called Satyagraha. He believed that the way people behave is more important than what they achieve. Satyagraha promoted non-violence and civil disobedience as the most appropriate methods for obtaining political and social goals. In 1915 Gandhi returned to India. Within 15 years he became the leader of the Indian nationalist movement. Using the principles of Satyagraha he led the campaign for Indian independence from Britain. Following his civil disobedience campaign ( ), he was jailed for conspiracy (1922-4). In 1930, he led a landmark 320 km march to the sea to collect salt in symbolic defiance of the government monopoly. Gandhi was arrested many times by the British for his activities in South Africa and India. He believed it was honourable to go to jail for a just cause. On his release from prison (1931), he attended the London Round Table Conference on Indian constitutional reform. In 1946, he negotiated with the Cabinet Mission which recommended the new constitutional structure. Altogether he spent seven years in prison for his political activities. More than once Gandhi used fasting to impress upon others the need to be non-violent. India was granted independence in 1947, and partitioned into India and Pakistan. Rioting between Hindus and Muslims followed. Gandhi had been an advocate for a united India where Hindus and Muslims lived together in peace. After independence (1947), he tried to stop the Hindu-Muslim conflict in Bengal, a policy which led to his assassination. On January 13, 1948, at the age of 78, he began a fast with the purpose of stopping the bloodshed. After 5 days the opposing leaders pledged to stop the fighting and Gandhi broke his fast. Twelve days later a Hindu fanatic, Nathuram Godse who opposed his program of tolerance for all creeds and religion assassinated him. During his life he published many books which served as guiding force and principles for many people. Scores of other books were posthumously edited and published. The following are some of the acclaimed publications: Wheel of Fortune (1922), To the Hindus and Muslims (1942), The Sound of

16 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 199 Swaraj (1943), Thoughts on National Language (1956), Towards Lasting Peace (1956), What Jesus Means to Me (1959), My Non-violence (1960), My Experiments With Truth: An Autobiography (1925). It will be a mammoth task to jot the entire publications by and on Gandhi. Some of his very best thoughts on nonviolence and peace are collected in his autobiography and My Non-violence (1960) Non-violence as Reflected in Gandhi s My Non-violence In his book My Non-Violence, Gandhi assembled his principles of life. It is worth studying the book which will give us deeper insight to the present discourse. Here, he talks of non-violence as a way of life. In the opening page he strongly advocates his stand for nonviolence as I believe that non-violence is infinitely superior to violence, forgiveness is more manly than punishment ( MNV, 3). We understand therefore that to generate love, we need strength and humility of the most high. The solution to almost every conflict lies in forgiveness which requires a mighty wave of strength in us. During his struggle for India s independence when three hundred million Indians were ruled by one hundred thousand Englishmen, Gandhi said that non-violence is the law of our species as violence is the law of the brute ( MNV 4). His dream was to attain independence through peaceful approach. One finds in him the embodiment of strength and character of the highest virtue. His words are repelled with wisdom which came from a distilled mind free of pollution. His words and deeds justified him. He lived in his words. In his long struggle for freedom he came across many hurdles, at times when he was forced to switch his dogma he said, If I take up the doctrine of the sword, she may gain momentary victory. Then India will cease to be the pride of my heart... I believe absolutely that she has a mission for the world (MNV 5). We cannot judge a whole country by judging the actions of a represented few. Gandhi on commenting about neighbours said, The Afgans have no quarrel with India. They are a God-fearing

