Tribal Development Programmes And Administration in India

Transcription

1 Tribal Development Programmes And Administration in India (With special reference to Himachal Pradesh) DR. ASHOK RANJAN BASU..,,..,..... I.A.S. M. Sc. (Patna); M.A. (Punjab: Medallist); wf.a. {Liverpool); Ph. D. (Punjab); DLL; OEM Direct of H.P. Institute of Public Administration SHIM LA ~ NATiONAl book (PUBLISH

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3 f ~ dl ~~h 01 HimacharaJeili KRISHI VISHVA VIDYALAYA LIBRARY PALAMPUR ~ Hl/+1. Call No. :JDt. t,so.!jst,se Ace. No. J3 51. r Date or release for'i<}an This book should be returned on or befnrc> thc: date last stamped below. OverdUl' charges will h~ collected for each day the hook is kept o\'ertimc. (Sec les Overl<.'uf). ~ ~ "'~-,- /< \ C'i \ :::::> t -, l

4 TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES AND ADMINISTRATION IN lndia

5 - \H~,(!:'}~... ~, ~\ Of\... ;_.. T 5~~2. -- '... - ~ 1-'-' '>... ' CL-CSKHPKV First Published 1985 <i)ashok Ranjan Basu Published by Mrs. A.H. Marwah NBO Publisher's Distributors, H lf aro..t Park B~ttcnsion New Delhi IJOOI6. (India) PrintN 1r1 IN,/ Ia by,... ~~ Sllllll Prill- ~~,.!. ~ Delbl-11...,,...

6 TO MY PARENTS who gave me learning

7 Contents Foreword i~ Preface xi I. Introduction, Scope and Methodology 13 II. Tribal Development: A Conceptual Framework 27 III. Description of the Tribal Belt in Himachal 53 Pradesh with Special Reference to Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions of Charhba District IV. Administrative Aspects 69 v. Land Reforms 87 VI. Agriculture 105 VII. Horticulture 123 VIII. Animal Husbandry 139 IX. Power and Industry 157 X. Communications 184 XI. Education 204 XII. Health 224 XIII. Personnel System for Development Administration 242 XIV. Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation 254 XV. Some Concluding Observations 280 Bibliography 301 Index 317

8 CHIEF MINISTER HIMACHAL PRADESH ELLERSLIE SHIMLA Foreword Himachal Pradesh has been the legendary abode of some of the most colourful and ancient tribes of India. The honest and hardy tribal people living in inaccessible pockets did not share the fruits of development for centuries. They were forced to eke out a _meagre living by cultivating tiny terraced fields and migrating to the plains winter after winter along with their herds of sheep and goats. With independence dawned the era of planned development and these isolated people received attention. However, it was only in the 1980's that a definite percentage of plan allocations was earmarked for tribal welfare. This gave a visible spurt to the development activity in these areas. I have been closely associated with the tribal people of Himachal Pradesh since my childhood. I have walked from hamlet to hamlet and talked to every single family. I have shared their joys and sorrows and often thought of methods by which the boons of modern progress can be brought. into their Jives. I am glad that Dr. Ashok Ranjan Basu, who has spent several years in the service of tribal areas as an administrator, has taken up the study of tribal development programmes in H.P. Research in this field has been rather scanty and the book fills in several gaps in our thinking. I am confident that it will generate greater interest in the Himachal ex.periment of tribal development. VIRBHADRA SINGH

9 Preface Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions of Cbamba District are located in one of the remotest corners of Himachal Pradesh. Due to very difficult approach, these areas have remained comparatively unexplored. Inhabited by Gaddi and Panawala tribes, these areas present some of the finest landscapes of the Pradesh. The Government of Himachal Pradesh bas introduced a large number of proarammes towards all-round welfare of the people living in these areas. This study is an endeavour to analyse these proarammes alongwith the agen cies involved in their implementation as also the impact of these programmes on the life of the people in the area. I express my sincere gratitude to Shri Virbhadra Singh, Hon'ble Chief Minister, Himachal Pradesh for writing foreword of this book. I express my gratitude to Dr. Sudesh Kumar Sharma, Professor, Department of Public Administration, Punjab University, Chandigarh, for his encouragement, guidance and valuable suggestions. I am indebted to Shri H.S. Dubey, at present Hon'ble Lt. Governor Mizoram, Shri P.P. Srivastava, Financial Commis~ sioner (Retd.), Shri A.N. Vidyarthi, Commissioner Scheduled Tribes, Shri I.K.Suri, Divisional Commissioner for their suggestions, help and keen interest in this study. The work could not have been possible without the help and active co-operation of the field officers of Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions. I am thankful to Shri Balram Sharma and Shri Man Singh, the then Sub-divisional Magistrates of Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions. I am also thankful to Shri K.P. Gupta, the then Block Development Officer, Bhar mour and Shri Hoshiar Singh the then Block Development

10 xii Tribal Development Programmes and Administration In India Officer, Pangi, for assisting me in collecting the data. Shri N.L Kausbal, Tehsildar, Pangi Sub division and Shri Mohan Lal, Naib Tehsildar, Bbarmour Sub divi!liion had been very helpful in providing all facilities. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to Shri Ram Chand, the then Member of Legislative Assembly from these areas, Shri Thakur Singh and Shri Sambhu Ram, the then Chairmen, Panchayat Samitis, Bharmour and Pangi respectively for their frank opinions and stimulating discussions regarding the programmes. My thanks are due to Shri P.C. Gupta, District Statistical Officer, Chamba and all other District Officers for their valuable suggestions. I am thankful to Professor A.P. Barnabas of Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi and Professor S.P~ Ruhela of the Himachal Pradesh University, Simla, for their suggestions which were duly incorporated in Chapter I and Chapter-XI respectively. I express ~Y gratitude to Dr.K. s.a.n. Sarma and Dr. S. Mazumdar, Readers of the Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi and Dr. D. Sarkar, Economist, National Council of Applied Economic ~esearch, for consultations with regard to. statistical applica tion in th~ study. I am indebted to the Librarians of the Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, Simla, National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad, Punjab University, Chandigarh, and Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi. I. express my sincere gratitude to Shri V. Ramakrishna, Dep,uty Registrar, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi, for taking special interest in the completion of the study. I am extremely thankful to Dr. H.R. Dhatwalia, AasQciate Professor (English), Dr. P.N. Gautam, Assistant Profcasor (Public Administration) and Shri V.K. Malhotra, Deputy Director (Research) of Himachal Pradesh Institute of Public Administ~ion, Simla, for going through the manuscript of 'the book. I am grateful to my wife, Anutekha, for her ooostant help and encouragement; and to my dauahters. Aoanya and Abira, who missed me and yet endured the pangs of sc...-r-.tion during their childhood when I was busy with Jn)' awdics. I am grateful to Mrs. A.H.Marwah of N.B.O. Publ~er's Distributors, New Delhi for publishing the book.

11 Preface xiii I take responsibility for the observations/findings that have emerged in the study as a result of interprlctation of available data including interviews. The entire exercise has been completed in academic interest and with bias towards none. Fairlawn Shimla India 8th August, 1985 ASHOK RANJAN BASU

12 CHAP1'ER I Introduction, Scope and Methodology Development is an elusive concept and involves mobilization of natural resources, augmentation of trained manpower, capital and technical know-how and their utilisation for attainment of constantly rising national goals, higher living standards and the change over from a traditional to a modern society. The essence of development is generally perceived as industrialisation and modernisation. Development is a multi-dimensional and multilinear process, calling for several "complex interdependencies". The management and implementation of development progr41mmes require an interdisciplinary approach. involving, inter alia the use and integration of diverse skills. the development of capacity to assess activity in cost benefit terms, relate departmental objectives to the national economic framework and apply modern management techniques in various fields such as decision making, production, finance, personnel, supplies and relations with clients; evaluation of the impact of the programme on the community, etc. The problems of development administration could be viewed mainly from two angles; structural and behavio~ral. Structurally, the administration of development pro,arammes is primarily a question of evolving appropriate type of organiza tional set up and processes, translating development objectives aad goals iato opcratioual pojic.:ies and programmes; setting time schedules; devejopida add mobilizing the ueedechpecialised

13 !4 Tribal Development Programmes ond Administration in Indio skills of different kinds; utilising modern aids to decisionmaking, project planning and management; and executing development projects and schemes with a sense of urgency. Jn hrief, it means modernisation of the administrative organisation and the use of new administrative technology. Behaviourally, the management of the developmental activity implies the development of a set of new values and attitudes which are conducivt to organisi11g and pushing through the development programmes. Development administration is increasingly directed to realising definite programmes and is essentially an action oriented, goal-oriented administrative system. Tribal people with a population of 7.76 per cent, constitute a significant segment of India's vast population. Their diversities associated with different ethnic and cultural traits and ecological setting indicate the complexity of problems accompanying modernisation encountered both by the tribal people themselves and the official and non-official agencies engaged in tribal development and administration. With the attainment of independence and adoption.! of the Constitution, the whole perspective with regard to the role of the State vis a-vis the tribal people in India underwent a significant change. The adoption of the philosop]ly df "Welfare State" has cast a very heavy responsibility on the Govetnment with regard to protection and advancement of the interests of the backward and weaker sections of the society. Members of the Scheduled Tribes, besides the rights of ordinaey citizens also erijoy special safeguards under various provisions of the Constitution including those in its Fifth and Sixth Schedules. These, in effect, place matters pertaining to the welfare and 'advancement of the Scheduled Tribes on a special footing at the Union and State Levels. The executive is advised by bodies created under the Constitution in which the representatives of the triba l people have a major say. They also reflect a recogni tion of tlic diversity in the tribal situation, and of the need for ditferent approaches. During the first Five Year Plan, the main programm~s for tribal cleve~gpment were for economic and educational cievelop.meat, im~mmt Gl ~tn.munitation, health facititie~. etc; tn the Second Five Year Plan the emphasis was on economic

14 lnfl'tjtijiction, Scop~ and M~thodo/ogy 15 d!iwelopmcnt, agriculture, cottage industries, forest co-operatives, etc. During the Third Five Year Plan';the priority was P\'108 again to economic uplift, education, health, housing' and ~munication schemes. The Fourth Five Year Plan came UP' with. the jdea of area development approach. The Fifth Five Yea.t.llan gave birth to "Tribal Sub-Plan'' concept. During tbe.tlrth Five Year Plan, the emphasis was again on agriculture, irrigation, etc. The developmental strategy of the tribal communities has to.be linked up with the developmental strategy of the nation. One of the goals of social mobilization, would, therefore, be the integration of the tribal societies with the national policy. It.is to be noted that modernization of tribal societies does not depend upon operational efficiency of administration and dc'velopment apparatus alone. What is mote important is the efficiency ofthe system and acceptance of its legitimacy by the Communities concerned to be evidenced by their positive participation in it. l :The problems of development administration of tribal areas in tllis country are many and varied. While the traditional institutions are found wanting in meeting the modern day problems of the tribal communities, the governmental institutions have not yet evolved suitable norms and. standards which the tribals could comprehend.easily. No serious attempt has been made to bring about a fusion of the two sets of institu tiona. The tribals have not' been able to keep pace with other communities and other areas, specially in matters of economic development. At the same time, the level of develqpment among the tribals varies from community to community depending on their degree of isolation and the inaccessible nature of the areas. Low productivity, dispersed habitation, shifting cultivation, destruction of forests, isolation and inaccessibility, poor means of communication, weak cooperative and marketing iafrastructure, continued land grab by others leading to' dispos. session and exploitation and psychological complications Bowing therefrom are some of the common features which. characterise the tribal areas. To add to this, one of the most. ticklish problems connected with the developmental administration of tribal areas is staff absenteeism. It is usually difficult to.tind willing workers for such areas. Even the educated tribals.

