History. GCSE Revision Booklet. Paper 1

Transcription

1 History GCSE Revision Booklet Paper 1 Book 5 - Crises of the Cold War and Détente

2 Key issue: How close to war was the world in the 1960s? The U2 Crisis 1960: The purpose of U2; the responses of the USA and the USSR to the crisis; the effect on the Paris Summit and the peace process As part of his policy of peaceful co-existence, Khrushchev visited the USA in 1959 and promised to hold a summit meeting with the USSR, USA, France and Britain. Its purpose was to try and solve some of the problems of the Cold War, with a treaty hopefully to be signed with Germany, ending the Cold War. All hopes were shattered when, just before the summit, an American U2 plane was shot down over the USSR. At first, the Americans tried to claim that it was a weather-plane that had gone off-course. However, the Russians put the pilot Gary Powers on trial for spying, and it was clear that he was not a weather-man. The Americans admitted it was a spy-plane. Consequences of the U2 crisis 1. It ended progress towards a solution to the Cold War. 2. Peaceful co-existence was ended. 3. Eisenhower was blamed for the failure. 4. It was a propaganda victory for Khrushchev. 5. America placed its forces on high alert. 6. America accelerated its work on devising new ways of spying. 7. After the U2 incident, America became more aggressive. They elected John F Kennedy, who promised to be much tougher on communism

3 The situation in Berlin: the Berlin Wall; Kennedy s response. The Marshall Plan had made West Berlin richer than the East. People reacted to this by crossing the border from East to West to have a better standard of living. Between 1945 and million people crossed from East to West. This was an embarrassment to Russia, which claimed that Communism was better. Also, many who left were skilled workers. The Russians also claimed that the Americans used West Berlin for spying and sabotage. At the Vienna summit of June 1961, Khrushchev again demanded that the Americans leave West Berlin. Kennedy s refused and on 25th July increased America s spending on weapons. On 13th August, Khrushchev closed the border between East and West Berlin and built a wall. The West was taken by surprise - the Communists regarded it as a propaganda success. The wall completely sealed the East from the West, families were separated, people who lived in the East and worked in the West lost their jobs. Importance of the Wall 1. It reduced the number of defectors from East Berlin 2. It became a propaganda victory for the US 3. It stabilised the economy of East Germany 4. It was settled peacefully 5. Plans for a united Berlin and Germany were ended 6. It removed an area of likely conflict

4 Consequences of the Wall 1. Berlin was split in two. Hundreds of East Berliners died trying to cross it. 2. America complained, but did not try to take it down it was not worth a war. 3. Tension grew: both sides started nuclear testing. 4. The West became more anti-communist. 5. The Wall became a symbol in the West of Communist tyranny video.shtml

5 The nuclear deterrent: progress with nuclear disarmament; the space race in the 1960s By 1961, both of the superpowers had hundreds of missiles pointed at one another. The USA had more than the USSR, but the advantage did not matter in real terms, because both sides had enough to destroy the other many times over. There was a theory on both sides which stated that such weapons actually made war less likely and relations more secure. The idea was that the enemy would not dare attack first, because it knew that if it did, the other side would strike back before the first bombs had even landed, and it too would be destroyed. So, having nuclear weapons prevented and deterred the other side from attacking first. This was known as Mutually Assured Destruction (M.A.D) Space exploration served as another dramatic arena for Cold War competition. On October 4, 1957, a Soviet R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile launched Sputnik (Russian for traveler ), the world s first artificial satellite and the first man-made object to be placed into the Earth s orbit. Sputnik s

6 launch came as a surprise, and not a pleasant one, to most Americans. In 1958, the U.S. launched its own satellite, Explorer I, designed by the U.S. Army under the direction of rocket scientist Wernher von Braun. That same year, President Dwight Eisenhower signed a public order creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), a federal agency dedicated to space exploration. In 1959, the Soviet space program took another step forward with the launch of Luna 2, the first space probe to hit the moon. In April 1961, the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to orbit Earth, traveling in the capsule-like spacecraft Vostok 1. For the U.S. effort to send a man into space, dubbed Project Mercury, NASA engineers designed a smaller, cone-shaped capsule far lighter than Vostok; they tested the craft with chimpanzees, and held a final test flight in March 1961 before the Soviets were able to pull ahead with Gagarin s launch. On May 5, astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space (though not in orbit). On July 16, 1969, U.S. astronauts Neil Armstrong, Edwin Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins set off on the Apollo 11 space mission, the first moon landing attempt. After landing successfully on July 20, Armstrong became the first man to walk on the moon s surface; he famously called the moment one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. By landing on the moon, the United States effectively won the space race that had begun with Sputnik s launch in For their part, the Soviets made four failed attempts to launch a lunar landing craft between 1969 and 1972, including a spectacular launch-pad explosion in July

