Business opportunities and Indigenous peoples rights

Transcription

1 AALBORG UNIVERSITY Arctic Development: Business opportunities and Indigenous peoples rights Birgitte Bjerge Poulsen Spring, 2016

2 Content ABSTRACT... PREFACE INTRODUCTION PROBLEM FORMULATION SYNOPSIS METHODOLOGY METHODOLOGY LIMITATIONS DATA THEORY MARXIST THEORY OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES FINLAND S ARCTIC STRATEGY THE HISTORY, CULTURE AND CURRENT SITUATION OF SÁMI IN FINLAND HISTORY AND CULTURE OF SÁMI THE CURRENT SITUATION OF SÁMI IN FINLAND BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES AND DEVELOPMENT IN ARCTIC FINLAND ANALYSIS BALANCING BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES AND RIGHTS OF INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES: CONCLUSION PERSPECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY... INTERVIEW GUIDES AND SUMMARIES... INTERVIEW GUIDE ALEKSI HÄRKÖNEN... 1 INTERVIEW GUIDE PENTTI PIESKI... 1 INTERVIEW GUIDE MINISTRY OF EMPLOYMENT AND THE ECONOMY... 1 INTERVIEW SUMMARY ALEKSI HÄRKÖNEN... 2 INTERVIEW SUMMARY PENTTI PIESKI... 2 INTERVIEW SUMMARY MINISTRY OF EMPLOYMENT AND THE ECONOMY... 3 PARTICIPATION CONSENT

3 Abstract The purpose of this project is to understand how promotion of business opportunities and industrial development influence the rights of indigenous people and communities in Lapland. The answer to the problem formulation has been developed through an analysis of articles, policies and documents, together with informal interviews with Finnish government officials and Sámi representatives. The theoretical framework for the project is Critical theory, primarily from the Marxist school. The final analysis is based on a hypothesis: The drivers and stakeholders behind development in the Arctic spring from a corporate agenda. Business opportunities therefore end up being prioritized before the sustainability and protection of indigenous communities. Based on this analysis, a conclusion has been formed which points towards that Sámi rights are being neglected, and that this is partly due to development processes in Lapland. The failure of providing Sámi people with rights, is happening due to obstacles within Finnish policies, and due to a lack of thorough inclusion of Sámi people in decision making processes. However, the lack of obtaining rights is also happening due to challenges within the Sámi communities, as they are facing lack of unity, together with having very little time and resources available to support their political participation. 2

4 Preface This research has served as the groundwork for a seminar held by the researcher in collaboration with the internship institution, The Royal Danish Embassy in Helsinki. Partners, interlocutors and stakeholders of the research have been invited to participate at this seminar. The seminar gives the participants a chance to further discuss the findings of the research, and for the researcher to share the findings and reflections. Moreover, the research has been distributed to institutions and organisations who are dealing with Sámi issues and Arctic challenges. It has been the aim that these activities would contribute to the advocacy towards the topic, and might serve as inspiration for further and deeper research on the topic. A Special Thanks to participants, counsellors and interlocutors: The Royal Danish Embassy in Helsinki Anita Nissen, Aalborg University Aleksi Härkönen, Ambassador of Arctic affairs Pentti Pieski, City-Sámi Chairman Sámediggi, Finnish Sámi Parliament Maija Uusisuo, Ministry of Employment and the Economy Mikko Martikainen, Ministry of Employment and the Economy Riikka Aaltonen, Ministry of Employment and the Economy Nina Vesterinen, Ministry of Employment and the Economy 3

5 1. Introduction The Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs describes its strategy towards the Arctic through four pillars Arctic country, Arctic expertise, Sustainable development and environmental considerations and International cooperation (FORMIN 2015, 3). In addition to this it is described that It is Finland s objective to promote growth and actions to enhance competitiveness in the region with due regard to the local environment (ibid.). These objectives raise curiosity concerning how Finland will assure development in their Arctic region, while also regarding the local environment. On the international scene, Finland has already received much criticism for lacking the ability to protect its local, Arctic communities and indigenous people (UNric 2015). Questions about land rights, protection of minority languages and lack of political representation are some of the concerns which have been raised towards Finland (COE 2012). In addition to this, it is seen as highly problematic that the Finnish government has not yet been able to ratify the ILO convention no. 169 on the rights of indigenous people (UNric 2015). Many indigenous people living in the Arctic want the right to preserve their way of living, while at the same time, also wanting part of the profit which companies are gaining from resource extraction in the Arctic region (Arcangeli 2016). Moreover Arcangeli (2014) raises important concerns regarding how we ensure that communities in the Arctic can benefit, even after the, by nature extractive, companies have disappeared. The Arctic is setting the scene for industrial development and globalizations trends, and these trends do not just include those nations who are by nature Arctic, even countries far from the region have stakes within development in the Arctic, one example of this is China who sees the melting Arctic Ocean as a unique opportunity for itself and for international trade generally (Hong 2011). This quote tells a story of where the melting of the ice in the Arctic may be of concern to the local communities, as well as environmentalists (JSTOR 2009); it is certainly seen as a platform for possibilities and development for others. Hong (2011) argues that the possibilities for increased shipping in the northern waters might be the most important development for the maritime regions of the Arctic. This importance of the Arctic and the business opportunities in the region has certainly been noted by the Finnish government and in their Arctic Strategy it is emphasized that the Finnish industries should seize involvement in projects and developments in the Arctic region (VNK 2013). To support this focus, a substantial part of the Arctic Strategy (2013) is focused on action plans and objectives which deals with reflections as to how industrial development and business opportunities in Arctic Finland is best exploited. While focus seems to be on how the Finnish industry is to take advantage of the resources and land in Arctic Finland, it seems that very little focus is given on how this impacts the lives of local communities and indigenous people, despite the fact that is stated as being an important point of the Arctic Strategy (FORMIN 2015, 3). 1