15 16 Tribal.Development ProgriiiHIItltl.tJnd A.tlminbitaliDn in Inllia migrate from their own villages and gravitate to towns and cities. The Tribal India lives in the hills, forests and isolated regions. They are known as 'Vanyajati' (castes of forest), Vanvasi (inhabitants of forests), Pahari (hill dwellers), Adimjati (original communities), Adivasi (first settlers), Janjati (folk people), Anusuc:bit Janjati (scheduled ttibe) and so oa~: Till to-day they have retained their customs and regulations. Barring.a very small faction, there is little difference between their economic life and that of their neighbouring rural folk, yet, as the tribes have, more or less retained their separate soc:iaj identity and, on the whole can be regarded as comparatively isolated and economically backward, tlley have been pl~uicd under the category of Scheduled Tribes. There are about 427 tribal commllnities au over India. The Anthropological Survey (1967) has estimated the namber at 314 considering a number of tribes to be the constituents of a group of tribes designated by a common name such as the Goods, the Bhils, etc. In 1950 the number of Scheduled Tribes was 212. This number increased in 1956 with the revised Jist of Looking at the various census reports since 189l we find that the tribal population varies from census to census. Table No. 1.1 i!1dicates the population growth of the Scheduled Tribes. TABLE NO. I. 1 : Populatioa Gtowdt of Schelllul-.l Tribes ia Poet llldepeacleac:e PericMI 1 Category General Sc:hedul~ Tribes (Con~iderina the modified order 1956) 2 36, It,51,669 2,25.11,8S Population Increase % ,90,72, ,98,79,249 32,73 Category General Schedule Tribes 1971 Population 5 54,79,47,829 3,80,15,162 Increase % Population increase % ,52,81, ,16,28,

16 lntroduclion, Scope and Methodology 17 Among the Scheduled Tribes, numerically the most important are the Gonds of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh, the Bhils of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra and the Santhals of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. The first two of these communities have the nume rical strength of about 40 Jakhs each, the third also has a nu merical strength of more than 30 lakhs. The smallest ttibal <;ommunity is the Andamanese, with the numerical strength of only 18 (1971 Census). There are five States and Union Territories where the Scheduled Tribes are in a majority. They are Meghalaya ( per cent), Nagaland ( per cent), Arunachal Pradesh ( per cent), Dadra and Nagar Haveli ( per cent), Lakshadweep ( per cent). 1 It will be a mistake to consider India's national strategy to the problems of the tribals in isolation. There are similar provisions and postulates in the Constitutions and the national strategies of many other countries. The need of a special approach is, however, recognised almost everywhere as a strategy of nation building. Locale of the Smdy : Himachal Pradesh occupies an important position in the Indian Union. Geographically, its location is strategic. It is surrounded by Tibet and the Indian States of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. Five important rivers-chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej and Yamuna-pass through this Pradesh. With an area of 55,673 sq. km. it is larger than Punjab, Haryana, Kerala, Manipur, Tripura or Nagaland. Population-wise also it is bigger than Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland or Meghalaya. The Pradesh has a mountainous terrain with perennial snowfed rivers. It abounds in forests (X)Vering 3g per cent of the total area and these form backbone of the State's economy. The mineral wealth of the Pradesh mainly comprises of roc~salt, slate, limestone, gypsum and barytes. Situated in the heart of Himalayas, the Pradesh is famous for its picturesque tourist centres. The beautiful Kula Manali valley, Dalhousie, Simla, Kasauli, Rewalsar, Narkanda, Jawalamukhi, etc. are its main tourist attractions. The Pradesh is almost wholly mountainous with altita<ks ranging between 460 metres and 6400 metres above the sea level. Physiograpbically, the Pradesh can be divided into three

17 .)8 Tribal Development Programmes and A.dminiatration in lndiq regions-outer Himalayan, inner Himalayan and Alpine pastures. The. rainfall in the outer Himalayan region varies fr-om 152 ems to 178 ems and in the inner Himalayan region varie~ fron1 76 ems to 102 ems. The Alpine region remains. under snow for about 5 to 6 months in a year. The cl!mate v~ries from cool to cold with snow-covered areas., The Pradesh is djvided into 12 Districts, namely Bilaspur, Chamba, Hamirpur, Kangra, Kinnaur, Kulu, Lahaul Spiti,. Mandi, Simla, Sirmour, Solan and Una. As per the last census,. its total population is 42, 80, 818, the decennial growth rate being per thousand and <.tensity of population is 77 per sq. km. The percel'!tage ratio of male-female i~ : respectively. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. cons- titute per cent and 4.61 per cent respectively of the, population, a Himachal Pradesh was constituted as a separate administrative unit by merging Punjab Hill States except Nalagarh and tfle princely States of Sirmour, Chamba and Suket on April ~. Ma(ldi was merged on May 1, It was then administratively divided into four Distri~ts of Chamba, Mandi. M~llas~ and Sirmour.. The Qistricts of Chamba and Sirmour comprjsed of the area of the er.stwhile princely States bearing samc? qame.. Mandi District was formed by grouping the erstwhile States of.mandi and Suket and the rest of the Punjab. I:Jill States were grouped to form Mahasu District. In 1950, as a result of the reorganisation of the pr(,winces. and princely States, the ~nclaves of Solan ca.ntonment, Kotgarh. and ~otkhai from the East Punjab (now Punjab), twq villages. namely Sangog and Khattar from the Uttar Pradesh anq the areas called Kufri, villages of Dhar Khulag, Goila, Jamrarha, Nathal, Kunjiara, Sureta and Baragaon jungle from Patiala. and East Punjab States Union (now Punjab) were transferred to Mahasu District of Himachal Pradesh. From Mahasu District in Himachal Pradesh built up areas of Sanjauli, Bharari and Chakkar including the. Himachal Pradesh portions of prospect hill, and built up areas of Kasumpti and Patti Rihana were transferred to East Punjab. Two small portions of Himachal ~radesh, consisting of Rampur Venka and J:<otah villages.

18 Introduction, Scope and M~thodo/ogy 19 lying between Simla and Bharuli were also transferred to Patiala and East Punjab States Union (now Punjab). On July I, 1954, the Part C State of Bitaspur, comprising of the erstwhile State of Bilasput was also merged into Himaehal Pradesh through an Act of Parliament called the Himachal Pradesh Bilaspur (New State) Act, Bilaspur was added as the: fifth District to Himachal Pradesh in And yet another new District, the sixth one was carved out of the District of Mahasu on May I, The entire Chini Tehsil and 14 villages from Rampur Tehsil of Mahasu District formed the new Kinnaur District. Under the Punjab Re-organisation Act, 1966, (Act No. 31 of 1966) more territories were transferred from Punjab to Himachal Pradesh. Himachal Pradesh got full Statehood on January 25, 1971 under the State of Himachal Pradesh Act, 1970 (Act No. 53 dated March ). Out of Kangra District, later, were carved out the- Di~>tricts of Una and Hamirpur. Mahasu District was reorganised, new District of Solan was formed, and Simla District was enlarged. The tribal areas in the State are spread over the Districts of Kinnaur, Lahaui-Spiti and Pangi and Bharmour Sub-divisions of Chamba District. There were seven Tribal Development Blocks in these areas, viz., Kalpa, Pooh and Nichar (Kinnaur District), Lahaul and Spiti (Lahatii-Spiti District), Pangi and Bharmour (Chamba District). Snow, glaciers, high altitude and highly rugged terrain crisscr-ossed by fast ftowing rivers and their tributaries are the peculiar features or the tribal belt. Review of Related Literature.: Tribal Development Administration is relatively a neglected area of study and most of the available literature on the subject focuses on various aspects of tribal welfare and culture. Primitive Men in India (1963) by M. Banerjee; Tribal situation in l;tdia (1972) by K. Suresh Singh; Some Indian Tribes {19'73) by N.K.. Bose; Tribali&m in India (1978) by Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay; and Tribal India-A. symhetic View of Primitive Man (1978) by P. Gisbert give a good account of various tribes in India and their cutture. Besides these a fairly good treatment of the tribes of Himachal Pradesh can.be had from The Scheduled Tribes of Himachal Pradesh and their Problems (1958) by V.S. Sharma; Hindus of the

19 20 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India Himalayas (1963) by D. Gerald Berreman; Scheduled Tribes of Himachal Pradesh: A Profile (1976) by T.S. Negi; and H!'machoi Nature's Peaceful Paradise (1971) by S.S. Sashi. Chamba State Gazetteer (1910) by J. Hutchinson, et a/. and Gazetteer of India, Himachal Pradesh, Chamba (1963) by T.S. Negi provide a rich source of information regarding various aspects of Gaddi and Pangawala tribes. Though the literature on Pangawala tribe is limited, information about Gaddi tribe can be had from the Kangra Gaddis (1900) by E. O'Brien and M. Morris; A Tribe of the Western Himalayas: The semi-nomadic Gaddis of Dhauladhar (1935) by J.D. Malhotra; Gaddis ofdhauladhat-a Study of Human Ecology (1957) by S.L. Kayastha; and The Gaddis of Chamba (1963) by S. Bose. A detailed study of Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions was ma~e by the Directorate of Economics and Statistics of the Government of Himachal Pradesh. An Evaluation Study of Bharmour (1964); and Pangi Valley, An Evaluation and a Socio Economic Study (1966) provide sufficient information of these two Sub-divisions. A Village Survey of Bharmour ( 1963); and A Village Survey: Kupha, Parmas, Thomoh and Malet by R.C. Pal Singh are equally useful. An idea about tribal development can be had from Development of Tribal Areas (1965) by A. Aiyappen Tribal Welfare in India (1969) by N.K. Bose; Problems and Prospects of Tribal Det~elopment in India (1973) by L.P. Vidyarthi; Problems of Tribal Development (1914) by M.G. Kulkarni; Triba! Development in Independent India and its future (1974) by L.P. Vidyarthi; and Pauern of Development for Tribal Soci.etiel (1975) by Christoph Von Furher-Haimendorf. Completely different views have been put forward by Steve Jones in Tribal Underdevelopment in India (1918). Use of anthropology in development can in no way be minimised. Anthropology and Tribal Welfare in India (1959) by L.P. Vidyarthi; Pragmatism in Development: Application of Anthropology (1969) by B.N. Sahay; and The Tribal Culture of India (1977) by LP. Vidyarthi and B.K. Rai provide good material in this regard. Besides, there are a number of monographs describing the cumulative experience in regard to tribal life and culture. They provjde meaningful insights into the richness and variety of culture.

