SAARC REPORT: SRI LANKA. Political Challenges and Religious/Ethnic Conflict

Transcription

1 SAARC REPORT: SRI LANKA Political Challenges and Religious/Ethnic Conflict tension- sri- lanka/ Paige Alli University of Oregon November 22, 2016

2 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 2 Table of Contents Executive Summary.3 I. Introduction...4 II. Ethnic Struggles and Divides..6 III. Political Challenges.13 IV. Proposed SAARC Recommendations Bibliography.. 24

3 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 3 Executive Summary Ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka have been an issue since the country, called Ceylon, was under British rule in the early nineteenth century. The strain in relationship between the island s native Sinhalese Buddhists against the Tamil Hindus and the Muslims only became more pronounced after independence in Frustration felt by the native Sinhalese resulted in legislation that marginalized Tamils. The tensions between ethnic groups intensified as time went on. Eventually these tensions, coupled with the JVP Insurgency of 1971 and the anti-tamil pogrom of 1983 sparked the beginning of the Civil War between the The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, who desired a homeland for the Tamils, and the predominantly Sinhalese government of Sri Lanka. The ethnic struggles facing Sri Lanka, are largely based on ethno-religious political issues. Identity became tightly associated with religion. Relations were already in a delicate balance between the ethnic groups, but the Civil War forced a deeper divide, especially among religious lines. These ethnic divisions continue through today, and it is imperative to understand these divisions as the sources of conflict, and as roadblocks to future solutions and resolutions of conflicts. The political challenges faced by Sri Lanka, are largely related to issues that arose during and directly after the Civil War. These issues include dealing with an ethnocracy and a controlling democracy, issues facing reconstruction, the consequences of being a highly militarized state that shows signs of an authoritarian regime. Sri Lanka is also shifting foreign policy as responses to human rights violation allegations during the Civil War, along with transitional justice and accountability issues related to those allegations.

4 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 4 I. INTRODUCTION Historical Background Sri Lanka gained its independence from British Rule in At the time, it was the country of Ceylon. The name changed to Sri Lanka in 1972 ( The World Factbook ). Tensions have existed between the major ethnic group, the Sinhalese, and the minority ethnic groups, the Tamils and to a lesser extent, Muslims long before independence. The strain between these three ethnic groups took root during colonial times while under British rule. Sri Lanka was

5 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 5 relinquished to the British in 1796, became a British colony in 1802, and was officially under British rule by 1815 ( The World Factbook ). The Tamils who hailed from India joined the Tamils in Sri Lanka in the late 19 th and early 20 th century to work on estates owned by the British (Imtiyaz & Mohamed-Saleem, pp. 188). The Tamils were considered to have an advantageous position by other ethnic groups in Sri Lanka, particularly the Sinhalese. Under the British, the Tamils obtained a very large number of civil-service jobs, university enrollments, and a higher number of them spoke fluent English, especially compared to other ethnic groups (Anderson). This frustrated the Sinhalese. After Ceylon achieved independence, the Sinhalese nationalists began to promulgate their viewpoint that Tamils were intruders, and their habitation on Sri Lanka was a threat to existence of Sinhalese culture (Anderson). A subsequent legislation passed against the Indian Tamils. The legislation acts were the Ceylon Citizenship Acts of 1948 and 1949, rendering Indian Tamils powerless under the new government. These acts were supported by minority groups, including Muslims and the Sri Lankan Tamil community. By 1981, these acts grew to encompass the Sri Lankan Tamils, whose status was changed to non-citizens. The Tamils located in the North of Sri Lanka grew tired of the treatment they were receiving, and eventually demanded a separate homeland with arms to back their calls (Imtiyaz & Mohamed-Saleem, pp. 188). There are also tensions between the Sinhalese and the Muslim minority ethnic group. One of the main points of contention between the two groups began when Muslims opposed Tamil separatism. Tamil separatism was supported by the Tamil nationalists and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). Muslims additionally cooperated with the government, which was