6 Moreover, in December 2015, new criticism was made towards Finland, from the UN Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner (OHCHR), due to failure of protection of the indigenous Sámi people in a new draft law on the Finnish Forest and Parks The new draft bill presented to the Finnish Parliament earlier this month no longer contains valuable safeguards for the Sami people s rights to traditional livelihoods, lands, territories and resources, which had been included in the previous draft approved in 2014 (OHCHR 2015). In their press release the OHCHR argues that the right of Sámi to enjoy their culture and obtain traditional livelihoods, together with the rights of their land, is being constantly compromised by Finnish legislation and policies (ibid.). Therefore discussion remains on how to understand the drivers of sustainability within Finland s Arctic Strategy, and who the Arctic is supposed to be sustainable for. As the Arctic region is rapidly changing, so are the ideas and concepts of the Arctic and together with this, the interests in the area. The interests of the Arctic spans from being the home of indigenous people, to being an area of industrial development and resource extraction, and therefore question remains if it is possible to balance these varying interests. 2. Problem formulation Finland s Arctic strategy (2013) puts emphasis on sustainability, and links this together with topics such as development, climate and local living conditions. It is a strategy which holds objectives of exploiting Arctic business opportunities, development of the mining industry and the expansion of infrastructure in the Arctic. Yet, on the other hand the strategy also emphasizes local sustainability, the protection of indigenous people and local environment. Two areas which might contradict each other: This project sets out to explore the effects of Finland s Arctic strategy. How does the promotion of business opportunities and industrial development influence the rights of indigenous people and communities in Lapland? 3. Synopsis This project consists of nine chapters. The first chapter gives an introduction to the area of research, and provides an overview of the problem behind the study. The second chapter holds the problem formulation together with the subsets. The third chapter consists of the methodology, where limitations of the project are analysed and examined. In addition to this, methods behind the data collection are explained. The method used for interviews in the research has been informal and semi-structured interviews. The analysis method is a hypothesis based on the theoretical framework. In chapter four one finds the theoretical framework for the project. It has been the choice for this research to analyse the problem based on critical perspectives and Marxist theories. To analyse the problem based on a systematic approach, the project has been divided into subsets: Finland s strategy for the Arctic Region. The history, culture and current situation of Sámi people in Finland. Business opportunities and development in Arctic Finland. 2

7 Chapter five gives a summary, together with some reflections upon the Arctic Strategy of Finland. Chapter six explains the history and current situation of Sámi in Finland. Chapter seven explores the business opportunities in Arctic Finland. The above subsets have been considered valuable to obtain the necessary knowledge which has lead towards an analysis and a conclusion to the problem statement. The subsets have assured an approach where various aspects are given the necessary attention prior to the analysis and conclusion. In chapter nine one finds the analysis, which is based on a hypothesis together with the collected data. The hypothesis is based on Marxism. Moreover, chapter nine is finalized with a conclusion. Chapter ten consists of the perspective, where reflection is given towards other relevant theories. Moreover, in chapter ten a perspective concerning other interesting Arctic challenges is made. Bibliography, interview guides and interview summaries are found as appendixes. 4. Methodology 4.1 Methodology The aim of this project is to explore how development in Lapland affects Sámi people s rights. It is the objective to investigate which criteria are set for a sustainable Arctic by the Finnish government, and how these criteria are met. Within this objective, there are subset aims, which were leading towards the overall conclusion. Finally, the objective is to explore whether Finland successfully balances their Arctic business opportunities and the recognition of the Sámi communities. The objective will be fulfilled by conducting a study of Finland s Arctic Strategy, and by obtaining information from various sources which can shed light on the issue. By using representatives and valid documents from varying sources, it is possible to narrow down the focus of the analysis, thus making it possible to reach a conclusion which includes different aspects and perspectives. Throughout the project it is the aim to follow a deductive reasoning, which implies working from an existing theory towards a more specific. The choice of theory for this project has been Critical theory, focusing on Marxism. Based on the theory, a hypothesis was developed which was then tested through the collected data. This approach enables a conclusion where one can either confirm or disconfirm the hypotheses. It is considered to be profitable for the outcome of this project to approach the problem deductively because when choosing a case, one have already given consideration towards the plausible outcomes which may, or may not be. These thoughts will eventually lead to a hypothesis which can be tested and thus confirmed or disconfirmed (Andersen, Hansen og Klemmesen 2012, 27). This method goes very well together with the theoretical framework for the project, Critical theory, as this approach means embracing the idea that no researcher is objective, and one finds what one is looking for. The researcher has an idea of what to expect to find during the research. These methods and theories thus imply that when analysing the collected data, there will already be ideas generated about what findings to look for (ibid.). However, a criticism towards this could very well be that one could end up overlooking some of the aspects and different sides to the problem. 3