20 lltlroduction, Scope and Methodology 21 There is not much literature dealing with administrative aspects of tribal development. However, some idea can be had from Tribal Welfare Programmes: An Analysis of their Organisation and Administration (1971) by S.N. Dubey; and Salient Features of Tribal Administration in States (1971) by H.R. Trivedi. In addition to these, a large number of papers by B.D. Sharma, which have now been brought out as Occasional Papers on Tribal Development, are very informative and helpful. Reports of the working groups, expert committees and study groups on various aspects of tribal development are very helpful for further study and research. Periodicals like The Indian Journal of Public Administration; Journal of Community Development and Panchayati Raj Digest; Man in India; Indian Anthropo /ogilt; KUI'uhhetra; and Vanyajati publish research papers and articles in the field of tribal development. Most of the studies mentioned above are descriptive and of general nature without having much bearing on the present area of enquiry. These, by and large, contributed to wider understanding of the problems and stimulated thinking but were of very limited value to assess tribal development programmes in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions. The present study is a modest endeavour to examine the various aspects of tribal development programmes. Efforts have been made to assess the efficacy of the organizational structure and the personnel system to implement Lhe tribal development programmes. Objectives : This study mainly attempts to critically examine the various development programmes in the tribal belt of Pangi and Bharmour Sub-divisions of the Chamba District in Himachal Pradesh. An attempt has been made to: (a) Present a systematic account and evaluation of the various development programmes in the various sectors undertaken by the Government of Himachal Pradesh from time to time; (b) Examine the existing administrative structure in the tribal belt and its effectiveness in the implementation of the development schemes; (c) Evaluate the performance in various sectors and identify the reasons for the shortfalls, if any;

21 22 Tribal Development Programmes and Administratiofl in India. (d).critically assess the overall capability of the administrative system vis-a-vis the development plans for tribal areas; (~) Suggest changes in the personnel policies with special reference to the problems faced in the tribal areas; (/) Present some alternative strategies of action so that there is better utilization of human and materia\ resources; (g) Acquaint the policy makers and others with particular problems in these areas so that greater attention is paid to the pressing needs of the people; (h) Create more interest among the seholars to study in depth some of the problems of these tribal areas; and (i) Present a comparative study of the stages of development within the tribal areas of this Pradesh. Scope of the Study: As already mentioned, the tribal areas in the Himachal Pradesh are spread over the District of Kinnaur, -Lahaul-Spiti District and Pan!!i and Bharmour Sub-divisions of the Chamba District. Populationwise, the number of tribals is largest in Chamba District, and Sub-division wise the population is highest in Pangi Sub-division (88 per cent) of Chamba District. This study, therefore, has been limited to Pangi and.bharmour Sub-divisions of Chamba District only. Most of the development programmes which have been introduced in these areas by the Government have been studied..particular discussion and focus has been on the programmes relating to land reforms and legislation, agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, power and industry, communicatioq, education and health. Limitations of the Study: When the study was undertaken, the author had a number of misgivings and doubts whether it would be possible to explore this area of enquiry from a scratch specially when there is not much research done on this topic anywhere in India, much less in Himachal Pradesh. The cooperation of the Government of Himachal Pradesh and Government of India went a long way towards the completion of this study. As will be evident from further perusal of the pages which follow, certain gaps, inspite of sincere efforts, still remain to be filled. Every effort has been made to collect maximum

22 Jntr'oduction, Scope and Methodology 23 facts and figures from all sources and subject these to critical examination but still there may be more which have not come within author's comprehension. In particular: (a) There are many factors which influence policy-making and implementation of development programmes and some might not have been covered either due to limitations of time or due to human or other limitations. (b) Certain sensitive issues, which might create controversies embarrassing the Government and administration have been avoided. Where they could not be avoided, they have been included. '(c) Some of the mathematical deductions may not be scientifically very rigorous because the area of the study was small. The inferences drawn are suggestive only. However, the conclusions arrived at have been supported by supplementary informations. (d) This is the first study of its kind relating to a difficult terrain. Those who have not visited the area might not be fully able to grasp or appreciate the efforts of the Government in introducing the development programmes under trying circumstances. The superstitious nature of the tribal people coupled with illiteracy and certain apprehensions based on socio-psychological factors are big barriers in eliciting precise information for more accurate generalisations. '(e) At places, the narration becomes dry because of the presentation of numerous tables and figures. ~/) In the last three years, the period when this study was being undertaken, Government of India made a number of swift changes in the strategies of tribal devel<'pment which.had a number of repercussions in Himachal Pradesh. However, as the changes are quite rapid, it would take :some time before full impact of each measure could be fully assessed. (g) Figures from the other.hilly areas of India and Himachal Pradesh have been used for comparative purposes only to emphasize a particular point without taking ecological and other considerations into mind.

23 24 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration is India However, since the other tribal areas of Himachal Pradesh are largely similar, figures for those areas have been used for purposes of evaluation. Maximum effort has been made to collect the latest facts and figures. Collection of the Data : The data for this study has been collected from the following sources: (a) Primary Sources : This study is primarily based on the official records of the Government of Himachal Pradesh and Government of India. Some publications of Planning Department, the Directorate of Economics and Statistics of Government of Himachal Pradesh were also useful. The primary sources also include the District Gazetteers, Annual Reports and Five Years. PJans of Chamba District. The tribal sub-plan has also been utilised. The reports of the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Tribes and the reports of the various committees set up for evaluation have been fully made use of. (b) Interviews : To understand the impact of the tribal development programmes of the Government on the local people, members of the Panchayat Sarnitis of Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions have been informally interviewed. Officers and other personnel who are actually involved in the implementation of these programmes have been contacted. (c) Contacts with the people and the collection of facts and figures were done wherever necessary. The authenticity of the data was verified by a number of cross-checks by comparing the figures with official sources. (d) Otlkial Meetings : Discussions 1:1t the formal and informal meetings with the Government officials in the Government of India, Government of Himachal Pradesh and local level officers provided rare insights into the problems. (e) Secondary Sources : The secondary sources are the published books and research articles having a direct bearing on the subject. The training programmes held at the Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi and the seminars and workshop proceedings on

24 Introduction, Seope and Methodology 25 tribal development held at the National Institute of Community Development (now Rural Development), Hyderabad and Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad have helped in proper understanding of the problems. Participation in an International Congress on Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, U.G.C. Seminar on Education and Social Change in Himachal Pradesh, and the Seminar on Integrated Tribal Development Planning at N.I.C.D., Hyderabad have been very rewarding. (.f) Cue Studies : Some vilh:ges were selected from these two Sub-divisions for indepth studies. The population of Bharmour Sub-division is concentrated in the three sub-valleys, Tundah, Kugti and Holi-Chanauta. As such Tunda and Holi villages were selected and out of Kugti Sub-valley the Sub-divisional headquarter Bharmour was selected, so as to have a geographical representation of the three ends of the Sub-division. Similarly in case of Pangi, two important villages at two extreme ends i.e. Dharwas towards Jammu and Kashmir and Saichu towards Lahaul-Spiti were selected. Since the Subdivisional headquarter which is commonly known as Kilar is the name of the Panchayat; the village where the headquarter is located i.e. Malet was selected for the study. All these villages were selected keeping in view the Sub-divisional headquarters, their accessibility, geographical location and other administrative conveniences. I:Dttrpretation of the Data : The data as collected from the above mentioned sources has been processed and analysed taking into consideration the following precautions: (a) The data has been recorded faithfully and analysed without any bias; (b) No conclusion has been drawn which could have adverse political or administrative repercussions; (c) Statistical techniques and graphical presentation have been used wherever possible; and

25 Tribal Developmem Programmes and A dministratioidn 'India (d) Preliminary conclusions have been discussed with the concerned officials and their views taken into account. O~erview of the Chapters : The study has been divided into the fobowing three parts consisting of fifteen chapters. The first four chapters deal with the methodology adopted for the study, a conceptual framework of tribal development, description of the area of study and tribal development administration with special reference to the area of study. The programmes for tribal development, have been described in Chapter V to XII. The programmes that have been dealt with -are 'Land Reforms', 'Agriculture', 'Horticulture', 'Animal Husbandry', 'Power and Industry', 'Communication', 'Education' and 'Health'. Personnel for development administration has been discussed in Chapter XIll. Chapter XIV deals with implementation, monitoring and evaluation of development programmes. The study ends with the concluding remarks and observations. REFERJi:NCES 1. L:P. Vidyarthi and BOKO Rai, Tire Tribal Culture of India (Delhi, 1977), p o BOK. Roy Burmah "Perspective For Administration and Development of the Scheduled Tribes", Perspectives o11 Tribal Dev.elopment and Administratioll (Hyderabad, 1975), pp The figures in the brackets represent numerical strength in lakhs and the percentage that the tribal population bears to the tdtal population as per 1971 Census. : 30 Statistical Outlifle cf Himaclu,1l Pradesh, 1983 ~Sim!a, 1984), pp. 1-2.

