An exploration of the concept of community and its relationship with power and education.

Transcription

1 An exploration of the concept of community and its relationship with power and education. This essay explores the contested notion of community and its evolution against a backdrop of the increasing success of neo-liberalism over the last 30 years. Theoretical views on power, empowerment and how this has shaped society will be examined with a specific focus on young people. Finally, there will be an exploration into how education might bring about positive change for a particular youth community. At its simplest level, community might be described as individuals residing within a geographical location or physical boundary (Gilchrist, 2004). However, upon closer inspection, it is clear that community is fluid, multidimensional and politicised. Indeed, Popple, (2015, p. 12) identifies the nostalgic view and describes this as a social relationship that may be associated with a golden age in British people s understanding. In this view, communities are a place of warmth, intimacy and social cohesion. (Popple, 2015, p.12). Once physical boundaries are disregarded, community may be expanded to a group with a shared sense of identity or common goals and interests which may serve to empower the community through their pooled assets (Sommerville, 2008). Gilchrist (2004) discusses this in terms of networks of actors highlighting how interrelated they are through cooperation or possibly oppression sharing ideas, information or other resources. Bonds of trust are built through mutuality, creating feelings of positive regard or obligations in a variety of contexts. Indeed, communities in this sense may feel marginalized through their differences and come together to protest or raise awareness. Communities may be virtual or physical, thanks to the advent of the internet and social media. Furthermore, access or formation may be dynamic constantly evolving as needs arise or political landscapes change (Popple, 2015). Taking a more critical perspective, DeFiliipis and Saegert (2012) introduce the idea of community as a vehicle for capitalist reproduction, meaning in order maintain a capitalist state, labour is required, and in order to re-produce labour, communities need to thrive in order to procreate (DeFillipis & Saegert, 2012; Popple, 2015). In this case, communities are 1/10

2 viewed through a Marxist lens, in that the working classes (or communities) are manipulated to further and maintain the interests of those in power. Regardless of the motives of capitalism, there appears to be compelling evidence that strong communities may benefit both individuals and wider society. In many cases, Putnam (2000) describes strong communities as those with high levels of social capital. In his positive interpretation, Putnam argues that social capital is a productive network of connections, reciprocal in nature, developed through individuals interactions with each other. This has a direct influence on the economic and social prosperity of communities. Arguably more significant though, is Gilchrist s (2004) assertion that high social capital has a strong emotional impact, meaning people are happier and as a consequence healthier. However, Putman (2000) demonstrated that less social interaction in the United States of America is occurring than 30 years ago, therefore this valuable asset is declining. Individuals spend more time alone and less with extended family, or in societies and clubs. Putnam s theories lie partially in the idea of increased technology reducing physical social contact, however some (Chambers, 2006) disagree. Indeed, the explosion in social media platforms, appears to have provided what Popple (2015, p. 17) highlights as reconfiguration of communities. In the United Kingdom, over 60% of the population actively uses social media (Statistica, 2017) highlighting that virtual communities may have replaced those that were visible to Putnam. Interestingly however, recent research in the UK, tells a different story. The British Red Cross (2016) found that loneliness is at a chronic level. They largely attribute this to the reduction of community facilities and a lack of human contact with the arrival of the digital age thereby supporting Putnam 16 years later. The rapid pace of technological change has had far-reaching impact on wider society, and therefore on communities. It has been argued that technology has driven globalisation and may be attributed to the success of neo-liberalism over the last 30 years (Jaumotte, Lall & Papageorgiou, 2013; Popple, 2015). The tenets of neo-liberalism concede society should be relatively free of interference from the government with many public services, including the welfare state being progressively market driven. Smith (2001) asserts that these forces 2/10

3 have led to significant shifts in the locus of power where communities that may have been providers of such services are now consumers. Ledwith (2001) highlights the effects as significant changes in social attitudes towards those less well off, thus pushing the responsibility of the disadvantaged in society away from the collective. This, Ledwith (2001, p. 174) contends has led a shift in society to anti-collective individualism, a name which distills its diametric opposition to community. Youth communities perfectly illustrate this evolution. Dramatic reductions in funding for youth work over the last decade has been reflected in communities, with facilities like youth clubs and employed youth workers being cut (Unison, 2014; Michalska, 2017). Without these valuable networks, this age group is left with little of Putnam s social capital especially more valuable linking social capital where networks beyond communities, from more formal or diverse sources, may be leveraged to improve circumstances (Woolcock, 2001). Through this, Woolcock suggested communities may feel they have less influence or power. Demonstrating this point, Unison (2014), found 80% of youth workers responded that youth communities felt less empowered as a result of losing positive social interactions. They go further in suggesting this is damaging young people's life chances, especially those from poorer backgrounds, and raising the risk of mental illness as well as anti-social behaviour. When considering the neo-liberalism narrative, it might be concluded that the responsibility of supporting youth communities has been devolved from the government and put squarely back onto the individual. A recent community profile (001) (Sussens, 2017) showed this problem is being felt at grassroots levels. Warwickshire has also been subjected to extensive budget cuts to youth services (Unison, 2014), which may have led to some of the community fractures that were exposed in the community profile. Two issues in particular adversely impacted the teenage community. Firstly, a perceived problem with anti-social behaviour arose, leading to petty nuisances being criminalised. Indeed, the Clark of the Parish Council suggested there was a hostile attitude towards youth by some of the wider community because of this. (Sussens, 2017, p. 12). In the case of 001, anecdotal evidence suggests this has led to increasing divisions among youth and the wider community. 3/10

