The Origins of the Cold War

Transcription

1 The Origins of the Cold War Ideological Divisions The origins of the Cold War can largely be found in the culmination of World War Two, but there were profound ideological differences between the USA and the Soviet Union and these were an important backdrop to the conflict. When Russia became the world's first communist nation in October 1917, many capitalist nations felt threatened. The new Russian leader, Lenin, spoke of a permanent revolution to spread communism abroad and Russia's previous ruler, Tsar Nicholas II, was executed alongside his wife and children in The Bolshevik party experimented with allowing the workforce to control factories and farms before nationalising industry and persecuting the Russian upper and middle classes. This conflicted with the liberal capitalist ideals of the United States, who favoured private ownership and capitalist competition fuelled by international free trade. In 1918, the USA was one of a number of countries who unsuccessfully sent troops and money to assist anti-bolshevik forces in the Russian civil war and this direct intervention was not forgotten by Soviet leaders. I. The Impact of World War Two Despite their ideological mistrust, the Soviet Union and the USA managed to co-operate effectively during World War Two as they allied their forces against fascist aggression from Japan and Nazi Germany. Yet, as Peter Calvocoressi has claimed, this was essentially a

2 'marriage of convenience' as the two nations both realised the importance of the other's contribution if they were to successfully defeat the Axis powers. Even during the conflict, tensions remained. The Soviets blamed the West for their policy of appeasement against Hitler and both Britain and France were angered that Stalin had been prepared to initially enter into an alliance with Germany to try and prevent invasion. However, the Grand Alliance (between Britain, the USA and the Soviet Union) remained in place until the eventual defeat of the fascist powers in 1945, leading to a series of important conferences where the leaders of the three nations met to decide the post-war settlement of Europe. It was during these meetings that tensions in the Grand Alliance came to the surface. The two most important were: 1. Yalta, February 1945 Attended by: Franklin D Roosevelt (United States) - Roosevelt had a good working relationship with both of the other attendees and was keen to reach a workable settlement that would enable Europe to recover and lessen the appeal of extreme political ideologies. Winston Churchill (Great Britian) - the popular wartime leader was respected by both the American and Soviet delegates. Churchill was keen to secure aid for the rebuilding of Europe but also understood the Soviets' ongoing security concerns. Josef Stalin (USSR) - Stalin's main preoccupations were to secure compensation for the devastation Russia had suffered during the war and also to ensure its future security by weakening Germany and ensuring influence over Eastern Europe. Key areas discussed: Poland There were disagreements over which Poles should form the post-war government, with Stalin favouring the Lublin government that had resided in Moscow during the war and Great Britain preferring the so-called London Poles who had sought

3 shelter in the English capital. The delegates agreed to decide this via elections. The borders of Poland were also altered, shifting the country westwards to extend Soviet territory (but not to the extent that Stalin wanted). Germany It was agreed that Nazi war criminals would be put on trial and that Germany would be divided into four zones, administered by the USSR, the US, Britain and France. The Soviets argued for $20billion of reparations to be paid but no amount was agreed upon. Far East The US secured a promise of Soviet support to defeat Japan once the war in Europe was over by secretly offering the USSR territory in China. 2. Potsdam, July-August 1945 Attended by: Harry S Truman (United States) - Truman had taken office following Roosevelt's death in the spring of He provided a stark contrast to Roosevelt, lacking foreign policy experience and discussing issues in a blunt Texan drawl that was disliked by some delegates. Winston Churchill / Clement Attlee (Great Britain) - Churchill lost the election during the Potsdam conference and was promptly replaced by Attlee, who found it difficult to instantly gain the respect of the fellow delegates. Stalin was shocked at Churchill's departure. Josef Stalin (USSR) - see above. Key areas discussed: Eastern Europe There was anger from the western powers that the USSR had interfered in elections in Bulgaria and Romania.