26 CHAPTER ll Tribal Development A Conceptual Framework Development is usually conceived as an aspect of change that is desirable, broadly predicted or planned and adminis:.. tered or at least influenced by governmental action. 1 Thus, the concept of development consists of: (a) an aspect of change, (h)' a plan or prediction, and (c) involvement of the government fort the achievements of that planned or predicted goat. The t~rm 'development' is also used for the process of allowing and encouraging people to meet' their own aspirations. It, there- fore, must relate to transforming the entire society e~meshing together its economic, social,. political and administrative aspects for an all round balanced upward change. 3 Development and modernization are not interchangeable. terms as development results from proliferation and integration of functional roles in a community whereas modernization is a' particular case of development. 4 The term 'development' cannot be used synonymously with 'growth' as well. Growth implies. an increase in the gross national product. Its emphasis is mainly on economic aspect rather than on social, political or cultural aspects. Modernization implies a systematic process. iiwolving complementary changes in the demographic, economic, political~ communication and cultural sectors of a society. Thus, it entails a change from the existing ethos, mores, values. and norms. In the underdeveloped countries, development requires s'ocial and cultural change as well as economic growth' i:e. qualitative transformation must occur concurrently :with

27 28 Tribal Del'e/opment Programmes and Administration '" India quantitative increase. There is, in fact, a rt-ciprocal relation between the two and neither process is likely to continue for long without the other. Hence, development means change plus growth. 6 Development, therefore, includes growth, modernization, increase in social facilities, political awareness, etc. Development is, thus, never complete; it is relative, a state '()f mind, a tendency, a direction; rather than a fixed goal, it is a rate of change in a particular direction. 8 Therefore, the fulfilment of a certain goal alone cannot be termed as development. In the ultimate analysis, it results in a sense of well-being among the members of the society. Although non-materialistic aspects may enter into the picture for a sense of well being, but it is the material aspects that have to be given greater consideration. The total well being of a community is often measured in terms of the facilities and services that are available. However, this 'is not to suggest that the social aspects and the non-material aspects can be completely overlooked. Whatever be the agency for achieving development, it must be aware of the nature of -development in order to achieve the same. 7 The main aim of development is to increase national as well as per capita income and to raise the standard of living of the people and to secure justice, freedom, equality and security for them in the society. The focus of development is now increasingly on: (a) equitable distribution of wealth and income: (b) full utilization of manpower; (c) better utilization of natural resources; and (d) protection of the human enviroment, etc. 1 Thus, the major dimensions of development are (a) Economic {b) Social, and (c) Political. Public administration has been considered an important instrument for achieving the goals and tasks of development. There is, therefore, a great pressure on governments to accelerate national development, make use of up-to-date and relevant technological innovations, adopt and facilitate necessary institutional changes, increase national production, make full use '()f human and other resources and improve the standard of living. Public administration, in a simple language, consists of management of men and material engaged in the service of the State. Development administration, in a still simpler language, would be public administration with a special purpose. The

28 Tribal Derelopment: A Conceptual Frame11ork 29 -strategies and goals of change may vary but there are always generic processes through which agreement on goals is reached and plans, policies, programmes and projects (four 'p's) arc formulated and implemented. Development administration, therefore, is concerned primarily with the tasks and processes of formulating and implementing the four 'p's in respect to whatever mixture of goals and objectives may be determined. 10 To motivate people for development, institutions have to be created as development cannot be introduced in a society where a majority of the population does not become involved and participate in the developmental tasks. Development plans necessarily have to be accepted by the people. Alfred Diamant points. out that development results from the proliferation and inte&ration of functional roles in a community, and economic development alone does not do away with au the evils of the society. 11 Proliferation in different roles is an aspect of a developed society. However, this proliferation should not remain unintegrated. Different functional roles in a community must be well integrated. Fred Riggs points out that a refracted society develops because the functional roles of the institution differ and are not fused into one institution or person. 12 The desree of refraction in role is an indicator of the stages of development of a society. It. thus, appears that there is no agreement on one, single, universal meaning of development. Any explanation of development appears to be related to a particular focus, a set or values, goal priorities, system constraints or ideological differences. This is not to suggest that no agreements on develop~ ment exist at all, but rather that the approach, recommended by theorists or governmental policy makers in any country may be seen as determined by their adherence to one or another model of development. Options: With the above background we can conceive different types of alternatives or models of development. These are not mathematical models as such, but are mere symbolic abstractions. The models delineated here may not be always sharply distinguishable from each other. Nevertheless, there is sufficient distinction among them to recognise three different approaches. The three different alternatives possible may be conceived as Model A, Model B and Model C.

29 30 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India The first development model (Type A) emphasizes, above all, the maximization of economic growth in a society. 11 This model demands that government policy must be directed towards establishing and promoting industrial economy and envisages the use of foreign aid to overcome the lack of sufficient capital in early stages for the desired industrialization. Appropriate use of technology, whether created internally or imported, is intended to overcome some of the halting nature of the stages in growth envisaged by Model A. The model directs government policy towards investing heavy resources in infrastructure of the economy and requires that wages must remain constant during the early period of expansion so that the capital may be expended only on growth of enterprises a,nd for the benefit of those who create and foster. business and industrial enterprises. The model emphasizes a. polished system of public administration for efficient implementation of government plans and policies. u Finally, there are social, psychological and cultural explanations offered by model A, purporting to show that some patterns of individual and societal behaviours are more supportive of maximum economic growth than others. 16 These 'prerequisites' of growth include innovative attitudes, entrepreneurial roles and achiev.ement oriented personalities. The main drawbacks of the model are said to be th~t it is dehumanizing, elitist, wasteful and imperialistic. Model A emphasizes maximization of economic growth and, thus, subordinates human values to gross national product. It is said to favour accumulation of individual wealth without regard to those who are unwilling or incapable of such achievements. Let us, therefore, now consider Model B which endeavours to overcome these drawbacks. In Model B the purpose of develop ment is as important as the achievement of development. Instead of accumulation of possessions, the standard of success becomes the preservation of cultural strengths. 18 Model A is charged as elitist on the ground that it favours those elements of society that already have the resources to take advantage of new opportunities. As against this, Model B emphasizes the adoption of those government policies which seek to relieve those societal elements who are at the bottom of the economic ladder, rather than subsi41ze those who are in the middle.

30 Tribal Development: A Conceptual Framework 31 Model A is said to be wasteful as it requires further depletion of the world's natural resources to achieve it& goals and duplicates efforts to achieve production goals already shared in other areas of the goals. Model B views development as a global enterprise instead of a national goal alone and expects nations to help each other in supplying their needs instead of" duplicating the same policies and to reinforce each others efforts. to control pollution and exponential population growth. 17 Another weakness of Model A is said to be that it fails td make clear the necessity for Third World nations to depend on the largessee of industrialized societies in order to achieve economic growth envisaged in Model A. Such dependency occurs, Model B theorists contend, because development or underdevelopment is not a consequence of each nation's own virtues or faults alone. Each country is rather linked to the controlling power of the international system. Because of the differences among theorists critical of the Model A approach to maximum economic growth it would not be inappropriate to term their explanations as Model B-1, B-2, B-3 and B-4. The common point in them being that they constitute a reaction to Model A the kind of alternative that seeks to increase the value of other factors than economic growth alone. Model B attempts to reveal the pitfalls which accompany an emphasis on production without regard to the need to pay attention to equitable distribution of economic benefits. It also attempts to reveal the risks which accompany an uncritical use of foreign capital while ignoring or disregarding the kind of influences such usage may bring. 11 The third model, i.e. Model C, emphasizes productivity and economic growth. However, the main difference in Model A and C is that Model C lays strong emphasis on central planning, public ownership of industries and agricultural cooperatives. Moreover, political development plays an equal role with economic development in this model. This model de-emphasizes expertise, limits urbanisation, disperses industries and discourages imports. Model C shares with Model A, a strong inclination to see heavy industrialization as an appropriate path toward improvement in a society, but it shares with Model B an inclination to emphasize equality of benefits and national independence in

31 32 Tribal De~ elopment Programmes and Administration in India economic and political decision making. It, however, differs from the other two in its placing on a par with, or even raising above, economic devel0pment, the need to reconstruct individual commitments to the society by changing the nature of social institutions. 19 Implications: Model A's emphasis on the use of capital and technology to upgrade agriculture and promote industrial growth carries with it the implication that government policies should be so formulated as to benefit those capable of making,good use of such capital and technology. This policy is likely t<> be favouring those who are not among the poorest in the society. In addition, Model A's reliance on aid and certain kinds of trade from industrialised countries, particularly in the form of capital investment, requires a close alliance between foreign interests and those government and economic circles in a host country, who are in a position to make use of such investments. Thus, only the qualified persons are capable of dealing in such transactions. The 'cost' of such a policy, however, is the reliance on the trickle-down theory of economic expansion. The provision of direct benefits at the top of a social and economic pyramid may, in fact, aim the spread of such benefits to those lower on the pyramid, but there is little assurance that sufficient amounts will reach them, or that the time span will be short enough to bring about the predicted rise in their standard of living in their lifetime. Model B's focus on more equitable distribution, rather than mere production of goods and its emphasis on the need to take a global, rather than merely national, view of development contain two types of implications. One is that government policy makers should give highest priority to those policies aimed at alleviating unemployment and increasing income of the lowest economic groups in the society. The other implication is that government policies should serve the national interest by means of regional cooperation. 20 The cost of the Model B approach includes the threat of what would appear to be slower economic progress, on the one hand, and the need for greater international political success that have occurred in the past, on the other. Model C requires a substantial number of dedicated, disciplined personnel who will devote their careers to working among

32 Tribal Development: A Conceptual Framework 33 large number of people to effect changes in political consciousness. Another implication is the necessity to pursue policies which invest the nation's resources, i11 the rural and less advanced sections of society, even if some sacrifice in production has to be temporarily made. The application of Model C strongly implies the capacity of the national leaders to accept the consequence:> of economic mistakes as they press for national self-reliance and a denial of many forms of assistance from (lther nations. The cost attached to this model is heavy regimentation of beliefs and behaviour and acceptance of the planned conversion to the development goals described in the Model C approach. 21 These choices of development paths and their implications available to government policy makers do not necessarily contain an automatic clear cut guidelines to the most appropriate selection. what is more important is that options are available, and policy makers should be aware of them. At present, Model A type of policies are being heavily criticized on the grounds that they yield inequitable results and are not suited to the overpopulated, constricting world of 1980's. Model A, however, continues to be the development path actually being followed by most national governments in the Third World. Despite its sub-types, wide-ranging alternatives and amassing growing support, particul~rly among intellectuals, few governments actively pursue Model B options and they too only in small parts. Model Cis, however, followed mostly by communist countries only. With these three different types of models mentioned above, we may consider their applications in developing the tribal areas. The development administration in tribal areas is likely to disturb the existing equilibrium between the tribals and their environment. The economic and social development demands introduction of b:::tter agricultural practices, better irrigation facilities, introduction of industry, facilities for health and education, etc. All these would require an influx of outsiders in the area. The introduction of developmental programmes is likely to change or at least affect the tribal norms and values. lt would, therefore, require a cautious approach so that the development remains bound within their existing norms and values and in due course of time tribals get assimilated in the