4 Curtis (2008, p. 15) warns society s attitude toward youth erects tall barriers to empowerment. The attitude here refers to a negative, stereotypical association some make based on particular behaviours of the youth community. The result is that adults may feel young people should be controlled in some way (Curtis, 2008). In her Gramscian interpretation, which is more fully discussed below, Ledwith (2001, p.176) suggests that stereotypical ideas are those disseminated as common sense through the institutions of civil society, meaning the media for example (Hastings, 2011). A second point (which may have contributed to anti-social behaviours) is that in common with many youth services (National Youth Agency, 2018) the youth club has been closed down, with no other provision made (Sussens, 2017). The youth leader highlighted that a club did exist for the over 13 s, but closed several years prior due to a lack of volunteers, despite the building being available. Although many of the young people in the profile lamented the closure, no particular action has been taken to resurrect it (Sussens, 2017). This apathy might be considered primary evidence of the dissolution of communities as described by both Putnam and the British Red Cross. A question may be asked of how education might provide youth with greater agency, and confidence to question decisions that directly affect them. When considering this empowerment, it might be useful define the concept relative to power. At a structural level power may be viewed as repressive, in that it may be possessed by some and not others, and wielded negatively, with the neo-marxist view that coercion or authority may be used to make people do what they otherwise would not (Buchroth, 2010). Buchroth (2010) suggests formal schooling might fit here, with its control agenda, where power rests securely with those setting the curriculum. Freire (1972, p. 56) termed this type of education as the banking system of knowledge. In this case, learners have an unquestioning empty mind waiting to be filled by an expert. Freire s ideas were developed from Gramsci s view of society as a cultural hegemony. Gramsci suggested power is maintained in society, due dominant values and ideas of the ruling classes being perpetuated and taken on as common sense as described by Ledwith. Through this, individuals submit to the dominant norms and accept them as their own. 4/10

5 Countering this, Paulo Freire s characterization of empowerment describes a collective process in an open forum with a shared control over the curriculum (Freire, 1972), through informal education. Jeffs & Smith (1990) suggest informal educators, such as youth workers, have an interest in building a bottom up or collective curriculum (Jeffs & Smith, 1990). Indeed, Freire describes education for freedom in terms of providing an environment open to ideas and free exercise of control by learners, teachers, and the community. Therefore, empowerment is both the means and the outcome of a pedagogy. Thus, providing communities both groups and individuals - with the ability to make choices and gain control over the resources they require. This suggests empowerment is an educational process, giving freedom to exercise choices, rather than governance over individuals. Considering the youth community in 001 (Sussens, 2017), education might start with creating an autonomous space, such as reviving the over 13 s youth club. Robertson (2005) cites many positive reasons for youth clubs such as: having somewhere to go; someone to talk to; prevention of loneliness (especially relevant to the point made by the Red Cross) and increasing exclusion from public places. However, a compelling rationale is that a paraxis based pedagogy as envisaged by Freire, may be enabled. By praxis Freire referred to informed (through theory) dialogic interaction, raising the consciousness of everyday lives, to empower groups to social action (Freire, 1972, cited in Buchroth, 2010). By this, Freire was saying discussion should be centered around topics the learners feel passionate about described by Freire as problem posing (Freire, 1972 cited in, Buchroth, 2010, p.76). In the case of the youth club, it may recreate a space to enable this respectful dialogue, equipping young people with confidence and political knowledge to help resolve fractures with the wider community (Robertson, 2005). Problem posing might touch areas such hope, fear anxiety or anger. Jeffs & Smith (1990) describe the concept of informal learning as fostering learning in life as it is lived. Whilst Freire and Gramsci s ideas appear valid, one criticism is worth noting. Taylor (1993) suggests with all learning there is an aspect of knowledge transfer, however small. In the case of Freire and Gramsci an intellectual such as youth worker facilitates the discussions. Therefore, Taylor (1993) highlights the practice of Freirean education can involve smuggling 5/10