6 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 6 controlled mostly by Sinhalese, in order to have their voice heard in the divided political sphere (Imtiyaz & Mohamed-Saleem, pp. 188). Civil War History Two moments prompted the start of the Sri Lanka Civil War. The Sri Lanka Civil war was an armed conflict between the LTTE and Sri Lankan government. It can be seen through the lens of an ethnic conflict, with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, who were calling for an independent state against the predominantly Sinhalese government. The war lasted nearly 26 years from July 23, 1983 to May 18, The 1971 Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) Insurgency was the first event that influenced the Civil War. The Sri Lankan military was not able to control the insurgency without the aid of India, Pakistan, China, and Great Britain (Guneratne & Weiss, pp. 272). The second moment which influenced the beginning of the Civil War was the anti-tamil pogrom that took place in July, The LTTE killed 13 soldiers in a land-mine ambush. The Sinhalese killed as many as 3,000 people, burning and burglarizing thousands of Tamil homes in response The police didn t typically interfere,, and at times would even join the angry masses. The effects of this pogrom crossed borders and were felt by the infuriated Tamil population in India. When politicians demanded action, Indria Gandhi s government answered their call and began supplying both monetary assistance and military training. The Civil War had officially begun (Anderson). II. Ethnic Struggles and Divides Overview of Ethnic Struggles

7 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 7 Sri Lanka s ethnic issues have been largely based on ethno-religious political differences. It is extremely challenging to find common ground between the economic, social, and political interests between the Sinhalese, Tamils, and Muslims. Relations between the ethnic groups were already fragile, but the Civil War forced a deeper divide, especially among religious lines. Identity then became closely associated with religion. The identification of the other was not only someone who had a different ethnicity, but religion as well. Ethno-religious political identities now delineate all ethnic groups. These groups now have to be seen as conflicts have happened, and why new ones are happening. They also require attention when cultivating processes to overcome conflicts (Imtiyaz & Mohamed-Saleem, pp. 187). It is clear that cultural politics used by the Sinhalese-dominated governments, who focused predominantly on Sinhala Buddhist cultural aspects failed to appease and represent the nation as a whole. This contributed to the slow breakdown of democracy and marked growth in ethnic violence (Hollup). Language There are two major languages spoken in Sri Lanka. Sinhala is spoken by the Sinhalese majority. Tamil is spoken by Tamils and Muslims. integral parts to understanding why

8 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 8 Sinhala and Tamil languages come from different origins, but they share some common features, and have influenced the other as both languages developed. Language is an issue on a national level. It has implications in both religious and political environments. It continues to pit Sinhalese against the Tamils and Muslims (Imtiyaz & Mohamed- Saleem, pp. 188). Religion and Identity The Sinhalese are the major ethnic group in Sri Lanka. They make up approximately 82% of the population and are largely Theravada Buddhist. (Imtiyaz & Mohamed-Saleem, pp. 188). The Tamils are the largest ethnic minority in Sri Lanka. Tamils are mostly Hindus and represent approximately 12.7% of the population (Imtiyaz & Mohamed- Saleem, pp. 188). Buddhism and Hinduism share ideological similarities. These similarities do not directly translate to good relations between the Buddhists and Hindus in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan state has stepped away from its past historic neutrality in terms of religious matters. The state is now composing an image derived from Buddhist identity. This is

9 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 9 proclamation of Sinhalese Buddhist (ethnically specific) domination with two compartmentalized ethnic totems, which are small and religiously generic (Imtiyaz & Mohamed-Saleem, pp. 189). T he Sinhalese view Sri Lanka as the homeland of the Aryan Sinhala race, the Sons of the extremely apparent when viewing the Sri Lanka flag. A.R.M. and A. Mohamed- Saleem describe the Sri Lanka flag by saying, The smaller separate blocs on the left side of the flag represent the minorities, toward whom the Sinhalese lion brandishes his royal sword, with an interpretation of the awareness of danger posed by the minorities to the majority. The national flag represents a virtual schematic of the island s ethnic divisions and a clear Figure 1. The flag of Sri Lanka ( Soil. It is therefore their duty Lanka-6-x-10-Nylon-Flag.html) to defend and preserve the Buddhist faith and Sinhala language. Backed by myths and legends, the nationalists believe all others are foreign

10 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 10 trespassers who pose a direct danger to Buddhist social stratum and Sinhalese society (Hollup). The Sinhalese identity used to encompass all of those who lived on the island of Sri Lanka. In the 20 th century, the Sinhalese identity then became seen as only those who spoke Sinhalese. This then became the most important aspect of Sinhalese identity, even more than local, regional and caste identities (Spencer, pp. 76). Tamil Hindu identity is seen as being in direct opposition of Sinhalese Buddhist identity (Hollup). There was then a shift of Tamils in the direction of Tamil separatism and nationalism (Hollup). Muslims are another minority group in Sri Lanka. The Muslim ethnic group constitutes approximately 8% of the island s population (Imtiyaz & Mohamed- Saleem, pp. 188). Muslim identity was developed in reaction to the Sinhalese and Tamil identities (Imtiyaz & Mohamed-Saleem, pp. 191). Sinhalese vs. Tamils After the war, President Rajapaksa painted a picture of the ideal Sri Lanka as, one nation, one people. This image deliberately