8 Yet, as argued by Jukka Savolainen, the goal of case-oriented research is to explain particular outcomes. The cases under study, such as social revolutions or the development of capitalism, are considered important in their own right (Savolainen 1994, 3). Thus, even if a researcher studies just a single and very specific perspective about a problem, it is acceptable because this has its own right. The method which is applied for the process of interviews is informal interviewing. This method enables the interviewer to engage in informal, casual conversations with the participants, without using structured interview guides (Cohen og Crabtree 2006). While carrying out an informal interview, only brief notes will be taken, which serves as guidelines to recall the experiences which are done in the field. According to Cohen and Crabtree (2006) informal interviews are profitable to use, when researching an area where there is little literature or data about the setting, experience, culture or issue of interest (ibid.). In addition to this informal interviews are usually used as a tool to uncover new topics of interest which may have been previously overlooked (ibid.). Cohen and Crabtree argues that when conducting an informal interview, the researcher takes part in a conversation with the participants or participant, and as these occur on the fly, it is not given nor necessarily an advantage if a tape-recorder is used. The structure of informal interviews is very much also the reason for their benefits. As these kinds of interviews can be done without scheduling and without any formal setting being present, the participants may just see the interview as a normal conversation, and thus be open towards sharing different perspectives and speaking more freely than if the interview was carried out according to a formal structure (Cohen og Crabtree 2006). Moreover, informal interviews foster low pressure, and build upon mutual relations, and are thus an essential way of gaining understanding of the setting of the participants (Cohen og Crabtree 2006). There is very little existing literature and data on the chosen topic and much of the existing data is in Finnish, or in Sámi languages, and according to Chen and Crabtree (2006) it in such cases beneficial to use informal interviews as this method will serve as tool to uncover the topics. 4.2 Limitations There are practical limitations as the project is carried out within a short time frame, and with limited resources available. Moreover, there are obstacles within language and cultural backgrounds, as the research is performed in a country and concerning a culture which is foreign to the researcher. Due to language barriers, there are also limitation within the availability of data, as a great amount of previous studies on the topic are conducted in languages which are foreign to the researcher, thus making some data which might have been useful, out of reach. The project is limited within the sample size, as interviews are carried out with just a few people who serve as representatives. This also puts some form of subjectivity on the project. Yet, for a project the size of the this project, it has been evaluated as being reasonable to use this strategy as it is mainly the aim of the project to touch upon the surface of the problem, and the research may serve as a suggestion for further research to be done. When conducting a research based on informal interviews, collected data can serve as frontrunners to a research based on 4

9 more structured interviews: Informal interviews can provide the foundation for developing and conducting more structured interviews (Cohen og Crabtree 2006). However, despite that the sample size may be small, as they are used together with highly reliable sources of data they still serve as valid representatives. Moreover, due to the use of Marxist theory, the researcher is expected to conduct the research based on the conflicts and power imbalances, thus already emphasizing a specific point of view, and leaving little room for objectivity. Therefore, the reported data can contain several potential sources of bias. However, as this is a perspective which is to expect due to the choice of theory, it should not conflict with the reliability of the conclusions of the research. 4.3 Data Throughout the project, various sources of data have been used: Articles, briefings, interviews, reports, conclusions, press releases. The data has been a mix of strategies and policies published by the Finnish government, and articles published by news agencies and non-government organizations. The documents used for the project can be considered highly credible, due to the institutions (Bryman, 2012). However, the data will also reflect the opinions of those institutions responsible of the publication, and thus it will not be entirely free of bias. Therefore, as published materials may represent the beliefs and opinion of an author, it has been the aim throughout the project to remain critical towards the collected data and findings. Moreover, as data from both a variety and also sometimes contradicting sources are used, the overall reliability of the analysis and conclusion remains high (ibid.). The documents and articles have been used for doing an inductive content analysis. The aim of this approach has been to systematize differentiating levels and perspectives within the materials (Mayring 2000). In addition to this, content analysis serves as a way of assuring a methodologically controlled analysis of documents and texts. Informal interviews have been conducted, to support the findings made from documents and articles. The objective of using informal interviews has been to contribute with additional perspectives towards the problem. Interviews have been conducted with Finland s ambassador of Arctic affairs, a Sámi representative, and with Finnish officials. The sampling selection has been chosen based on purposive and convenience methods, meaning that choice has been made due to considerations of who was thought best within providing the necessary perspectives and information (Bryman 2012 ), while also being available and willing to participate in the research. Prior to the interviews, the participants were informed about confidentiality and participant rights. 5. Theory 5.1 Marxist theory The theoretical framework for this project has been critical theory, primarily from the Marxist school. Using critical theory means enabling a focus on conflicts, as critical theory focuses on identifying power relations and inequalities within relations. Marxism focuses on moving towards emancipation and empowerment for those who are suffering from inequality. The role of the researcher, when conducting a 5