4 Germany It was agreed that each occupying force could take reparations from their zone, leaving the Soviets with the industrial spoils of eastern Germany. Far East- although not openly discussed at the conference, Truman hinted that the USA possessed a formidably powerful weapon that would prevent them needing the help of the USSR to defeat Japan. In fact, Soviet spies within the American nuclear programme meant that Stalin was already aware of the weapon's existence and he became increasingly uneasy when it was not discussed openly. By not relying on Soviet forces against Japan, the USA cut off any potential communist territory gain as a result and also demonstrated their power by causing Japan to surrender after two atomic bombs were deployed shortly after Potsdam concluded. The Soviets (perhaps correctly) interpreted this as a veiled threat towards them. II. The Crystallisation of the Cold War Throughout 1946 and 1947, tensions between East and West were cemented into open distrust and hostility owing to a number of key developments: 1. Developments in the West The Long Telegram (February 1946) This was sent to Truman from George Kennan (the US ambassador in Moscow) and became a quasi-official statement of US policy. In his message, Kennan warned that the Soviet Union was a threat to the USA because the Western way of life could turn people away from communism. This led Stalin to desire the destruction of capitalist powers and Kennan warned that the Soviet leader would look for opportunities for expansion. However, it is likely that Truman partially misunderstood Kennan s message; the ambassador didn t actually argue that the Soviets were a military threat, but more of a political or economic one. He was also keen to emphasise that Soviet concerns were rooted in insecurity.

5 The Iron Curtain Speech (March 1946) This was made by Winston Churchill at the University of Fulton in Missouri, while Truman sat behind him on the stage. Although Churchill was speaking as a private citizen, his warnings that an iron curtain had descended between east and Western Europe caused great fear in the west and encouraged Britain and the USA to strengthen their alliance against the undemocratic actions of the USSR. It also caused a hysterical response in Moscow, with Stalin accusing Churchill of warmongering. The Truman Doctrine (March 1947) This was an official US policy statement, in which Truman pledged that the United States would assist any country or government under attack by armed minorities or outside pressures. $400 million was approved for this purpose. The doctrine did not explicitly state that the money was to prevent communist expansion but this became the reality. The initial funds were largely used to replace British support for the monarchist (anti-communist) forces in the Greek civil war, which had been raging since The British had informed the US that they were unable to maintain their involvement in February 1946 and the Truman Doctrine was announced the following month. The Marshall Plan (June 1947) This was an extension of the Truman Doctrine, devised by the US Secretary of State George Marshall. The United States gave $17 billion to sixteen European countries in order to create financial stability and international cooperation. In theory, any country was able to apply for Marshall Aid but they were only eligible to receive it if they were willing to declare their financial records and open up their markets to free trade. The US were well aware that the Soviets (and their Eastern European satellite states) would be unwilling to meet these terms. Churchill described Marshall Aid as the most unselfish act in history and it certainly had a beneficial effect in Western Europe, increasing output by 64% by However, the Soviets interpreted

6 the assistance as dollar imperialism (Molotov) and resented US interference and the deepening economic gulf between east and west in Europe. 2. Developments in the East The Sovietisation of Eastern Europe ( ) Despite Churchill s claims at Fulton, it is not accurate to claim that the Soviets dominated Eastern Europe within months of WW2 ending. In fact, the Red Army was largely withdrawn in 1945 and although the USSR insisted on post-war governments that were friendly towards them, they did tolerate relatively free elections in Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Poland in 1945 and The majority of these elections resulted in coalitions, with left-wing parties dominating the governments. Yet, by 1948, communist governments had been imposed across Eastern Europe by ousting noncommunists. This was achieved through a mixture of threats and intimidation and more open violence, culminating with a bloody coup in Czechoslovakia in The only eastern European country that Stalin could not dominate was Yugoslavia, where communists had taken control in 1945, under Tito. The Yugoslavian leader refused to accept Soviet authority and was expelled from the Cominform (the Communist Information Bureau) in The Cominform (October 1947) This was an alliance of communist countries in Eastern Europe, devised and dominated by the USSR. From this point on, the policies and tactics of the communist parties were directed by Moscow.