17 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 200 people. I warn non-co-operators against judging the Afgans by the few savage specimens we see in Bombay or Calcutta (MNV 8). It was a time of upheaval when he made this statement. It shows the peaceful approach of Gandhi to nullify violence. His mission in life to bring peaceful solutions and create harmony is justified even in his simple speeches. He did not believe in quick ends as he said, I do not believe in short-violent-cuts to success (MNV 14). From his experience he said that permanent good can never be the outcome of untruth and violence. As we read further we find that Gandhi maintained a very cordial relationship with the Americans and the Europeans. He was very slow to react. He did not instigate people but rather he penned his thoughts and hoped that it will work in moving the entire nation. He believed in thought-power rather than in the power of the word. He said, I believe in thought-power more than in the power of the word, whether spoken or written. And if the movement that I seek to represent has vitality in it and has divine blessing upon it, it will permeate the whole world without my physical presence in its different parts ( MNV 18). Ira Saxena who is a child psychologist, critic and writer of children s books specializing in realistic stories, novels and nonfiction about the nonviolent struggle for India s independence said, The saga of Indian freedom is full of heroism, recounting the story of the mobilization of the inner strength and will of the masses driven by truth and ahimsa (non-violence) toward a common goal of freedom. This backdrop remains as the lives of the individuals who emerged as great martyrs, endowing writers like me with inspiring material for fiction, such as Kamala s Story: The Saga of Our Freedom, or the stories of unsung heroes from different walks of life as in Together We Marched (2009: 21). The acclaims of writers and thinkers prove the validity of Gandhi s thoughts. The movement launched by him was alien to the world, many questioned the credibility of his works. When he started the non-co-operation movement and began to boycott foreign goods, he showed the people an alternative to produce local clothing. He began to spin cotton from raw products with his own hands.

18 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 201 Instead of going about destroying goods he resorted to peaceful way of agitation. It paved the way for small scale cottage industry. When the Americans asked him about the productivity of the spinning wheel, Gandhi replied, The message of the spinning wheel is much wider than its circumference. Its message is one of simplicity, service of mankind, living so as not to hurt others, creating an indissoluble bond between the rich and the poor, capital and labour, the prince and the peasant (MNV 20). He believed that if an individual is free from violence, he will sacrifice himself for his family, the family for the village, the village for the nation and the nation for the whole world. His purpose of a free India was to see India free and strong so that she may offer herself as a willing and pure sacrifice for the betterment of the world (MNV 21). Many of his contemporaries perceived nonviolence as an act of cowardice. But to Gandhi, Non-violence is not a cover for cowardice, but it is the supreme virtue of the brave. Exercise of non-violence requires far greater bravery than that of swordsmanship. Cowardice is wholly inconsistent with nonviolence. (MNV 34) Gandhi very aptly brings the metaphor of a dog. He says that a dog bites when he fears. So, in the same manner he means to say that man resort to violence when they fear. And fear is a sign of insecurity. To him the advancement of the West was not awe-inspiring but rather he opines that the superficial glamour of the West dazzles us, and we mistake for progress the giddy dance which engages us from day to day. We refuse to see that it is surely leading us to death (MNV 43). Gandhi was a visionary. His thoughts were beyond his era. He held to the understanding that moral strength holds and governs the universe and not material development alone. Albert Einstein made a call to the people not to take part in war. But Gandhi s opinion on war was that not participating in the activities of war alone is not enough to stop the evils of war. It should go beyond non-participation; it should take up non-

19 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 202 cooperation with the state of such affairs. On one occasion, when Dr. Tobias, a black American asked Gandhi: Your doctrine of non-violence has profoundly influenced my life, do you believe in it as strongly as ever? Gandhi replied my faith in it is growing (MNV 58). When Dr. Tobias said, Negroes in U.S.A. 12 millions are struggling to obtain such fundamental rights as freedom from mob-violence, unrestricted use of the ballot, freedom from segregation, etc. Have you, out of your struggle in India, a word of advice and encouragement to give us? Gandhi said, All I can say is that there is no other way than the way of non-violence a way, however not of the weak and ignorant but of the strong and wise ( MNV 59). A though may arise as Prof. Mays queried Can non-violence be taught (MNV 60). There are many doubts as how to bring out non-violence through literature. It seems an impossible task but when one delves deep into the core of non-violence philosophy, it is tangible. It is in other words innovative literature for world peace. According to Gandhi non-violence can be taught by outward symbols. Outward actions of love, kind words, and deeds are key elements to teach people lessons on non-violence. So, it is the life of a person itself that will propagate this noble message. On being asked to comment on the issue between China and Japan, where Chinese were on the majority, Gandhi in support of his argument referred to P.B.Shelley s The Mask of Anarchy, Ye are many, they are few : Stand ye calm and resolute Like a forest close and mute, With folded arms and looks which are Weapons of unvanquished war. And if then the tyrants dare, Let them ride among them there, Slash, and stab, and maim and hew, What they like, that let them do. Then they will return with shame To the place from which they came,