10 research based on critical theory is to use ones predetermined perspectives, as an active part of the process. According to Marxist theory, it is not possible for the researcher to remain neutral within the conduction of a research, as the entire point of any research should be to facilitate change and emancipation (ibid.). Nor is it considered problematic that the researcher is not objective, as the personal points of view can be valuable for the research. Critical theory is an approach which seeks to challenge the current world order and the capitalist modes of production. The world order of capitalism and the capitalist society can be understood through Marxism as The need to constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the entire surface of the globale. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connextions everywhere (Marx og Engels 1848, 77). Marxism has been edited and revised various times through history, and the theory has gained new meanings through modern interpretations. It has been considered beneficial for this project, to use parts of the original Marxism theory, together with the interpretation of Hobden and Jones (2014) as this interpretation contextualizes the theory into the current time and world order. Marxism enables an understanding of international relations, based on a critical set of thoughts, and the objective of this project has been to focus the analysis based on these values, and use this to gain knowledge which can lead to an analysis and a conclusion. According to Marx and Engels we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold gradation of rank (Marx og Engels 1848, 74). Therefore this project will focus on these conflicts, systems and orders which are created through power relation. Moreover, it is the aim throughout this project to maintain the perspective one those who are oppressed, and by focusing on emancipation as the solution. These theoretically based approaches will lead towards an analysis of trends and developments in the context of deeper structural processes. Marxist theories are tools which aim at exposing the deeper and underlying truth of the problem (Hobden og Jones 2014). It has been the attempt with this perspective to gain understanding of how processes of globalization and capitalist systems affect policies and development towards the Arctic. According to Hobden and Jones (2015) one of the important elements, when using the Marxist approach, is to keep in mind that one cannot understand anything by only analysing it from one structural perspective. The social world must be analysed as a totality, including history, economics, sociology, international relations, politics etc. Hobden and Jones (2014) argue that if we are to understand the dynamics of world politics, we need to eliminate the boundaries which characterize contemporary social sciences. Furthermore, Marxism enables a focus on class structures and the inequalities in society. In the Communist Manifest (1848) it is argued that The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones (Marx og Engels 1848, 74). 6

11 Thus, Marxist theory argues that society is systematically prone to class conflict, and that history has been developed through, and characterized by class struggle (Hobden og Jones 2014). This perspective is a useful tool to gain understanding of the structures which serve as obstacles for Sámi and their rights. Much criticism has been made towards the Marxism. One of the points of critique has been that the classical Marxist perspective is mainly focused on supra structural issues, and thus neglects perspectives on family structures, culture and influences from the media (Hobden og Jones 2014). Another critique has been the question, whether the working class, or oppressed classes, still exists. Many scholars argue that the working class of modern society has become part of the overall system, and thus the system no longer represents a threat to them. Moreover, one of the core ideas of Marxism, the importance of emancipation, has been questioned. Emancipation is a key concern of Marxist thinkers, however, critique is that the term is often used in a vague and unclear way, and neglecting to keep in mind that imperialism and Stalinism was also carried out in the name of emancipation (Hobden og Jones 2014). In addition to critique towards the theory, there are also obstacles within this perspective. One of the obstacles when using critical theory is that the perspective itself calls for a specific point of view, namely seeing things from the conflict point of view with the emphasis of the issue from those who suffer from being oppressed (Zaret, et al. 1980). Yet, due to the recognition of preference of the researcher, when used the right ways, specific perspectives can help remain focus on the specifically chosen context (Andersen, Hansen og Klemmesen 2012). Another often mentioned obstacle is that the researcher does not remain objectivity during the research (Zaret, et al. 1980). However, this could also serve as strength when conducting a qualitative research as this recognizes that subjectivity guides everything from the choice of topic that one studies, to formulating hypotheses, to selecting methodologies, and interpreting data (Ratner 2002). Therefore using a Critical approach towards the topic encourages reflection upon values and choices throughout the research, and thus moving beyond the surface of the data. Choice has been to analyse this question of Sámi rights from a Critical point of view, as this enables a perspective looking into the conflicts. As the Arctic is composed of several stakeholders it was part of the reflection, to use a theory which takes this into consideration. Questions of the Arctic stretch from indigenous peoples rights, to industrial use of resources, security issues and ecological considerations. Therefore it is beneficial for the development of a holistic understanding towards the issue, to use a theory which opens for the inclusion of a perspective on all these points. Moreover, the main interest of the researcher has been to understand the complexity of the situation from the point of view of the indigenous people, and a Marxist perspective can contribute with interesting points of discussion for this. Moreover, the choice of Marxist theory has also been due to the initiation of the project being based on a hypothesis arguing that the corporate, capitalist agenda is prioritized before Sámi communities. Thus, it is a hypothesis which by nature has a Marxist point of view. 7