7 III. Germany: The Epicentre of the Developing Cold War ( ) 1. Differing attitudes towards Germany In May 1945, Hitler committed suicide and the Nazi leadership was dismantled. This left a power vacuum in central Europe and at the peace conferences, the allies disagreed on Germany s potential future. For the Soviets, it was important that their security was ensured by keeping Germany weak and also that they received substantial reparations to compensate for the twenty million deaths and the huge level of destruction caused by Nazi invasion and occupation. To some extent, France and even America sympathised with this viewpoint but once Truman was at the helm, his priority became German recovery. The western powers believed that political extremism would flourish if Germany experienced increasing levels of economic hardship and so it was seen as more beneficial to rebuild Germany rather than punish it. This would also have the potential benefit of creating a viable capitalist partner that could be brought into the increasingly global trading system. Therefore, tensions in Germany existed even prior to the division of the country into the four zones decided at Potsdam. 2. Causes of the Berlin Blockade The Soviet Union had always felt uneasy about West Berlin a capitalist island within the communist zone of East Germany. In local elections two months after Nazi surrender, communist candidates received only 14% of the vote in the German capital, demonstrating the level of anti-soviet feeling. This animosity increased after the Soviets removed huge amounts of resources and industrial materials from their sector of Berlin as part of the reparations they claimed. In February 1948, the leaders of the three western zones agreed to accept Marshall Aid and the economic recovery of Germany began.

8 In June 1948, France, Great Britain and America agreed that they should merge their three zones to create a separate (and more permanent) German state. They also introduced a uniform currency across their areas, including West Berlin (the Deutschemark). In a desperate response, Stalin ordered that all rail, canal and road links into West Berlin from the western zones be blocked on 24 th June Since the capital produced only 2% of its own food, this immediately placed the people of West Berlin on the verge of humanitarian crisis. 3. Resolution To avoid using force but to ensure that help was provided to the people of Berlin, President Truman ordered an airlift of supplies using allied planes. Between June 1948 and May 1949, the United Kingdom and the United States were responsible for over 200,000 flights to beat the blockade and supply food and fuel to the people of West Berlin. By the spring of 1949, more supplies were actually being brought in than had arrived before the blockade began and Stalin had to concede defeat. He lifted the blockade and accepted the uneasy status quo in Berlin until the building of the wall in The Consequences: The Berlin crisis confirmed that the division of Germany could not be as temporary as was first envisaged. There were a number of further developments that entrenched Cold War divisions and confirmed Germany as the European epicentre of the conflict. They included: The formation of NATO (April 1949) This was a military alliance between the United States, Canada and Western Europe, confirming that they would be prepared to contribute to each other s defence if under threat.

9 The creation of West Germany (August 1949) This new state was created through a merging of the American, British and French zones. The creation of East Germany (October 1949) The division of the German nation was completed by the formalisation of the Soviet zone as a separate state. This division was to last for forty years. IV. Summary Within a few years of the success of the Grand Alliance in defeating Nazi Germany, open hostility existed between Soviet Russia and the west, particularly the USA. The removal of a common enemy meant that old fears of ideological differences came to the surface and both sides were deeply suspicious of the other s intentions in Europe. The conferences revealed very different priorities for both Germany and the countries it had occupied and the division between east and west became an increasing reality. The dramatic events of the Berlin Blockade underline the deterioration in superpower relations and the extent to which this can be traced back to the fallout from World War Two.

10 MCQ 1. What was the name of the Russian communist party? A) Bolsheviks B) Mensheviks C) CCP D) Social Revolutionaries 2. Who preceded Truman as president of the United States? A) Dwight Eisenhower B) Winston Churchill C) Clement Attlee D) Franklin D Roosevelt 3. How many countries received Marshall Aid? A) 10 B) 16 C) 14 D) Who was George Kennan? A) The vice president of the United States B) The commander-in-chief of the US Army C) The Soviet ambassador to Great Britain D) The US ambassador to the Soviet Union

11 5. Where was Churchill when he made the Iron Curtain speech? A) London B) Paris C) Missouri D) Berlin 6. Which country first received money as a result of the Truman Doctrine? A) Greece B) The Soviet Union C) Britain D) France 7. In which zone was Berlin after Germany was divided? A) The USSR B) The USA C) France D) Great Britain 8. What was the name of the currency introduced in the Western zones of Germany in 1948? A) The Reichmark B) The Euro C) The Dollar D) The Deutschemark 9. What was Molotov referring to when he spoke of dollar imperialism? A) The Nazi Invasion of Poland

12 B) Truman Doctrine C) The Marshall Plan D) Cominform 10. Why did the Soviets not gain any territory in China after Japan was defeated? E) They received reparations instead F) They had refused to send troops to assist American efforts G) They USA refused to honour their promise of land despite Soviet help H) The atomic bombs caused Japan to surrender unconditionally to the USA Answers: 1.A 2.D 3.B 4.C 5.C 6.A 7.A 8.D 9.B 10.D