20 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 203 And the blood thus shed will speak In hot blushes on their cheek. (MNV 79) Gandhi was a visionary. He used appropriate quotes and references to project his philosophy. He implemented literature as a powerful weapon to drive his truth-force. Many people asked questions to Gandhi basing on their religious beliefs. One such person was Rev. Tema from South Africa who asked, Do you think Christianity can bring salvation to Africa? to this Gandhi replied: Christianity, as it is known and practised today, cannot bring salvation to your people. It is my conviction that those who today call themselves Christians do not know the true message of Jesus. I witnessed some of the horrors that were perpetuated on the Zulus during the Zulu Rebellion. Because one man, Bambatta, their chief, had refused to pay his tax and the whole race was made to suffer. I was in charge of an ambulance corps. I shall never forget the lacerated backs of Zulus who had received stripes and were brought to us for nursing because no white nurse was prepared to look after them. And yet those who perpetrated all those cruelties called themselves Christians. They were educated, better dressed than the Zulus, but not their moral superiors. (MNV 96) To Gandhi every religion must follow its creed. And every follower must show by his deed, his belief, in truth professing love. Gandhi even wrote a peace letter to Adolf Hitler of Germany, who was considered as the most tyrannical dictator. During the festive week of the Christians, on the Christmas of 1945, he wrote a letter to Hitler, the following are some lines from Gandhi s letter: I hope you will have the time and desire to know how a good portion of humanity who have been living under the influence of that doctrine of universal friendship view your actions. We have no doubt about

21 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 204 your bravery or devotion to your fatherland, nor do we believe that you are the monster described by your opponents. But your own writings and pronouncements and those of your friends and admirers leave no room for doubt that many of your acts are monstrous and unbecoming of human dignity, especially in the estimation of men like me who believe in universal friendliness. During this season when the hearts of the peoples of Europe yearn for peace, we have suspended even our peaceful struggle. Is it too much to ask you to make an effort for peace during a time which may mean nothing to you personally, but must mean much to the millions of Europeans, whose dumb cry for peace I hear, for my ears are attuned to hearing the dumb millions? (MNV 161) From the above citations and discussions we learn that using proper words, taking right steps and proper instructions come from non-violence. Here we find respect for the other before correction. Humility and unconditional love are some of the main seeds to grow non-violence. Even after his death, Gandhi s commitment to non-violence and his belief in simple living, making his own clothes, eating a vegetarian diet, and using fasts for self-purification as well as a means of protest has been a beacon of hope for oppressed and marginalized people throughout the world. Truth and Peace were Gandhi s principles. To be at peace with oneself and with others Gandhiji said Literally speaking, Ahimsa means non-killing... To one who follows this doctrine there is no room for an enemy (1984: 138). Martin Luther King Jr. spoke in the same spirit when he said about his white opponents: Send your hooded perpetrators of violence into our communities at the midnight hour and... leave us half-dead as you beat us, and we will still love you (1958:256-57). It is worth studying the principles, influence and impact of Non-Violence. Its application in personal life and literary works is worth analyzing. Everyone needs a hero because heroes are people who make the news and are larger than life. They are the men and women of action, who think great thoughts, have

22 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 205 nerves of steel or who make personal sacrifices- who prompt generations upon generations to speak of them in that very special way. Mahatma Gandhi was neither the father of Indian nationalism nor particularly politically influential in the early days of the independence movement. On the contrary, he was well educated and a lawyer, he was very English in his Indian ways. And he used his in England, a country that he considered to be the centre of modern civilization at the time, to study more than the law. More as he experimented with English ways, he also became a citizen of the world. He was also motivated and inspired by the life and work of Henry David Thoreau, the great American writer and philosopher. Here is an excerpt of Webb Miller s interview with Gandhi: when Miller saw Gandhi sitting on the floor spinning cotton, he detected similarities in Gandhi s ideas and Thoreau s philosophy. The first question he asked Gandhi was: Did you ever read an American named Henry D. Thoreau? His eyes brightened and he chuckled. Why of course I read Thoreau. I read Walden first in Johannesburg in South Africa in 1906 and his ideas influenced me greatly. I adopted some of them and recommended the study of Thoreau to all my friends who were helping me in the cause of Indian independence. Why I actually took the name of my movement from Thoreau s essay, On the Duty of Civil Disobedience (1849), written about eighty years ago. Until I read that essay I never found a suitable English translation for my Indian word, Satyagraha. You remember that Thoreau invented and practiced the idea of civil disobedience in Concord, Massachusetts, by refusing to pay his poll tax as a protest against the United States government. He went to jail too. There is no doubt that Thoreau s ideas greatly influenced my movement in India. (2006:4) Literature inspires, moulds and encourages people for great changes both positive and negative. In the case of Thoreau, the gentle visionary of Walden Pond in Walden inspired a giant figure like Gandhi who turned the course of Indian history. Thoreau repeatedly mentions in his Walden the Vedas and other Hindu literature and says: I who loved so well