33 34 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India mainstream of the national life in a phased manner as equal partners. DeYelopmeat Admiaistratioa ia Tribal Areas Backwardness of an area is often attributed to the paucity of resources, in particular the inadequate availability of capital.ea Though there are a number of models and theories, they are reducible to what is commonly known as 'vicious circle' theory. Alternative versions of the theory may sometimes stress the scarcity of factors other than capital but it is always the inadequate availability of one or the other 'crucial input' which is identified as the binding constraints on development. However, in the present conjuncture of forces it is not always so much the inadequacy of resources as the inadequacy of demand which is the operative constraint on the rate of capital accumulation. 23 In order to be effective, any strategy of intervention must, therefore, not only ensure the growth of physical stock in a backward area but also the expansion of effective demand for goods produced in that area. It, therefore, appears necessary to identify the 'economic base' (i.e., export sectors) of the area and concentrate on the growth of these sectors but whether such a strategy of development will succeed in a particular case or not depends on the specific set of circumstances attendant to that particular case. 2 ' Moreover, whether or not the export sector of a backward area can serve as an effective basis for development of the area depends on the net balance of trade of the area. However, a surplus balance of trade need not always lead to the development of the area as it may coincide with a deficit on capital account and even when the balance of payment is so balanced that there is no net outflow of capital in the accounting sense, there may still be a leakage of surplus from an underdeveloped area because of a fundamental undervaluation of its products by more developed areas.' 6 As the modern theory of underdevelopment points out, it is this leakage of the investible surplus which constitutes the very basis of the phenomenon of underdevelopment.re It is also argued that private investment considerations might siphon away resources from a backward area rather than attract resources from outside. 17 Planners and administrators are coming to realise that their previous models have slighted some critical elements, namely

34 Tribal Development: A Conceptual Framework 35 the cultures and societies of the people for whom and on whom development plans were enacted. 23 Anthropologists not only come to development problems from the perspective of the people, they also tend to try to understand particular projects as part of a longer system. It is the system of social relations and cultural understandings that is critical for the success or failure of projects. For, as it is now recognized, development is not only the adaptation of advanced technology and economic programming, nor is it just another term for change. Development consists of purposive efforts by people, led by public figures and planners, to organise themselves in new technical, cultural and social ways. These are ways that will enable them to achieve the style and quality of life to which they aspire. When their aspirations shift, the direction of development efforts must shift accordingly. 20 Anthropology and Administration The influence of anthropology on the administration in the tribal areas has been accepted. Anthropology deals with the systematic knowledge of man. Social anthropology studies the total social b::haviour of communities, different kinds of social relationships of people within and without a group in a community, the cultural contents of society and the total society as an integrated whole. Because of its scope, nature and methods of studying the society as such, the knowledge of social anthropology is likely to be useful to the administrators engaged in the development of the tribal areas. The development programmes involve socio-cultural and economic change in the life of the tribal people. It is, therefore, necessary that the administrators must know the existing ways of life of the tribal people and the theories of social change. It is to be realized that though economic changes are often faster, in the long run, both economic and soci2.l changes have to go together. The need for being careful with regard to the 'hard core' of culture and the utility of anthropological approach rather than bureaucratic method of dealing with the tribal people has to be realised. 30 In the beginning, tribal communities are in a state of ecological equilibrium with their environment. In the early stage of development, ecological equilibrium may get disturbed due to

35 36 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration itt India a number of reasons. The forces responsible fc.r ecological disequilibrium may be classified as in the diagram below: 31 Forces Responsible for Ecolcgical Discquilit-rium I I I Natural I 1. I Phys1cal Biological I Socio Economic I Internal to the group I I Physical (Health) T Socio Economic I I External to the group I,-----, Individual Institu or Group tiona! The intensity of contact of small tribal groups with other groups varies considerably. The small tribal groups can be Classified on the basis of four characteristics. viz., size, isolation, confrontation and ecological equilibrium. Where the ecological equilibrium has been disturbed, the first step is to identify the precise nature of the ecclogical imbalance as this analysis is likely to help in evolving a suitable strategy. Ecological disequilibrium arises generally because a community had not been able to keep pace with the changing environment, both physical and human. This would require faster pace of change in the community so that it can catch up with the rest of the society by freeing self from the dependence on a narrow ecological field with the rest of the community but while planning for the initial phases of development, the fact of the 'loss of nerve' in many cases has to be fully taken into account. In this period, a benevolent outside contact may help them in getting over the 'confrontation complex' and establish new communication channels. The steps for removing the causes of ecological disequilibrium ha\e to be as swift as possible. The pace of other steps, however, should be slow, preferably even imperceptible. The stages in development of tribal communities in a state of ecological disequilibrium can, thus be envisaged as follows:u Stage I Stage 11 State of confrontation. (a) Countering external forces-- J n stitutional. (b) Institutionalising measures for countering individual or group forces.

36 Tribal Development: A Conceptual Framework 37 Stage III Stage IV (c) Effective attention to problems of health; and (d) Recognition of the native skills, restoration of self confidence and citizen education. Pause. (a) First aid to the traditional economy. (h) Breaking the communication barriers and education; and (c) Gradual upgradation of native skills and introduction of new elements in a longer time perspective. Confrontation Ceases. Cb111lenges of Tribal Development With this background, the challenges to Development Administration in the tribal areas can be examined. The environment of an area has its impact on the administration of the area. The tribal culture, its economy, social custom and political system also influences the administrative set up and practices in that area. The administrative set up has to be suitably changed keeping in view the ecology of the tribal areas. The complexities arising out of the tribal ecology is quite different from those of other areas and hence requires a different approaclt 13 Moreover, in order to administer development, the knowledge of the tribal social system, customs and socioeconomic conditions are of great relevance 3 '. The development administration in the tribal areas has its own problems. However, before the problems and strategies used for development administration in the tribal areas are discussed, it is worth while to have an idea about the 'tribe' itself. Winicks' Dictionary of Amlzropn/ogy has defined 'tribe' as a social group usually with a definite area, dialect, cultural homogeneity and unifying social organ.ization 35 A tribe ordinarily has a leader or may have a common ance'ltor as well as a patron deity. The families or small communities making up the tribe are linked through economic, social, religious, family or blood ties 34 Anthropologists have identitled the following characteristics of tribal communities. i.e., (a) smallness, (h) distinctiveness, (c) homogeneity, (d) isolation and self

37 38 Tribal Development Programmes and AdmitJistration in India sufficiency, (t) sensitivity, (f) anxiety to retain their identity, (g) fear of extinction, etc. Many other definitions of 'tribe' have been given by both noted Indian and Western anthropologists. On the whole, it has been observed that, broadly speaking most of the 'tribes' exhibit some of the common features which are as follows:" (i) common name, territory and language, (ii) strong kinship bonds and endogamy with distinct taboos, (iii) one social rank and political organization, (iv) distinct customs, moral codes, religious beliefs and rituals, (v) youth dormitory, (vi} high illiteracy and absence of schooling, and (vii) common ownership or simple economic profession of subsistence level and low level of technology of development. Strictly speaking, there are few communities, in India or for that matter anywhere in the world, which satisfy all the above mentioned criteria. Therefore, tribe in our context, implies those communities or groups which have been included in the list of Scheduled Tribes in the Indian Constitution. The communities which have been included in the list of Scheduled Tribes have the following two important characteristics: (i) they were considered to be primitive in economy and social organisation till the recent past, and (ii) they were considered to be different from the rest of the population 18 Goals of Tribal Development The goals of tribal development in India were best summarised in Nehru's foreward to Verrier Elwin's book on NEF A as follows:"' l. People should develop along the lines of their own genius and we should avoid imposing anything on them. We should try to encourage in every way their own traditional arts and culture. 2. Tribal rights in land and forest should be respected.

38 Tribal Developmem: A Conceptual Framework We should try to train and build up a team of their own people to do the work of administration and development. Some technical people from outside unit no doubt be needed, especially in the beginning but we should avoid introducing too m:wy outsiders into tribal territory. 4. We should not over-administer these areas or overwhelm them with multiplicity of schemes. We should rather work through and not in rivalry to their own social and cultural institutions. 5. We should guide results not by statistics or the amount of money spent. but by the quality of human character that is involved". This five point formula enunciated by Nehru optimises 'the government policy. This was further elaborated by Elwin, who emphasized the need for the tribal people to come to terms with their own past, avoiding danger of pauperism and without creating a sense of inferiority. Elwin stressed on tribal people in helping the Indian society as a whole so tbat they may feel as part and parcel of India as any other citizen' 0 The goals of tribal development can, thus, be summarised as economic, social and political. (A) Econom ;c Goals Economic Development is a process whereby country's real national income increases over a long period of time. Economic growth means more output and economic development implies both more output and change in the technical and institutional arrangements by which it is producedn. It entails the diversion of a nation's scarce resources and productive powers to the augmentation of its stocks of productive wealth and to the progressive enlargement of its gross and net national product of goods and services 41 The objective is in aggregate or in per capita terms. Economic development is, thus, an increase in real per capita income of a country. In the context of tribal development, it aims at increasing the incomes and strengthening the material aspects of tribal culture through better utilization of the environmental resources, i.e. forests, minerals, flora and fauna, agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry and industrial potentials. The problem of

39 40 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India equitable distribution of income and wealth within the tribal culture vis-a-vis Indian society as a whole, needs further enquiry. All measures that tend to improve the economic conditions of the tribals within their culture would ipso facto promote their economic welfare as social justice 43 (BJ Social Goals Economic development in terms of an increase in per capita income is no longer regarded as the only development objective. As a matter of fact, it ntay pave the way for a substantial improvement in the quality of the people. Social development, thus, means bringing about improvement in the social being of the people and as such lays stress on provision of health services, education, housing, cultural amenities, protection of children, a change in the status of women, regulation of labour and improved status for workers and reduction of disease, povery and other social ailments. All the tribal groups are not in the same stage of social development. There are some groups in remote and inaccessible tribal villages. On the other hand, there are some groups which have had the benefit of sufficient interaction with rural and urban population. There may be a third group of people, who have made adjustments with the rural-cum-urban social environment and who are already on the way of assimilation into the larger complex. The fourth group comprises of tho~ who have become a part of the urban and rural complex and as such are indistinguishable from the other population. A process of detribalization may be said to have been taken in their case. While it is generally agreed that sufficient time should be given to the first three groups to get them oriented to the Indian social life as a whole, there is a great deal to be said in favour of some of the important forms of tribal culture. It is. evident that changes are bound to make inroads even into the hard core of the tribal culture as a whole 11 It may be useful to outline criterion of cultural development for the four groups mentioned above on the basis of a differential approach. The main question then boils down to the comprehensiveness rather than rate of change itself. Provided the proper approach is found, it may be possible for level-jumping in case of a many