12 5.2 Other relevant theories Due to the criticism towards Critical theory, reflections were done upon the possibility of other theories. The analysis of the problem could also have had a starting point with analysing how the stakeholders and their differentiating perspectives, are the cause of varying opinions and conflicts. Therefore a theory which could have been used is social constructivism, and through this, analysing how varying concepts and beliefs of the Arctic is what is shaping the differentiating opinions about the area, and thus becomes the driver behind conflicts (Andersen, Hansen og Klemmesen 2012). However, social constructivism lacks consideration of historical context, and in addition, little consideration of power relations is given in social constructivism. Moreover, critique towards using social constructivism would be that it lacks emphasizes on the cultural and biological drivers (Boghossian 2007). Another International Relations perspective which could be used is to analyse how policies towards the Arctic are developed and how they are implemented. Policy analysis tools can enable an understanding of how decisions are made and why (Fischer, Miller og Sidney 2006). However, such an analysis would take both time and resources, which was not considered available for this type of project. Moreover, policy analysis demands access to data and sources, which may not be accessible. In addition to these reflections, it is important to highlight that it is has been in the interest of the researcher to remain a perspective towards the problem from the point of view of the people who seem to be suffering due to a conflict. Critical theory was thus considered most profitable for such analysis. 6. Finland s Arctic strategy In Finland s Arctic Strategy (2013) it is stated that Finland is an active Arctic actor with the ability to reconcile the limitations imposed and business opportunities provided by the Arctic environment in a sustainable manner while drawing upon international cooperation (VNK 2013) The strategy focuses on four specific areas: First it is stated that Finland is an Arctic actor with Arctic expertise and competences, and therefore Finland should strive to be a leading nation within research and responsible commercial use of the Arctic region. Secondly, it is stated in the strategy that Finland wants to include the indigenous people in all processes concerning them. Third, it should be a cornerstone in the Finnish Artic politics that Finland respects the principles for sustainable development regarding the demands in the Arctic environment. Lastly, the Arctic strategy argues that it is a wish that Finland strengthens its Arctic status, develops the internal collaboration concerning the Arctic, and maintains stability in the area (VNK 2013). The strategy is shaped by the idea that all of Finland has relation to the Arctic. Within the strategy it is stressed that almost a third of the world s inhabitants north of the 60 th latitude is Finnish (VNK 2013). It is important to note here, that the polar circle does not start until the 66 th latitude, yet while including the 8