11 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 11 describes a Sri Lanka where no single ethnic group was in charge. He prescribed the route to reconciliation as economic development and prosperity. As idealistic as the President s statement was, the Tamils saw it as the beginning of complete Sinhalese control. The Rajapaksa has been insufficient in quelling Tamil fears. Tamils worried that without the LTTE around anymore to defend the land, the government would inundate the north and east with Sinhalese soldiers, which is exactly what transpired. The the Tamil hold on the land by both force and subsequent infusion of soldiers into the population, breaking up concentrations of Tamils. The soldiers in the north and east have grabbed the attention from groups such as the Asian Human Rights Commission and Amnesty International, both of which documented many cases where Sinhalese soldiers had raped Tamil women and girls. The Army said that it would not clear their soldiers from the area and allow Tamils to return to their homes until landmines were be discovered and cleared. presence of soldiers impaired

12 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 12 However, some speculated that the reason it was taking so long to remove the soldiers and allow the Tamils to return home was because the soldiers could have been participating in grave robbing, or hiding mass graves or war crimes. Most Tamils felt that the peace achieved after the war was precariously weak. A Sinhalese politician questioned by Jon Anderson stated, the war is over but the conflict is not the problem is that this country does not accommodate its minorities well (Anderson). Sinhalese vs. Muslims There were two notable attacks on Mosques in recent years. In September 2011, there was an attack on a 400-year-old Muslim shrine in Anuradhapura. It was said that this shrine was destroyed because local Muslims were trying to turn it into a Mosque. In April 2012, the mosque in Dambulla was attacked. The mosque was in an area which Buddhists considered sacred. Around 2,000 Buddhists marched on the mosque. The mosque was firebombed during the night (Sarjoon, Yusoff & Hussin). The areas of Kuliyapitiya, Narammala, Mawathagama,

13 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 13 Dambadeniya, and Kurunegala town have experienced more anti- Muslim actions. These came in many different forms, including demonstrations, rallies, poster, and leaflet campaigns. Additionally, letters with a threatening nature have been sent to Muslim business. Shops have also been attacked during the night. (Imtiyaz & Mohamed- There have been at least 65 documented cases of attacks of minority places of worship. Places attacked include Christian, non- Theravada Buddhist, Hindu temples, or Muslim mosques. These attacks are seen as a developed hate campaign by an extreme Sinhala Buddhist organization called Bodhu Bala Sena (BBS) (Imtiyaz & Mohamed-Saleem, pp. 186). Saleem, pp. 195). Sinhalese vs. Others Tamils and Muslims are not the only victims of attacks by Sinhalese groups. III. Political Challenges Ethnocracy & Control Democracy

14 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 14 The political landscape in Sri Lanka is complicated by ethnic issues that continue to be prevalent, complicating potential progress. As Neil DeVotta described, the ethnic scapegoating and ethnic particularism unleashed by Sri Lanka s control democracy and the resultant institutional decay that radically marginalized the Tamil community are responsible for the current bleak impasse (DeVotta, pp. 67). Complicating the political sphere was the breakdown of democratic institutions. This was caused by Sinhalese nationalists distorting and recreating Sinhalese history, folklore, and mythology. These perversions boosted Sinhalese nationalism and resentment of emphasized injustices. Additionally, the Sinhalese designated Sri Lanka as the specific home and protector of Buddhism under the Sinhalese. This action promoted total Sinhalese control. The aforementioned action also legitimized the breakdown of democratic institutions. The perversion of the history, folklore, and mythology took hold over time, and the falsehoods were embedded in state and private institutions. This infection of state institutions meant that the judicial branch and armed forces were predominantly pro-sinhalese and pro-buddhist. The same outcome was seen in private institutions as well (DeVotta, pp. 65). Reconstruction There has been marked accomplishments in the north and

15 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 15 east of Sri Lanka. Both of these areas have large Tamil populations. Some of these achievements include resettling approximately 250,000 people, which accounts for around 95% of all official internally displaced persons. There has also been: construction of new infrastructure, improved agricultural productivity, increased growth rates, and lower costs of basic goods and services. Although progress has been made, the government has ulterior motives with the programs it has established. The economic development in the north and east has been interpreted as a way of solidifying the Sinhalesecontrolled state in both areas. Additionally, it stops any redevelopment of a Tamil military. The integration of the north and east is viewed as a quicker and alternative route to achieving security in those areas. The new governing body is a mixture of civilian and military components that all humanitarian and reconstruction plans must slowly trudge through in order to gain both clearance and access (Goodhand, pp. 133). Devolution of power to a regional level is an idea that has been discussed as a way to spread power out more evenly over the state. The People s Alliance Party has made the deliberate effort to attempt devolution. It is also considered the most resolute effort to address minority complaints. If devolution succeeded, it allocates a greater level of autonomy to