40 Tribal Deve/opmellt: A Conceplllal Framea ork 41 tribal groups so that the culture complex can undergo a rapid transformation as a whole. In other words, the problem of value orientation of tribal development is inextricably linked with the value framework of the emergent society in India as a whole. Otherwise there may be a lot of economic prosperity brought to the tribal groups, Panchayati Raj system may be introduced, efforts may be made to keep up the older forms of non-material culture of non-tribal groups but serious problems of adjustment and assimilation are likely to arise in future, e.g. (I) the tribal group may get absorbed in the highly complex caste structure of the society, which they do not have at present. In case they are placed at the lowest, it would be regression for them than progres~. and (2) the tribal groups may be drafted into the highly complex and philosophically oriented religious system, which might under mine the very roots of tribal culture. (C) Political Goals The third aspect of development is the dimension of political development. The concern for political development is said to have resulted from the failure of economic development programmes which is attributed to political imperfections in the society. Political development refers to the process of politicization, that is increasing participation or involvement of the citizen in the State activities and in power calculations and consequences 45 The political goals of development imply evolution towards democratic process and forms of government. The approach to different tribal groups would, however, depend upon the existing social organisation and the tribal Panchayats/councils, if any. Each tribal group would have to be worked on an individual basis. Evolution of the political structure of democracy in tribal areas would mean that ultimately it would have to be linked with the larger framework of power politics in Indian society as a whole. While in some areas. independent political parties from the tribal groups have emerged, it may be useful to draw up and abide by healthy communication among different political parties not to exploit the tribal groups politically. At the same time,

41 -42 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India interest orientation and politicization of tribal groups is essential. Thus, the goals of tribal development can be grouped into the following two objectives, i.e. (i) long term objectives, and (ii) short term objectives. The long term objectives are : (a) to narrow the gap between the levels of development of the tribals and the others, and (b) to improve the quality of life of the tribal communities. The short term objectives are : (a) elimination of exploitation in all forms, (b) speeding up the process of socio economic development, (c) improving organisational capabilities, and (d) building up inner strength of the people, etc. 41 Development is generally accompanied by economic inequalities and it also gives rise to various forms of socio-economic tensions. The development oftribal communities is one special aspect of this general process as the socio-economic situation -of these communities is somewhat different from the general socio-economic situation in India. The tribal.economy can be said to be at one end of the spectrum of India's pneral socio economic scene. Tribal development poses a special challenge to the development administration due to two reasons. Firstly, administration itself in the tribal areas emerges as a very strong group in comparison to the local community. Secondly, the constitution has placed a special responsibility "for development of these regions" on the administration. The powers of administration increase because of this special responsibility, and in the context of imbalance of power between administration and local community in these areas, the responsibility of administration' further increasesy Though all the tribal areas are not at the same stage of socio-economic development, nevertheless, it can be said that there are some basic similarities in all these areas on the basis of which certain common policy issues can be formulated. 48 The tribal areas are characterised by their aloofness, a lower level of economic activity and a closed social structure. In a determined effort for economic development in tribal areas during the second half of the 20th century, these areas got ~pecial attention as they were the most backward areas and had a great potential for forest, mineral and agricultural development. The natural barriers were overcome; roads got built, mineral.explorations started, forest potential exploited and a bigger

42 Tribal Development: A Conceptual Framework 43 stream of administrators, contractors, traders and other fortuneseekers started. As the new climate emphasizes achic,vement, ignores the means and sanctifies competition, the articulate outsider has, therefore, one motivation-quick acquisition. The tribals become defensive, they are not able to meet this group on terms of equality. The fastness in the new situation inhibits. the harmonising influence of time.' 9 Group Mobility Within a Tribal Area Tribal communities are largely homogeneous, egalitarian and the distance between the highest and lowest is very small These communities are largely closed and the fear of unknown. further discourages the tribal from moving out. The emergent situation in urban and rural areas is different. In urban areas, broadly three groups can be identified-higher, middle and lower (say u,,, U," and U1). In rural areas, there are generally two groups-higher and lower (say Rn and Rz respectively) and the local tribal communities comprise of the lowest groups in urban and semi-urban areas (U1) while they form the vast majority or even the exclusive populace in rural areas. The migrant groups are concentrated in urban and semi-urban areas (Uh and U,.) and have a sprinkling in rural areas (R1.). There may besome transgressions of economic boundaries by individuals, a few local tribal.s may find their way into u,.. group but none is. able to move to the u,. group. Language and socio-psychological barriers restrict the group mobility. Conceptually, education should help in group movement even in a structured society. In advanced areas, although,. social origin is important, economic forces play an increasing part in group formation. In these advanced areas, lines of movement between different urban and rural groups are well established because of common social bonds. 50 In the tribal areas, the standard of education is relatively poor as a result of which the educated one may have a lesser chance in competition. Discovering the 'non utility' of education, the tribal is. reluctant to send his child to the school. Secondly, even when a young man is enabled by education to cross the language barrier, the socio-psychological barrier becomes generally insurmountable, as a result of which the educated tribal often has to bounce back to his original environment. This creates a psycho-

43 44 Tribal Del'elopmenl Programmes and Administration ill India logical schism and the educated tribal boy is torn between the two worlds. The level of regional development is represented by the total income generated in the region, i.e. the sum total of income of the two groups (migrants and tribals) presuming that all the income is retained within the region. Jf at any time, N and n are the population of the tribals and the migrants, and 'P' and p' are their per capita incomes respectively, a group inequality index G may be defined as 51 G = -- I (N-n 2 (N -r 11 np-np) np+np) (i) lfr=~ N and s=.!!_ p Then G=r (S-l) (r+l) (rs+l) The group inequality index is zero i.e. G=O, if or or (i) r=o (ii) r=" {Iii) s= l r=o means n=o i.e. disappearance of migrants r=" means N=O i.e. disappearance of tribals s= I implies their complete assimilation. (ii) In the beginning, when migrant group is zero, G=O. It increases with passage of time. There are two phases in the regional economic histery, the earlier phase (exploitation phase) when the total income T remains constant and the migrant group, through various devices, covers a part of it. Individual incomes can be said to have two components: p=p-t-pe P=P-P, (iii) (iv) where p, and P, are the transfer components arising from exploitation. In this phase G=A~n+B6p (0 1t is quite obvious that the group inequality index increases

44 Tribal Development: A Conceptual Framework 45 with migration and income transfers. The total regional income does not remain constant for very long as new economic activities are added. In this phase if, there is no further influx, The rate of growth of inequality is likely to slow down if suitable policies are adopted. In the real world situation, however, G cannot increase indefinitely as it gives rise to certain politico-socio-economic forces. The ideal thing is to guide the economic development in such a way that group inequality index is reduced without much time lag, i.e. to make S= I c.s early as possible. Such attempts get reflected in special programmes for tribal areas. A regional economic analysis does take into account the socio-economic conditions of the people of a region besides its resource configuration. However, it soon reverts to the traditional economic analysis and the people recede into background. Economic growth, implies an increase in the total real value of income in a region. Hence, in a country, internal factor mobility should tend to eliminate inter-regional per capita income differentials, geographical dualism or spatial polarisation. Under conditions of free factor mobility, and abstracting from transportation costs, special inequality can persist only via lags in dynamic adjustments.n The diagonosis generally is that internal factor flows do not occur with sufficient speed and quality and the requirement is to induce this ilow. In short, it means: (i) encouraging flow of entrepreneurial and specialised skills, (ii) inducing flow of capital, and (iii) development of infrastructure. A fourth dimension of planning social change and strengthening local communities is also accepted in principle. In the absence of proper appreciation of fourth dimension, group inequality index may rise steeply even if new wealth is created and retained within the region. If the fact of outflow of incomes and destruction of natural resources is also taken into account the tribal group will be found to be still more adversely affected. The factor mobility is expected to eliminate the inter-regional differences. This presumes a direct physical achievement and social development relationship. The important fact of social and economic discontinuities which separate the extre- (l'i)

45 46 Tribal Development Programmes and.administration in India mely backward regions from the mainstream of national life are ignored in this analysis. With the opening up of an area, immigrants with higher skills appear on the scene and also bring with them higher tech nology and developed craftmanships. A macro analysis of the economic situation may show a general improvement in the level of various skills, particularly along the main arteries of communication. Though per capita income records a rise and inter-regional disparity gets reduced but in the process the tribals may withdraw from these pockets of development. As mig rant population and their income grow, the local population, at the best, stagnate economically and the process of exploitation may get intensified reducing their share of gross regional product. The index of group inequality G rises sharply as both 'r' and 's' increases. 63 The main reason for migration is search for better market and better utilisation of one's skill. Thus, while the advanced groups may be helped by this process, the tribal may slide back on the technology scale. Continued migration and multiplication may outstrip the new opportunities and even reservations for tribals may not be effective. Economic indicators of the region may show an upward trend, but so also the index of group inequality. Movement of capital may also present similar problems, its benefit to the people of the area will depend on its composition. The development of infrastructure means development of communication and power network. Development of infrastructure without due regard to its effect on the people is likely to accentuate group inequality. Thus, development of new infrastructural measures may result in intensifi cation of exploitation process. It is, thus, obvious to have necessary countervailing forces to neutralise the impact of these elements which tend to increase the group inequality. These forces can be social or economic and either spontaneous or induced. The social forces can arise from: (i) spontaneous social change of migrants or indigenous communities, (ii) induced change through education, and (iii) a new class of migrants. The countervailing economic forces are of two types: (i) protective like regulation of transfer of land and money-lending, etc. or (ii) positive, like special development programmes. \1