7 The Cuban Missile Crisis,1962: the effect of Castro s seizure of power in Cuba; Kennedy and the Bay of Pigs; Khrushchev and the missile crisis of 1962; Kennedy s response; the danger to the world; the results of the crisis; the effect on Kennedy and Khrushchev After 1957, tension grew between Russia and America: 1. Russia s Sputnik satellite (1957) and space orbit (1961) gave them a psychological advantage. Many Americans believed America was in danger. 2. In 1959, the Communist Fidel Castro took power in Cuba, right next to America. In 1960, he made a trade agreement with Russia. 3. Communist China was very aggressive. When Khrushchev visited America in 1959, the Chinese accused him of going soft. All the tensions that had grown up between Russia s assertive peaceful competition and Kennedy s promise to be tough on Russia came to a head. In 1959, Fidel Castro took power in Cuba. In 1960, Castro made a trade agreement with Russia, whereby Cuba sent sugar to Russia, in return for oil, machines and money. In April 1961 the CIA encouraged, funded and transported an attempt by anti-castro Cuban exiles to invade Cuba. It failed miserably, greatly embarrassing Kennedy. In September 1961, therefore, Castro asked for and Russia publicly promised weapons to defend Cuba against America. On 14th October 1962 an American U2 spy-plane took pictures of a nuclear missile base being built on Cuba. Kennedy s advisers told him he had 10 days before Cuba could fire the missiles at targets in America. Kennedy s Response If Kennedy ignored the missiles he would seem weak, if he attacked the launch sites there would be loss of life and a nuclear attack might start a nuclear war. With Soviet ships sailing to Cuba with missiles Kennedy decided the best action was to put in a naval blockade. The US put all the sea within 800km of Cuba under an embargo. No ships with weapons on would be allowed to go through.

8 The first Russian ship reached the naval blockade. It was an oil ship and was allowed through. All the other Russian ships (carrying missiles) turned back. Secretly, the US government offered to remove US missiles in Turkey in exchange for those in Cuba. 26th Oct: Russia was still building the missile bases, and Kennedy started planning a military attack on Cuba - until, at 6pm, Khrushchev sent a telegram to Kennedy, offering to dismantle the sites if Kennedy would lift the blockade and agree not to invade Cuba. 27th Oct: Before Kennedy could reply, Khrushchev sent another letter, demanding that Kennedy also dismantle American missile bases in Turkey. On the same day, a U2 plane was shot down over Cuba. It looked as if war was about to happen. Kennedy ignored the plane incident. He also ignored Khrushchev s second letter he wrote simply that would lift the blockade and agree not to invade Cuba if Khrushchev would dismantle the missile bases. He also offered secretly to dismantle the Turkish missile bases. Khrushchev agreed. The crisis finished. Results 1. Khrushchev lost prestige. 2. Kennedy gained prestige. 3. Both sides had had a fright. They were more careful in future. The two leaders set up a telephone hotline to talk directly in a crisis

9 Czechoslovakia, 1968: Dubcek and the Prague Spring; why it concerned the USSR and the Warsaw Pact and their response to it; the effects on East-West relations; the Brezhnev Doctrine. Twelve years after the brutal suppression of the Hungarians, Czechoslovakia posed a similar challenge to the Soviet Union. In 1964, Khrushchev had been ousted from power, and was replaced by Leonid Brezhnev. In the 1960s, a new mood developed in Czechoslovakia. People did not like how communist control had developed over the preceding 20 years. This began to become very apparent by A weak economy made this discontent worse; none of the reforms that were introduced to strengthen the economy worked. The workers remained in poor housing and led the most basic of lifestyles. The same occurred in rural Czechoslovakia where farmers had to follow Communist Party rules with regards to agriculture, and innovation was frowned on.