16 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 16 regions. It would allow the regions to focus on a wide range of issues, from policing to development. Crucially, devolution would also change the political framework, and begin. With the absence of pressure, there has been little to no progress toward political accord or state level reforms to work on root causes of ethnic conflict (Goodhand, pp. 134). allow Tamils to break free from the disenfranchisement they have experienced. Furthermore, the autonomy that devolution grants would have a positive impact for Tamils in terms of their feelings of anxiety toward the state. Devolution would instill confidence to the current degraded and disgraced government, which would alleviate the Tamil desire for a separate homeland (DeVotta, pp. 68). Although devolution presents itself as a viable option, there is little pressure for reforms to take place and to allow devolution processes to Militant Buddhist Monks Militarized Buddhist Monks cause political complications because of their continuing antipathy and destructive actions against other ethnic groups. The propagation of Buddhist revitalization keeps going. Accompanying this growth is more hostile action toward Tamil Hinduism, which has been inextricably embedded with the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka (Bastin, pp. 127) Buddhist monks and lay organizations regularly attack

17 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 17 minority communities (Jenkins, pp. 45). The actions of these militant Buddhist Monks are encouraged by Buddhist Monks who have seats in the government. These Buddhists subscribe to the idea that the state should not be secular, and instead, promote Buddhism to its rightful place as controller and protector of the state. These monks also uphold the violence associated with the defense of national sovereignty against Tamil militancy (Bastin, pp. 136). Most Militarized State in South Asia Another complication to democratic reform is the amount of militarization Sri Lanka has undergone. The armed forces are now the largest public-sector employer (Goodhand, pp. 135). The military was comparatively small during the first 30 years of independence, had limited training, and carried outmoded weapons. After the outbreak of the Civil War, the military went through a reorganization and expansion, which included improved training and new weapons. Sri Lanka has become the most militarized state in central Asia. It outspends Pakistan in terms of what GDP spent on military expenditures Sri Lanka spends 4.1% of their GDP versus Pakistan s 3.5%. Sri Lanka also has more military personnel per million of the

18 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 18 population than Pakistan. Sri Lanka has 8,000 personnel per million compared to 4,000 personnel per million in Pakistan (Guneratne & Weiss, pp. 271). The military has inserted itself into both political and economic affairs in the entire state, and not only where Tamils are concentrated in the north and east (Goodhand, pp. 135). Prior to the Civil War, the military played a small role in society. They were only brought into situations when the police needed the support to maintain order. After the Civil War began, the military has become a major component and actor in the public sphere. The military is frequently used as a law enforcement function. The use of the military now includes policing demonstrations and ejecting poor from urban areas that are contracted for development. The military is also involved in various business endeavors, including hotel developments, construction work, and tourism (Guneratne & Weiss, pp ). An Increasingly Authoritarian Regime Different Presidents have promised to give back power that was once given to the executive branch. As their rule continued, they did not follow through and relinquish their power. Because of this, Sri Lanka has progressively become more and more authoritarian.

19 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 19 Previous to the Civil War and the events that preceded it, Sri Lanka was a state of cooperation. Sri Lanka even enjoyed being the only country in the world where females had higher literacy rates than their male counterparts. Because of the conflicts that have taken place, both male and female literacy rates have decreased. Shifts in Foreign Policy President Rajapaksa began shifting relations away from the Western powers and more toward Asia and the Middle east. This shift was begun by the West s hesitant support of the Civil War against the LTTE. The shift of foreign policy reactionary measure against the Western countries policy of intertwining their economic agreements with Sri Lanka, to policies of human rights and other political conditions. Asian and Middle Eastern countries have not joined their economic, military, and diplomatic assistance to Sri Lanka with human rights, democracy, media freedom, and minority rights. Rajapaksa looked to Iran, Pakistan, and China for direct military assistance. Rajapaksa also turned to Libya, Iran, Japan, China, and Russia for economic assistance. also took place as a