13 area between the 60 th and 66 th latitude, one includes almost all of Finland, including the capital Helsinki. It has also been the aim with the Arctic strategy for Finland to highlight their long tradition of being active regarding Arctic development, as Finland had an active role in the creation of the Arctic council and the inclusion of a northern dimension in European policies (ibid). This statement from the Arctic Strategy was also emphasized during the interview with the Finnish ambassador of Arctic affairs Aleksi Härkönen, as he argues that Arctic cooperation and development, is as much of a prioritized part of Finnish politics as any other policy. According to Härkönen it is the aim that any matters concerning the Arctic will become an integrated part of all the Finnish ministries, as this might ensure a more continues path towards implementation of Finland s goal for the Arctic area. According to the Arctic Strategy (2013) Finland s ambition is to have a combined framework which connects companies, competences, international partnership and Finnish politics towards the common goal of sustainable Arctic development. In the strategy emphasis is put on securing welfare for communities and culture in the northern Finnish region. The living conditions of the Sámi people should be able to be improved, if the Sámi communities participate actively within international cooperation and decisions regarding their lives. Härkönen explained that dialogue between ministries and Sámi communities are currently widening and deepening, and according to Härkönen the Finnish government is well aware that development in Lapland should happen in collaboration with Sámi. This is also in line with the Arctic Strategy (2013) which states that development in the Arctic region has to be sustainable and with respect for the traditional and local communities (VNK 2013). There have been previous examples of conflicts between development industries and Sámi (Härkönen 2016). The example which Härkönen explained was that there had been conflicts concerning infrastructural development, mainly due to issues of land rights. According to Härkönen, these conflicts create tensions between the stakeholders in Lapland, and Härkönen explains that these issues certainly are kept in mind whenever strategies and policies concerning the area are developed. The Arctic Strategy (2013) highlights a focus on the Arctic as an area with corporate possibilities. Especially highlighted is the Finnish expertise concerning mining industry, the energy sector and within infrastructure. As a result of this, the growing pressure on the environment could open up for Finnish clean-tech industry. By being an Arctic frontrunner, it is possible for Finland to obtain a leading role within corporate development (VNK 2013). Moreover, Finland has expert knowledge within maritime industry, and it is the goal to become a role model within Arctic maritime and shipping. This could include maritime transport, icebreakers and the prevention of oil spill. It is stressed in the strategy that environment is part of the bigger picture. This is especially in relation to climate change, where focus is on ambitious goals for the reduction of CO2, and an overall objective of decreasing global climate change and the consequences this has on Arctic environment (ibid). Moreover, Härkönen highlights that it is of 9

14 high importance to Finland that the Arctic region does not turn into a wild Eldorado, and luckily it seems like the world has become smart enough to not make such mistakes again. According to the Finnish government, financial development is conditional to sustainable development. This should be reached through dialogue with communities, companies and researchers, both locally and internationally. Dealing with climate change and environment is necessary in order to secure sustainable corporate activity, as well as security and stability in the Arctic (VNK 2013). Security and stability is an advantage for everyone, and Finland will work actively to maintain this in the Arctic. This will be done according to policies and strategies from the foreign and defence ministries (ibid.). According to Finland s Arctic Strategy, it is an advantage that the Finnish military is used to working in a cold climate, and has the capacity to operate within the conditions of the Arctic. These competences can also be offered to foreign partners through education and cooperation. All in all, it can be concluded that Finland s Arctic strategy covers the features which should be expected from a strategic paper of its kind. However, it should also receive some critique as there are not really any clear priorities or concrete priority areas leading towards specified action points. There seems to be an ongoing preference for development and economic activities, and on transport and infrastructure, and these strategic focus areas are going hand in hand with the aim for international cooperation based on international treaties. 7. The history, culture and current situation of Sámi in Finland 7.1 History and culture of Sámi It is difficult to determine exactly for how long the Sámi has existed in the Arctic, however studies of artefacts found in the Sámi areas points towards the Sámi have been living in the Sámi homeland for thousands of years, and that Scandinavia had Sámi names long before Norwegian, Swedish, Finnish and Russian names (Muus 2010). In Sweden, traces of settlement, which is likely related to Sámi, have been found in the Norrland which dates back 9,800 years. There are approximately Sámi living in the Nordic countries, with about in Norway, in Sweden, in Finland and 2000 in Russia (Sámediggi 2014). There nine living Sámi languages, North, Lule, Kildin, Inari, Skolt, South, Ter, Ume and Pite Sámi (Muus 2010, 6). It is estimated that there are some people who speak a Sámi language in their home as a first language. It is common to divide the Sámi into group according to occupations: the coastal fishing Sea Sámi, the reindeer herding Mountain Sámi (North to South Sápmi), the Forest Sámi, Lake (Inari) Sámi, River Sámi, and Eastern (Skolt) Sámi. (Muus 2010, 6). It is important to note that there are large communities of Sámi living outside of the Arctic, who has integrated into larger cities such as Oslo, Stockholm and Helsinki. The most well-known Sámi are usually the reindeer herding groups, also called the Mountain Sámi. However, today it is less than 10 % of all Sámi who base their livelihood upon reindeers (Muus 2010). In Norway and Sweden, reindeer 10