10 In 1967, the old Stalinist leader Novotny was replaced by Alexander Dubček.Dubček was a committed communist, but believed that communism did not have to be as restrictive as it had been. He thus proposed a series of reforms: less censorship, more freedom of speech, legalisation of political opposition groups, a reintroduction of capitalist elements into the Czech economy and a reduction in the activities of the secret police. Dubček announced that he wanted the Czech Communist Party to remain the biggest and most important party in Czechoslovakia, but that he wanted the totalitarian aspects of the party to be reduced. Communist Party members in Czechoslovakia were given the right to challenge party policy as opposed to the traditional acceptance of all government policy. He had taken on board lessons from the Hungarian Uprising, and assured Brezhnev that Czechoslovakia would not pull out of the Warsaw Pact or Comecon. The opposition in Czechoslovakia was led by intellectuals who felt that the Communists had failed to lead the country forward. As censorship had been eased, they were able to launch attacks on the Communist leadership, pointing out to the people of Czechoslovakia how useless and corrupt they were. Communist government ministers were grilled live on TV about how they were running the country, and about events before This period became known as the Prague Spring, because new ideas were appearing everywhere. Dubček claimed that his aim was to allow the widest possible democracy into the social and political life of Czechoslovakia. Dubček s reforms were welcomed enthusiastically by students, intellectuals, workers and younger members of the Czech communist party.

11 Older Czechoslovakian communists, however, were shocked by the Prague Spring, and their horror was shared by Soviet Premier Brezhnev and his allies across Eastern Europe. Brezhnev was horrified at this. He feared it would weaken the control and strength of Communism. Consequences of the Prague Spring On 20 August, 1968, Soviet tanks rolled into Czechoslovakia. Dubček ordered the Czech people not to respond with violence. The bulk of these troops were from the Soviet Union but to give the impression that they represented the whole of the Warsaw Pact who all disapproved of Dubček s reforms, there were groups of Polish, East German, Hungarian and Bulgarian troops involved. There was a great deal of non-violent civil disobedience from the Czechoslovakian people. Dubcek was arrested and taken to Moscow, where Brezhnev tearfully told him that he had betrayed socialism. Dubcek was forced to sign the Moscow Protocol, which committed the Czech government to protecting socialism by reintroducing censorship and removing political opposition. After the Prague Spring, the Soviet media portrayed Czechoslovakia as a huge threat to the USSR. Brezhnev went even further he put forward a justification of the invasion which became known as the Brezhnev Doctrine. According to this doctrine, the USSR had the right to invade any country in Eastern Europe whose actions appeared to threaten the security of the entire Eastern Bloc. Brezhnev argued that Dubcek s actions threatened to undermine the Warsaw Pact and communist control in Eastern Europe, therefore he had to invade. Albania withdraws from the Warsaw Pact

12 America condemns it, but doesn t take any action (already fighting in Vietnam) Western European communist parties officially declared themselves independent of the Soviet Communist Party Yugoslavia and Romania distanced themselves from the Soviet Union, and publicly condemned Brezhnev s actions, along with China

13 Key issue: Why did Détente develop and collapse in the 1970s? Reasons for Détente: the motives of the USSR, USA, China and West Germany Détente (meaning relaxation ) is the easing of strained relations, especially in a political situation. In 1969, the Cold War entered a period of détente. The Cuban Missile Crisis had brought the world to the brink of a nuclear holocaust. During the late 1960s and 1970s, the leaders of the USA (Nixon, Ford) and the USSR (Brezhnev) tried to ease tensions in their relationship. In the West, this period was called détente, in Russia razryadka. The USSR and the USA signed some important treaties at the end of the 1960s that are examples of the détente relationship. Reasons for Détente The war in Vietnam 58,000 American soldiers had been killed, and war crimes had been committed on both sides. America was keen to avoid another confrontation. The ongoing arms race was increasingly costly for both sides. This was compounded by the fact that the price of oil rocketed in the 1970s, which posed economic problems for the USA and the USSR. The USSR was spending huge amounts on nuclear technologies, at the expense of basic food and supplies for its people. China - was fearful of its isolation in the world. The Chinese were also fearful of what USA had done in Vietnam to quash Communism. China s stockpile of nuclear weapons was a lot smaller than that of USA. China was also worried by her worsening relations with USSR. Things got so relaxed, that the USA sent its table tennis team to China and the phrase ping-pong diplomacy was coined.