46 Tribal Development: A Conceptual Framework 47 Regional development in consonance with the development ofthe people can be identified as maximisation of t~ total regional product T, subject to the condition that: (i) groupo inequality does not increase, i.e. p P is minimum, (ii) intragroup differences in the tribal communities themselves are also kept to the minimum, i.e. PN-PI is minimum, where PN is the income of the Nth individual, and (iii) the increase in income of any group is not a mere transfer of income but is production based, i.e. pe, P,-40H. Tribal Development Programmes Uptil now major so~ial services, like education and health, have not been treated as economic investment in true sense, though they are the most important social service programmes in the tribal areas. The economic programmes can be divided into two categories, i.e. (a) those which do not envisage any basic structural change and are of immediate rtature, and (b) those which may act as nucleus of socio-economic transformation ofthe local community and have a long term perspective. The programme~ in category (a) will generally include development of agticulture, horticulture, animal husbandry, etc. These programmes may be termed as 'traditional universalistic' as they have two important features, viz. (;) they mainly concern the traditional economic activity, and (ii) they may benefit the group. The programmes in category (b) will generally include mining, and industry, etc. They may be termed as 'modern particularistic' because: (i) they mainly concern the modern economic activity, and Ui) they may benefit <t select group only 15 Administratively, the programmes for the welfare of the tribals fall under three main categories: (i) Centrally operated programmes (ii) Centrally sponsored programmes, and (iii) State Sector programmesu. The planning and execution of the Centrally operated progr.'lmmes are the sole responsibility or the Central Government. The activities under the Centrally sponsored programmes are formulated and financed by the Central Government but executed by the State Government. The activities included under this category are those which have a high countrywide priority or relate to special disabilities of. ~-' ~" / ". I(..:.. ~. {~; '. ~. ~. v) ').. //' ~ : -,.,J1 \... l f ; ) :- \ \ ~ r

47 48 Tribal Development Programmes anti A.dmlni1tratlon. in lifdra such a nature that intensive measures over a length of time are considered necessary. The welfare activities under the state sector programmes are incorporated in the development plans of the State Government 57 Most of the development programmes are carried out by the Government machinery. So far as the general Indian scene is concerned, the level of specialisation of the socio-economic system is supposed to be higher. The process of development and the nature of the programmes are designed according to the needs of this system with considerable specialisation. Whenever the need of a particular sector outgrows the limited means of the concerned institution and it is no longer possible for it to satisfy that need, another institution is born. In this way, economic development and institutional specialisation continue to reinforce each other. The organisational structure desisned at the State headquarters have same pattern for the tribal and non-tribal areas as a result of which there is a tendency of over specialisation in the tribal areas. The specialisation arises from the needs of a specific situation and stipulates full co-ordination amongst all institutions for achieving the central objective. Syncronisation of all services require a good communication system and duty~conscious personnel. The socio-economic situation of the tribal areas is extremely simple. When the over specialised system of administration is superimposed on these areas, the simple tribal community sees it from a distance as a strange phenomenon. The second important aspect in these areas is sectoral programme in the context of the integrated life of the tribal. The simple tribal community leads a whole life, it bas no sectors, hence individual oriented programmes might not succeed herc 511 Thus, the problems of development administration of the tribal areas in this country are multifarious and complicated. There is a considerable diffusion of authority, inadequate cpntrol, lack of coordination and from the point of view of the tribals, difficulty in identifying persons concerned with specific programmes because of the growing complexity and multiplicity of the institutions. The problem of personnel is also equally acute and even the educated tribals migrate from their own areas and gravitate to towns and cit.ics. In addition, n1uch distinction cannot be made between regulatory and develop-

48 Tribal Development: A Conceptual Framework 49 mental administration in these areas in the context of the fact that elimination of exploitation has been given the highest priority. Thus, the problem of developmental administr~tion in the tribal areas can be grouped as: (i) organisational problems, and (ii) personnel problems. The programmes for development of the tribal areas, the approaches and the problems faced in implementing the development programmes have been dealt with in the subsequent chapters. REFERENCES I. John D. Montgomery, A Royal Invitation: Variations on Three Classical Themes" in John D. Montgomery and William 1. SH1in (eds), Approaches tn Dt<~ elopment: Politics, Administraliolf and ChalfKe (New York, 1966), p Report o11 the U.N. Conference 011 the Application of Science and Technology for the Benefit of the Len ljel'eloped Areas (New York, 1963), p. VII. 3. S.K. Sharma, Development Admi11istration i11 l11dia, Theory. and Practice (Jullunder, 1971), p Alfred Diamant, "European Models of Bureaucracy and Development", lllternatio11al Re1 iell' of Administrative Sciences, Vol. 8, No.. J, 1967, p Gerhard Colm and Theodre Geiger, "Country Programmilll as a Guide to Development" in Development of tire Emerging COUIIIries: An Agenda for Research (Washington, 1962), p Edward W. Weidner, "Development Administration: A New Focus for Research" in Ferrel Heady and Sybil L. Stokes (eds), Papus in Comparative Public Administration (Michigan, 1962), p A.P. Barnabas, "Bureaucracy and Development", Bflckrround Papers in J.J.P.A's Fourteenth Course 011 Development Admini.stration (New Delhi, Mimeo, 1977), p.l. 8. The United Nations, Development Administration: Current Approa ches and Trends in Public Admini.1 trarion for National DevelopmetJt (New York, No. E 7 1f H-1), p S.K. Sharma, op cit., p. l. 10. Donald C. Stone m the Introduction to Education for Development Administration (Brussels, 1966), p Alfred Diamant, op. cit., p Refer Fred W. Riggs, Administratior1 in Developing Countries: The Theory of Prismatic Society (Boston, 1964). 13. For details, see R. Nurkse, Problems of Capital Formulation in Underdeveloped Countries (London, 1953).

49 50 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India 14. For a variety of views on this aspect of the model, see Joseph~ Palombra, Bureaucracy and Political Development (Princeton, 1963). 15. Everett E. Hagen, On the theory af Social Change: How Economic Growth Begins (IIIionis, 1963). 16. For details of models refer Henry J. Friedman, "Options and Implications: Three Development Paths" in S.K. Sharma (ed.) Dynamics of Development: An lnternat ional Perspective (Delhi, 1978) p Ibid, p.225. I 8. Ibid, p Ibid, p Ibid, p Ibid, p Refer G.M. Meier, 'The Problem of Limited Economic Develop- ment", Economia lnternazianale, Vol. Vl, No.4, For details, see A.K. Bagchi, "Some Characteristics of Industrial Growth in India", Economic and Political Weekly (February, 1975) and K.N. Raj, "Growth and Stagnation of Indian Industries.., Economic and Political Weekly, (February, 1976). 24. Sudipto Mundie, "Developing Backward Areas, Some Questions Concerning Strategy", lndian Jounnal of Pub/it' Administration, Vol. 23, J9n, pp For details, Refer A. Emmanuel Unequal Excl~:mge : A Study of the lmperialism of Trade (New Left Books, 1972). 26. Refer A.G. Frank, 011 Capilialist U1Jderdevelopment (Oxford, 1975). 27. Refer Sudipto Mundie, op. cit., pp World Bank, (1978), pp David G. Mandelbaum, "Anthropology and the Challanges of Development", Paper Presented in the Plenary session of Xtk Jnurnational Congress 011 Anthropological and Ethonologica/ Sciences (Mimeo, December 10, 1978) p B.N. Sahay, Pragtnatism in Development: Application of Anthropology (Delhi, 1969), pp. 84-7, also refer to W.H. Good Enough. Cooperation in Change, (New York, 1963). J I. B.D. Sharma, Development of Small Tribal Communities-A Theoretical Framework, Occasional Papers on Tribal Development, No. 6. (New Delhi, 1976), pp Ibid, pp For the effects of environment on administration, refer to F.W. Riggs, The Ecology of Public Administration (New Delhi, 1961). 34. Refer H.G. Barnett, Anthropology in Administration, New York, 1956).

50 Ttif)al Development: A Conceptual Framework Charles Winick, Dictionary of Anthropology (London, 1957), p /hid. p B.K. Roy Burman, "Perspective for Administration and Development of the Scheduled Tribes". Perspective 011 Trihal Development and Administration (Hyderabad, 1975) pp L.P. Vidyarthi and B.K. Rai, The Trihal Culture of India (Delhi, 1977), p Jawaharlal Nehru, Foreword to the second edition of Verrier Elwin's. A Philosophy for NEFA (Shillong, 1959). 40. J.S. Mathur, "Tribal Development Administration", Per.vpective on Tribal ljt'l'elopmmt ami Administration (Hyderabad, 1975) p Charles P. Kindlchergcr, Economic Developmellt (New York, 1965), p Joseph J. Spengler, "Theory, Ideology, Non-Economic Values and Politics of Economic Development" in Ralph Braibanti (ed), Traditions, Valuo am/ Socio-Economic De1 elopment (Durham, 1961), p J. S. Mathur, op. cit., p Ibid, pp Fred W. Rigg.\, "Bureaucrats and Political Development: A Paradoxical View" in Joseph La Palombara, Bureaucracy and Political Development (Princeton, 1963), p. J Ashok Ranjan Basu. "Tribal Development Administration; Approaches and Goals," paper presc11ted in Fifth Annual Conference of Indian Public Administration Association held at Osmania University from June 14-16, 1978, p B.D. Sharma, "Tribal Development, The Administrative Perspective" in S.K. Sharma, (cd) Dynamics of Dc l elopment, An International Perspectil'<' (Delhi, 1978), p Ibid, p B.D. Sharma, "Economic Development of Extremely Backward Trihal Regions", Occasional Papers 011 Tribal /Jel'elopme/11 (New Delhi, 1976), p Ibid, p Ibid, p. ll. 52. J.C. Williamson, Rt ~tionallnequalities and the Process of National Development: A Description of Patterns in Regional Analysis, L. Needleman (cd) (Penguin), p B.D. Sharma, "Economic Development of Extremely Backward Tribal Regions", op. cit., p Ibid, p. 26.

51 52 Tribal Development Programmes and Anministration in India SS. B.D. Sharma, ' Economic Development of Extremely Backward Tribal Regions", op. cit., p S.N. Dubey and Ratna Murdia, Administration uf Policy awl Pro1rummes for Backward Classes in India (Bombay, 1976), p Ibid. p B.D. Sharma, "Tribal Development-The Administrative Perspecth e", op. cit., p. 643.