15 herding is regulated by law, and only Sámi can legally practise reindeer herding. However, in Finland there are cases of none-sámi herding. Reindeer herding cooperatives in Finland is classified as corporations and thus not restricted by ethnicity (Muus 2010, 7). Sámi religion is part of shamanism, commonly practised in the Arctic. This has included rituals of healing ceremonies, reverence of ancestors and the recognition of the creator and spirits within all life forms (Muus 2010, 8). However, through time, several attempts have been made with forcing Christianity upon the Sámi, and both Protestant reformations and Catholic missionaries have influenced this process. Therefore, in many Sámi communities today, there is a mix of Sámi who are involved in local Lutheran parishes, together with keeping elements of old beliefs and practises alive. In 1956 the Sámi Council was formed, and within this Sámi membership from across the four national countries is promoted. The council deals with issues of environmental changes, reindeer herding, land rights, fishing rights, language, civil rights, and cultural activities (Muus 2010, 9). The first democratically elected Sámi parliament was formed in Finland in 1973 to serve and represent the Sámi (Sámediggi 2014). In addition to this, Sámi have been leading the way in the pan-indigenous tribal people s movement worldwide. Sámi have been vital in the development of both the World Council of Indigenous Peoples and the United Nations Permanent Forum for Indigenous People (Muus 2010, 10). The political bodies in which the Sámi are engaged, serves as crucial advocacy forums in battling the daily problems which the Sámi are facing: Counterfeit Sámi crafts being marketed and sold as Sámi, non-sámi people dressing as Sámi and doing tourist and Christmas-related events for profit, racism directed at the Sámi community, and not so subtle TV and media programming with an anti-sámi edge (Muus 2010, 10). 7.2 The current situation of Sámi in Finland Indigenous people are in general facing severe obstacles around the world. One example is that indigenous people suffer significantly higher poverty rates than other groups (UNric 2015). In addition to this, many indigenous groups are also suffering from threats to their unique ways of living, risks of their languages going extinct, obtaining land and territory rights, and in general loss of tradition and culture due to integration and colonial threats (ibid.). The same issues are also what are currently causing concern for the Finnish Sámi. In the interview with Sámi representative Pentti Pieski, he told that Sámi people and communities have felt marginalized and stigmatized for several years. Pieski highlights that this marginalization has been reinforced with the feeling of increasing loss of land rights and language privileges. Among the Sámi there is a growing fear of assimilation into the Finnish society, and language issues is one of the root causes of this (UNric 2015). Like all children in Finland, Sámi have the right to receive day care and language instruction in their mother tongue. However, lack of funding for these rights has been a barrier in achieving this, and Sámi activists are continuously working on achieving these rights (UNric 2015). 90 percent of the Finnish Sámi land belongs to the government (ibid.) and land rights are a top issue to Sámi. Finland have not yet succeed to ratify the ILO convention no. 169 on the rights of 11

16 indigenous people, and as a consequence of this, land rights remains a challenging issue to deal with and the Sami way of life is threatened by the competing uses of land. If the government decides to cut down forests in the reindeer herding area, it destroys the pastoral areas (UNric 2015). According to Pieski there is much reason to be concerned about the situation of the Sámi, as the current strategy of the government seems to be emphasizing development in Lapland prior to recognizing Sámi rights. UNric (2015) states that land rights and language issues are of great concern for the Sámi communities in Finland. Moreover, a report from the Council of Europe in 2012 argued that there is reason to be concerned, when it seems that land right negotiations are being purposely stalled, and that there are intended problems concerning the availability of minority language media (COE 2012). In additions to this, the report also noted incidents of racism, discrimination and xenophobia against both Sámi and other minorities. Finally the report recommended that representation and influence of Sámi people, and minorities in Finland in general, should be increased (COE 2012). Pieski explained that even though collaboration between Sámi and Finnish politicians is in theory a political prioritization, it is not happening in reality, and Sámi communities feel that their point of view is rarely taken into consideration. In addition to this, Pieski argues that it will be impossible to develop the Arctic in a sustainable manner, without the collaboration of those who are living there, as key knowledge of forests, animals and nature lies with the Sámi. According to Pieski, Arctic development should happen together with Sámi, and not despite of them. 8. Business opportunities and development in Arctic Finland The Lapland Chamber of Commerce estimates the investment potential in the European High North (EHN) at 195 billion euros in the next five years (Sarker 2016). The quote is from an article on the Finnish news site Finland Times from April 2016, which argues that the Arctic is the place for new business opportunities due to developments in bio economy, clean tech, resource extraction and opening of new sea routes. Opportunities in Lapland and in the entire Arctic are undoubtable expanding, and in a report from 2015 Arctic Business argued that businesses should take the lead within development of the Arctic (ArcticBusiness 2015). Moreover, within the report it was stated that the sustainable development of the Arctic will take place with, or without the government initiatives as there might be a need for first movers to pave the way for others (ArcticBusiness 2015, 22). Arctic Business argues that this is necessary due to the conflicting strategies among nation states, and therefore more likeminded businesses and industries may be the ones who can actually make things happen. In the Finnish Arctic Strategy (VNK 2013) it is highlighted that part of the focus is to look for the creation of new business opportunities. Because of the challenges facing the global economy and the great significance of exports and economic relations to Finland, it is extremely important for Finnish business and industry to seek 12