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15 The progress of Détente: SALT I, 1972; Brezhnev-Nixon Summits; the Helsinki Agreement, 1975 Key features of détente Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, Nixon/Brezhnev Summit, Moscow 1972 Nixon/Brezhnev Summit, Washington 1973 Nixon/Brezhnev Summit, Washington 1974 The Helsinki Conference, 1975 Apollo-Soyuz mission, 1975 The Soviet involvement in Afghanistan: reasons for Soviet involvement; reaction of President Carter and the USA to the war Why would Afghanistan be a concern to the USSR and the USA? Although Afghanistan was a poor and mostly barren country, its location was significant. It offered a land route between the oil-rich Middle East and the Soviet Union. Since 1947, the Soviet Union had heavily influenced Afghanistan, but it had also received aid from the USA.

16 Context: In January 1979, there was a revolution in neighbouring Iran, in which the Shah was overthrown and replaced by fundamentalist Muslims. This revolution was deeply anti-american 53 US embassy workers were taken hostage in Tehran, and held for over a year. It wasn t just the USA that had to worry about Fundamentalism though. The Soviet Problem: There had been a communist revolution in Kabul (Afghanistan) in, 1978 which saw the dramatic overthrow of the Afghan royal family, and the creation of a new government based in Kabul which was determined to build socialism in Afghanistan. This was an extremely unstable government. In 1979, Hafizullah Amin seized control of the Afghan government. Though he was a communist, Amin was not overly enamoured with the Soviet Union, and in addition to this, he had internal opposition from major Muslim groups internally. The Soviet Union feared that these Islamic groups would take control of Afghanistan and set up an Islamic state, as had happened in Iran. Lots of Muslim populations lived in areas of the Soviet Union which bordered Afghanistan, and so Brezhnev feared that uprisings in Afghanistan would have a knock-on effect in the Soviet Union. The USSR was concerned that as a result of the Afghan instability, Afghanistan would become an Islamic state, and influence nearby Soviet republics to do the same. Islamic states are not communist, and therefore would have no reason to make alliances with Russia. Inside Afghanistan, dissatisfaction with Amin was growing, and thousands of Muslims were joining the Mujahideen, a guerrilla movement who claimed to be fighting a jihad. They wanted to overthrow the government and create an Islamic state. Brezhnev had been right to worry... On 25 December 1979, Soviet troops rolled into Afghanistan. Within the week more than 50,000 Soviet troops had been sent to restore order and protect the communist leadership from the mujahideen.

17 President Carter s Reaction Carter condemned the Soviet invasion and said that the USSR would have to pay for their actions. Carter sent a USA force to protect the Arabian Sea and suspended all trading with the USSR. The USA also boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics and were disappointed that it didn t receive more support from Europe (The USSR boycotted the 1984 LA Olympics in retaliation to the US boycott of 1980, but this was not as successful as the 1980 boycott). The War Although the Soviets quickly captured Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan they could not defeat the mujahidin, who remained in control of the countryside (over 80% of Afghanistan). They used the geography to fight a guerrilla war. The Soviets had no training or experience fighting in mountains and the mujahidin would attack the Soviets and then disappear into the mountains. In total the Soviets launched nine offensives between 1980 and 1985, with little success. In 1988 Gorbachev announced a full withdrawal from Afghanistan, this was completed in

18 The failure of SALT II; the Olympic boycotts; deployment of Soviet and US missiles in Europe Carter condemned the Soviet invasion and said that the USSR would have to pay for their actions. Carter sent a USA force to protect the Arabian Sea and suspended all trading with the USSR. The USA also boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics and were disappointed that it didn t receive more support from Europe (The USSR boycotted the 1984 LA Olympics in retaliation to the US boycott of 1980, but this was not as successful as the 1980 boycott). The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were two international treaties involving the United States and the Soviet Union on the issue of armament control. The two rounds of talks and agreements were SALT I and SALT II. Negotiations commenced in November SALT I led to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement between the two countries. Although SALT II resulted in an agreement in 1979, the United States chose not to ratify the treaty in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, which took place later that year. The United States eventually withdrew from SALT II in The thawing of the Cold War and the spirit of détente that had existed in the 1970 s was over.