6 in all sorts of ideas and values under the guise of problem-posing. Consequently, at every level of interaction, the youth worker should be mindful of this. Considering reduced funding available, and to ensure optimum participation it might be suggested the youth club is run by the young people themselves, with little involvement from parish councils, but with willing volunteers (such as the author). Tett (2010) highlights that the agenda of adults in youth organisations has in the past been to perpetuate their own values. This echoes the thoughts of Gramsci who might suggest the youth club is reproducing the dominant norms and values, in the same way that a formal schooling might do. The youth club would thus become an agent of oppression in the eyes of Gramsci. Arnstein (1969) in her ladder of citizen participation describes a way of working in true partnership with young people. In this case, joint decisions would be made, with an organised power base in the community. It is accepted this is an idealistic scenario with campaigning required for volunteers and fundraising however considering the desire expressed for this space, by a cross section of the community, it might be the optimum time to try (Sussens, 2017). Clearly, it is wrong to label youth or young people as an entirely universal group. Social differences exist such as race, class and gender. However, as Cooper (2011) points out, the voice of young people has generally been marginalised throughout history. With echoes of Freire, in that they should be treated as passive receivers of knowledge or controlled. However, these suggestions do not take account of the broader social context of modern society. A context that appears to have become increasingly complex under neo-liberalism (Cooper, 2011), where some suggest there has been an erosion of collective communities. As Freire (1985) famously quoted washing one s hands of the conflict between the powerful and the powerless means to side with the powerful, not to be neutral. By this, Freire is suggesting we must act to engage young people to ensure participation, and find ways to activate their position in communities. (2,196 words). 6/10

7 Bibliography Arnstein, S. (1969). A Ladder of Citizen Participation, Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 35(4), pp British Red Cross (2016) Trapped in a bubble: An investigation into triggers for loneliness in the UK. Available at: UK%20services/Co_Op_Trapped_in_a_bubble_report_AW.pdf (Accessed: 15th January 2108). Buchroth, I. (2010) Education, in Buchroth, I. & Parkin, C. (eds) Using Theory in Youth and Community Work Practice. Exeter: Learning Matters. Pp Burke, B. (2005) Antonio Gramsci, schooling and education, the encyclopedia of informal education, Available at: (Accessed: 17 th January 2018). Cooper, C. (2011) Youth Participation and Emancipation, in Fitzsimons, A., Hope, M., Cooper, C. & Russell, K. (eds.) Empowerment and Participation in Youth Work. Exeter: Learning Matters, pp Chambers, D. (2006) New Social Ties: Contemporary Connections in a Fragmented Society. Basingstoke: Palgrave. Curtis, K. (2008) Empowering Youth. Minneapolis: Search Institute Publishing. DeFilippis, J. and Saegert, S. (2012) The community development reader. New York: Routledge. 7/10

8 Hastings, M. (2011) Years of liberal dogma have spawned a generation of amoral, uneducated, welfare dependent, brutalised youngsters. Daily Mail, Available at: (Accessed: 28th January 2018) Freire, P. (1972) The pedagogy of the oppressed. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Freire, P. (1985) The Politics of Education: Culture, Power, and Liberation. Westport: Bergin & Garvey. Gilchrist, A. (2004) The well-connected community, A networking approach to community development. Bristol: The Policy Press. Jaumotte, F., Lall, S. & Papageorgiou (2013) Rising Income Inequality: Technology, or Trade and Financial Globalization, IMF Economic Review, 61 (2), pp (Accessed: 15th January 2018). Jeffs, T. & Smith, M. (1990) Using Informal Education, Buckingham: Open University. Ledwith, M. (2001) Community work as critical pedagogy: re-envisioning Freire and Gramsci, Community Development Journal. 36 (3), pp Michalska, A. (2017) Youth services our last line of defense. Available at: (Accessed: 27 th January 2018). National Youth Agency (2018) Areas facing cuts. Available at: (Accessed: 18 th January 2018). Popple, K. (2015) Analysing Community Work Theory and Practice. 2 nd edn. Maidenhead: Open University Press. 8/10

9 Putnam, R. (2000) Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon and Shuster. Robertson, S. (2005) Youth Clubs, association, participation, friendship and fun! Lyme Regis: Russell House Publishing. Statistica (2017) Social media usage in the United Kingdom (UK) - Statistics & Facts. Available at: (Accessed: 15 th January 2018). Smith, M. K. (2001) Community in the encyclopedia of informal education, Available at: (Accessed: 15 th January 2018). Somerville, P. (2011) Understanding community: politics, policy and practice. Bristol: Policy Press. Sussens, S. (2017) A community profile of youth, Unpublished Essay, University of Gloucestershire. Taylor, P. (1993) The Texts of Paulo Freire, Buckingham: Open University Press. Tett, L. (2010) Community education, learning and development. 3rd ed. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic. Available at: e61e-405c a71fe6c3fe6c%40sessionmgr102&bdata=jnnpdgu9zwhvc3qtbgl2zszzy29wzt1zaxrl#an= &db=nlebk (Accessed: 10 th January 2018). Unison (2014) The UK s youth services how cuts are removing opportunities for young people and damaging their lives. Available 9/10

10 at: (Accessed: 18th January 2018). Woolcock, M. (2001) The Place of Social Capital in Understanding Social and Economic Outcomes, Canadian Journal of Policy Research, 2(1), pp Available at: _Place_of_Social_Capital_in_Understanding_Social_and_Economic_Outcome/links/57c77f6 c08ae28c01d4f84ee.pdf (Accessed: 17th January 2018). 10/10