20 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 20 Sri Lanka has also been bolstering bilateral relations with China, Libya, Jordan, Burma, and Vietnam. These new relations have been difficult for Sri Lanka to manage because of the intricacy and complication of interests with these powers (Uyangoda, pp. 107). Transitional Justice & Accountability for Crimes Against Humanity Based on the shifts in foreign policy previously discussed, Sri Lanka and the Rajapaksa government has avoided pressures from Western countries regarding the issues of war crimes perpetrated during the Civil War and accountability. The government has also been able to successfully divert and hold off external demands for accountability by pushing its own home grown version of justice in the form of the Lessons Learned and Reconciliation Committee. The Lessons Learned and Reconciliation committee was established in August They were formed with the expectation and decree to figure out why the 2002 ceasefire between the Sri Lanka government and the LTTE fell apart in 2008, which ultimately led to the resurgence of violence. The U.N. conducted its own investigation into Sri Lanka.

21 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 21 In 2011, the U.N. Advisory Panel was released. In the report, it came to the conclusion that the Sri Lanka government and LTTE had organized military operations with, flagrant disregard for the protection, rights, welfare, and lives of civilians and failed to respect the norms of international law (Goodhand, pp. 136). The report also stated that as many as 40,000 civilians had been killed during the last months of the conflict. The report also chided the U.N. for its role, and found that the Lessons Learned and Reconciliation Committee does not have either the independence or witnessprotection ability to be a reliable and appropriate accountability forum (Goodhand, pp. 136) In 2007, the U.N. recorded more disappearances in Sri Lanka than in any other country. The U.N. urged to send human rights monitors, which countries including the United States, supported. The Rajapaksa government rejected the suggestion (Sengupta). The panel called U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki Moon to create an independent international mechanism to oversee Sri Lanka s accountability process, to store information,

22 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 22 and to conduct its own investigations. Ban chose not to establish a mechanism without the approval of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka reacted negatively to the U.N. report. Over the next year, more detrimental evidence in the form of both allegations and video evidence was discovered. The most impactful was the Australian Channel 4 documentary called The Killing Fields. The documentary contained evidence that confirmed what the U.N. report had found. As a response, the Sri Lankan government released its own documentary called Lies Agreed Upon, which brought up doubts about the validity and credibility of the U.N. report. The Lessons Learned and Reconciliation Committee released a final report of its own to Rajapaksa, which was subsequently released to Parliament. The report earned guarded praise from countries including India and the United States for the report s examination of the causes of the conflict and its suggestions for reconciliation and political agreement. However, the report has been criticized by human rights groups and the TNA for declining to answer questions

23 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 23 of accountability and alleged offenses by the Sri Lankan military (Goodhand, pp ).

24 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 24 IV. Proposed SAARC Recommendations 1. Establish a regional mechanism that monitors transitional justice and investigates humanitarian issues that have been raised, and allow the mechanism to dole out punishments based on regionally accepted penal code for such offenses. 2. Use a regionally agreed upon school the region. This will encourage growth and interdependency in the countries in the region, and promote regional relationships. This will hopefully allow for spending to be reallocated, potentially the expenditures associated with militarism. curriculum in order to deliver an unbiased education to the youth of Sri Lanka devoid of any inclination of historical events in favor of any of the ethnic groups in order to eradicate, as much as possible, previously indoctrinated ethnic divides based on altered histories, etc. 3. Strengthen trade agreements between the South Asian countries. Encourage Sri Lanka to shift its foreign relations to countries within

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26 SAARC REPORT: Political Challenges and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Alli 26 Sarjoon, Athambawa, Mohammad Agus Yusoff, and Nordin Hussin. "Anti-Muslim Sentiments And Violence: A Major Threat to Ethnic Reconciliation and Ethnic Harmony in Post-War Sri Lanka." Religions 7.10 (2016): Academic Search Premier. Web. Accessed 16 Nov Sengupta, Somini. "Ethnic divide worsens as Sri Lanka conflict escalates." New York Times, 8 Mar. 2008, p. A3(L). Academic OneFile. go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=aone &sw=w&u=s &v=2.1&id=gale%7ca &it=r&asid=80a4e18c491bce 7b9b0ae920dfb853f6. Accessed 16 Nov Spencer, Jonathan. Sri Lanka: History and the Roots of Conflict. London: Routledge, Print. Uyangoda, Jayadeva. "Sri Lanka in 2009: From Civil War to Political Uncertainties." Asian Survey 50.1 (2010): Academic Search Premier. Web. Accessed 16 Nov "The World Factbook: SRI LANKA." Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, n.d. Web. Accessed 22 Nov