17 growth in all areas where the prospects are favourable, and where Finnish companies have a chance of success. Such prospects are offered by the Arctic region (VNK 2013, 26). In addition to this, the Finnish government highlight that the overall Arctic expertise which the Finnish companies possesses, creates an excellent fundament for generating business opportunities. The government therefore supports Finnish companies in their effort to get involved in new projects within the Arctic region, as it is seen as an important contribution to the financial development and prosperity of Finland (VNK 2013, 26). The Finnish government has, through their Arctic Strategy (2013), laid out some of their focus areas, in which it is believed that Finland could prosper and develop in the Arctic. The government points towards energy industry, extraction of renewable natural resources, the mining industry, clean technology, tourism, infra structure and digital services (VNK 2013, 28-37). The government wish to create new potentials to utilise the use of natural resources in Arctic Finland, take part in the development of international legislation and regulations concerning the exploitation and development of the Arctic region, steer economic activities so that there will be funds for these development areas, identify emerging business opportunities in the Arctic, and establish solutions which deals with the environmental risks which are associated with business operations (VNK 2013, 51). In addition to the government s Arctic Strategy (2013), a report was developed in 2015, by former Prime Minister Paavo Lipponen A Strategic Vision for the North. The objective of this report was to identify the investment opportunities in the Arctic which remains to be exploited by the Finnish industries (Lipponen 2015). In the report it was emphasized that if the Finnish industries let the current opportunities slip away through their fingers, it would mean enormous financial losses for Finnish economy. Therefore the report gave a set of recommendations to both the Finnish government and the industries, as to how they should develop strategies to ensure the use of business opportunities in the Arctic (Lipponen 2015). The recommendations emphasize that the Finnish government should be willing to develop policies and engage in collaborations which creates positive political framework for the industry. However, despite the wish for the industry to take greater advantage of Arctic business opportunities, it is important to note that are already several events of industrial development taking place within Lapland. Currently, mining in Lapland is concentrated in areas such as gold, platinum, base metals, diamonds and industrial minerals. However, the opportunities for commodity products are, according to Finpro (2004), still very much to be explored. There are significant opportunities for mining in Lapland (Finpro 2004) due to the right geology and systematized data on mining areas, which is available for those who are seeking to, invest in the area. In addition to this, Finpro (2004) highlights that Finland is one of the world s safest and most secure countries for mining investment, with a state who supports mining investments. Yet, mining in Finland is not only about resource extraction and industrial development, because it also the goal of Finland to become a global leader within sustainable mineral industry by 2020 (Finpro 2004). 13

18 Tourism is also a growing industry in Lapland, and in a report from the Regional Council of Lapland in 2013 it is shown that the direct income impacts of tourism to Lapland is Euro 595 million, together with approximately 5000 jobs (Luiro 2013). The registered overnight stays in Lapland in 2011 were a total of , and the business was then witnessing an annual growth of 5% (Luiro 2013). Together with, or maybe even due to, the growing interest in Lapland from both tourists and industries, the infrastructure is also growing and the initiating strategies for a railway connecting Finland with the Norwegian coast was promoted by Finnish President Niinistö already back in 2012 (Staalesen 2014). It is believed that construction of a railway will become a major trade and transportation route, and thus be contributing with substantial financial gains. It might serve beneficial to highlight some numbers, calculated by Invest in Lapland: The industrial investments in Lapland over the next years are estimated to be Euro billion. Investments in tourism in Lapland within the next years are estimated to a total near Euro one billion. By 2020 Finland aims at generating MW of energy by using its inland power parks, and is investing around Euro 3.5 billion to meet this goal (InvestInLapland 2016). Thus, needless to say, many eyes are looking into Arctic Finland, seeking for opportunities, business and investment, and various stakeholders have financial interests in the area and therefore are likely supporting strategies which further those opportunities. 9. Analysis 9.1 Balancing business opportunities and rights of indigenous communities: The analysis is based on the hypothesis, which was the initiating thought behind the research. Moreover, the hypothesis is developed on the theoretical framework: The drivers and stakeholders behind development in the Arctic spring from a corporate agenda. Business opportunities therefore end up being prioritized before the sustainability and protection of indigenous communities. Marxism views corporate development as the need to constantly expand markets (Marx og Engels 1848). This idea could also be the answer as to why there is suddenly this growing interest for development in the Arctic, why we are suddenly seeing this great expansion of mining, infrastructure and energy development (ArcticBusiness 2015). As many companies, and states, for that matter, have already conquered most parts of the planet, time has come to find new places to nestle, and according to Marxism, this is not a process which can be stopped. Moreover, it is due to this unstoppable nature of capitalism, that s people will experience what Hobden and Jones (2014) refer to as a growing class struggle. As Sámi communities, along with several other indigenous people, has been living in, and moving around across, the Arctic for several hundreds of years (Muus 2010) without being disturbed, it is not surprising that sudden loss of land and decreasing rights (UNric 2015) creates tensions and conflicts. According to Marxism, such situations will continue to happen throughout history because the world order is capitalist, and thus we will always witness examples of new conditions of oppression and new forms of struggle 14