23 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 206 the philosophy of India (2006:5). We find a philosophical web in this statement. In Africa Gandhiji tried to practice law amid the extremes of apartheid and white supremacy. Once he returned to India, he became an advocate of non-violence and non-cooperation, and almost immediately had the opportunity to implement those ideals when he began to play centre stage in the political and economic life of India and the Raj. In his autobiography, The Story of My Experiences with Truth, he clearly states his position on non-violence: There are many causes I am prepared to die for but no causes I am prepared to kill for (2008: 456). He says; Satyagraha is essentially a weapon of the truthful. A Satyagrahi is pledged to non-violence and, unless peoples observe it in thought, word and deed, I cannot offer mass Satyagraha. (ibid, 456) Gandhiji s reputation spread throughout India, especially after the famous Amritsar massacre of civilians by British troops his response was to call for non-violence in the face of violence and non-cooperation. Here, lies the truth of the matter that violence need not always be curbed by violent ways. Although his fights against racism, colonialism and violence established his reputation internationally, the underlying reason for his actions was often overlooked. Being a very religious man, he attributed his successes to the will of God. He was inspired by a desire to grow closer to god through the purity of his deeds that is, his simple living, vegetarian diet, celibacy, and ahimsa. His legacy is one of peace, cooperation, charity and piety. He is the model of human integrity amidst the chaos, violence and materialism of modern society. His life and works have influenced many. Amongst many, Martin Luther King Jr. and Nelson Mandela are worth mentioning. Their works and life reflect how non-violent way of approaching issues, bring about lasting, progressive and positive results. They brought great change through their peaceful approach. They both were influenced by the life of Gandhiji. At first reading, Mahatma Gandhi s writings on nonviolence, peace, and education seem uncomfortably naive and simplistic. Those familiar with philosophical literature may be stunned by his seemingly oversimplified, uncritical, and

24 Literature of Revolution, Violence and Protest 207 inadequate treatments of difficult, complex, metaphysical, ethical, cultural, and other philosophical concerns relevant to Gandhi s views on issues of life. A difficulty in interpreting and applying Gandhi s writings to peace literature arises from complex relations between texts, contexts, and interpretations. Much of this challenge comes from the sheer volume of writings by and about Gandhi. Although he never wrote a lengthy book, the Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi comes to one hundred volumes of very diverse and highly fragmented newspaper articles, correspondence, speeches, and other writings. One cannot understand Gandhi s various concerns, specific use of language, and diverse formulations without understanding the specific economic, political, cultural, and ethical contexts within which he lived, read texts, and struggled with opponents and alternative approaches. Gandhi found that life persists in the midst of destruction and, therefore, there must be a higher law than that of destruction. Only under that law would a well-ordered society be intelligible and life worth living. And if that is the law of life, we have to work it out in daily life. He believed in the philosophy of confronting and conquering an opponent with love. He tried to work it out in his life. Thought it did not solve all the difficulties, he found, however, that this law of love has answered as the law of destruction has never done. India had witnessed the ocular demonstration of the operation of this law on the widest scale possible. One cannot say accurately how far nonviolence has necessarily penetrated the three hundred millions, but Gandhi claims that it has penetrated deeper than any other message, and in an incredibly short time. Indians have not been all uniformly non-violent; and with the vast majority, non-violence has been a matter of policy. Even so, one finds that the country has made phenomenal progress under the protecting power of non-violence. According to Gandhi, it takes a fairly strenuous course of training to attain to a mental state of non-violence. In daily life it has to be a course of discipline, though one may

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