52 CHAPTER Iff Description of the Tribal Belt in Himachal Pradesh with Special Reference to Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions of Chamba District The tribal belt of Himachal Pradesh is situated in its north and north-east and is spread over the Districts of Kinnaur. Labaui-Spiti, Pangi Sub-division and Bharmour Sub-division of Chamba District. 1 A brief geographical description of the tribal belt is given below: (a) Kinnaur District : Kinnaur District consists of a series of mountainous and precipitous ravines descending rapidly to the bed of Sutlej. The two chains oflofty summits, which branch off in south-western directions from the elevated ridge of the left bank of the Indus, fall within the District and are known as Parasala and Purgeol. Parasala is, according to the estimate of Alexander Gerard, about 6300 metres high while the height of Purgeol, at two points, is about 6789 and 6747 metres. The Kailash peak is the highest in the District. 3 Sutlej, the principal river of the District which originates in the Himalayas, enters the Kinnaur District from the Tibetan territory. The main tributaries of the river in the District are Lee or Spiti, Baspa, Tidong, Wanger and Darbung.' (b).tabaui-splti District : The main Himalayan mountain range, constituting the north-western tip of Lahaul-Spiti District

53 54 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India boundary, extends through Baralacha region, encompassing the upper reaches of the rivers Tsarab, Paraichu and Ungti, terminates at the place where the river Spiti leaves the District boundaries. The mid-himalayan range separates the District from Kulu and Bara-Bhangal and merges itself with the Sri Kandh range, which touches the main Himalayan range at the river Spiti. The western part of the District is bounded by the great Pir Panjal range. The mid and the main Himalayan ranges are joined by the Kunzum range, which separates the District into two natural divisions of Lahaul and Spiti, communication between the two is open only during the summer months, through the passes of Kunzum and Baralacba. The Lahaul Sub-division has five natural parts, viz. Chandra Valley, Bhaga Valley, combined Chandra-Bhaga Valley, plain of Lingti and the great mass of glaciers and high peaks encircled by the Chandra and Bhaga rivers. Similarly, Spiti is sub-divided into two parts situated on the either side of the main Himalayan range. The District has three important rivers, viz. the Chandra, the Bhaga and the Spiti. The first two, which are exclusively in the Lahaul Sub-division form the headwaters of the Chenab, locally known as Chandra-Bhaga river. The Spiti, which is the main river of the Spiti Sub-division, empties its waters in the Sutlej river. The important rivers, having altogether a different drainage system, are Yunan, Tsarab and Paraichu which flow into Ladakh territory and finally become a part of the great Indus river.' Cliamba District (c) Bharmour Sub division : The area ~o the south-east of the Tundah Spur comprises of that part of the Valley of the Ravifrom below Bara-Bhangal with its tributaries, the Budhil and the Tuodah, as far down as the Chirchind Nullah, near Chhatrari-which is called the Bharmour Sub-division. It is the oldest portion of the District and includes the ancient capital. It js also called 'Gadderan' or the abode of the Gaddis.. (d) Pangi Sub-division : Thirot Nullah on the eastern side and Sansari Nullah on the western side separate Pangi Subdivision from the Lahaul-Spiti District. On these two boundaries, as also largely on the other sides, the valley is surrounded by high mountain ranges. The lowest of the five passes by

54 Description of the Trihal Belt in Himachal Pradesh 55 which this Sub-division is connected by direct traffic with the 'fest of the Chamba District is about 4298 metres high while the highest is 4932 metres above the sea level. The important passes are Sach, Darati, Chaini, Kalicho and Chobia. 7 These passes remain closed for traffic practically for half the year. The Chandra-Bhaga, flowing into the valley from Lahaul-Spiti. ll'uf!.s through its whole length and divides it into several parts along with its tributaries of Sural, Hundan. Saichu and Meyar nullah. The Pangi valley thus stands sub-divided into Sural, 'Hundan, Saichu and Meyar sub-valleys. Following re-organisartion of the Sub-division, Meyar valley was transferred to Lahaul-Spiti District. Scheduled Tribe and Scheduled Caste Communities The major Scheduled Tribes, inhabiting the Kinnaur District are known as 'Kinnaura'. Among the Scheduled Castes are "Koli' (or 'Kolta' or 'Chamang') and 'Lobar' (or 'Kathela', sandhela', 'Damang'). 'Bhot' (or 'Bodh') and 'Swangla' are the major Scheduled Tribes inhabiting the Lahaul-Spiti District. Kori' (or 'Koli') and 'Sanhai' are the major Scheduled Castes in the District of Lahaul-Spiti. 'Pangwatas' and 'Gaddis' are the chief tribes of Pangi and Bharmour Sub-divisions respectively. 'Hali', 'Sipi' and 'Chamar' are among the main Scheduled. -tastes inhabiting the Pangi and Bharmour Sub-divisions. 8 The following tribes have been declared as Scheduled Tribes jn Himachal Pradesh. TABLE 3.1 : Scheduled Tribes of Himachal Pradesh' I. Gaddi 2. Oujjar 3. Jad, Lamba, Khampa and Bhot (or Bodh) 4. Lahula S. Pangwala 6. Kannaura or Kinnara 7. Swangla Area aud Population As per the last census, the tribal belt covers per cent of the total geographical area and 3.13 per cent of the total population of the Pradesh. Of the total population of 1.34

55 56 Tribal Development ProgrtliHtnes and Administration ill Indict Jakbs, per cent are Scheduled Tribes-their percentage is, as high as 87.9 in Pangi Sub division.l 0 The following table iadicates the percentag~ of Scheduled Tribe population in the "Various Districts of the Pradesh. TABLE 3.2 : Pereeatage of Scbecluled Tribes, Distrietwile 11, ROO~--- S. No. District.. Percentage 1. Bilaspur Cltamba Hamirpur Kangra Kinnaur Kulu Labaui-Spiti ll. Mandi Simla Sirmour Solan Una 0.01 Total Himachal Pradesh 4.61 From Table 3.2, it is clear that concentration of Scheduled Tribes is maximum in three Districts only, i.e. Lahaui-Spiti~ K.i~naur and Chamba. The area and population in these three Districts have been indicated in Table 3.3 below. TABLE 3.3 : Area aad Populationu District Area in Scheduled Scheduled Others Total sq. km. Castes Tribes Population (I) (2) (3) (4) (S) (6) Kinnaur 6,401 6,331 44,583 8,633 59,547 Lahaul-Spiti 13, ,766 7,611 32,100 Chamba 6,528 61,408 95,726 1,54,013 3,11,147 Total 26,764 68,462 1,64,075 1,70,257 4,02,794 From the above table it is clear that among the three Districts, the tribal population is highest in Chamba District. The table given below indicates the population of Scheduled Tribes. in the Sub-divisions of these three Districts.

56 .O.scription of the Tribal Belt in Himachal pradesh 57 TABLE 3.4 : Population of Scheduled Tribes, Sub divisionwise 13 S. No. District Sub- Total Scheduled 'Tribes division Population Total Percentage (l) m (3) M-0 (4) (5) (6) I. Kinnaur Kalpa 22,184 15, Pooh 18,432 15, Nichar 18,931 13, Lahaui-Spiti Lahaul 21,738 17, Spiti 10,362 6, Chamba Pangi 12,256 10, Bharmour 29,944 24, Chamba 1,04,153 30, Churah 88,408 8, Dalhousie 76,386 21, ~- From Table 3.2, it appears that Districtwise tribal con centration is maximum in Chamba, Kinnaur and Lahaul Spiti Districts. From Table 3.3 it is also evident that among the three Districts, numerically the tribal population is maximum in Chamba (95,726) followed by Kinnaur (44,583) and Lahaui Spiti (23,766). From Table 3.4, it is evident that the percentage of tribal population is maximum in Pangi Sub-division followed by Pooh, Bharmour, Lahaul, Kalpa, Nichar, Spiti, etc. The present study, however, is concerned only with the Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions of the Chamba District. Chamba District comprises the erstwhile princely State of the same name which became a part of Himachal Pradesh on April 1 S, With the re-organisation of Punjab, some areas of Pathankot Tehsil of Gurdaspur District of Punjab were integrated with this District. The District has a total area of 6,528 sq. km. and the total population, according to 1981 census, is 3,11,147. The entire District is mountainous with altitudes ranging from metres to metres above the sea level. Therefore, the climate varies from sub-tropical to semi-arctic. The high altitude regions of the District remain snow-bound for a fairly long period during the year. Out of the four Sub-divisions, the Pangi and Bharmour Subdivisions are the tribal areas of the District. These two Sub-

57 58 Tribal Development Programmes and Admitllstration in lndid divisions are one of the most backward Sub-divisions in Chamba District as well as in Himachal Pradesh. Bharmour Sub-division The Bharmour Sub-division has a great historical import ance. It was here that the erstwhile Chamba State was founded. This tract is also regarded as the homeland of the Scheduled Tribe known as Gaddis. 14 Once called Brahampura- the origi nal capital of Chamba Sta e-bharmour proper today is no bigger than a large village. But it still retains, in ancient temp les, the monuments of its old glory. The population in this Sub-division is concentrated in the three sub-valleys-tundah. Kugti and Holi-Chanhauta. These are inhabited by about 58, 12 and 30 per cent respectively of the population of the entire Sub clivision. With regard to economic development and accessibility, of the three sub valleys, Tundah sub-valley may be considered as comparatively more advanced and the Kugti as most backward. 15 The headquarter of the Sub-division is located at Bharmour in the lap of Bharmani forests and is approachable from Chamba town through a 67 km. long fair- weather road which remains closed to traffic for the entire length of rainy and winter seasons. Otherwise, the means of transport and communications are extremely scarce and difficult. Certain habitats are still not.accessible even through beasts of burden. For such places, human labour is the only means of transport. Tl)e Gaddis, who inhabit Bharmour Sub-division of Chamba Dist~jct, are a classic example of how people-:-fleeing from the Indo-Gangetic plains to an entirely different, rugged and mountainous tract-adopted themselves remarkably well to the new -conditions and at the same time retained their essentially Qriginal socio-cultural traits for all these centuries. Traditions con Jtect their origin to those Hindus who sought refuse in the Dhauladhar mountain range from war and religious persecution in the plains during the Mughal period. 11 The Gaddis are the semi-nomadic peopl-e who inhabit the Dhauladhar range in the north of the Himalayan Beas Basin. They attract notice by their striking dress and handsome bear~.ing. The mountainous habitat has strongly ipfluenced their

58 Description of the Tribal Belt in Himachal Pradesh 59 economy. Their life, work and religious beliefs bear the jmprint of the environment in which they live and work. They are handsome, tall, robust and energetic people. Their complexion is fair, and 'Gaddans'-the Gaddi women-are well known for their good looks. 17 Migration : During migration, besides grazing their flocks of sheep and goats, Gaddis engage themselves in cutting wood, pounding rice, working as agricultural and manual labourers. domestic service, etc. Thus, their meagre income from land. sheep and goats and cottage industries at home are augmented to a certain extent. The constant touch with the outside world. during migration, year after year, also results in their adopting better ways of life prevalent in the places of their migration. 18 Food : The food of Gaddis consists of goat's and sheep's milk, maize, buck wheat, hill millets, phullan and pulses. The bread is dipped in milk and eaten. Occasionally, mutton and liquor are consumed especially on festive occasions. Gaddis' favourite drink is 'lugri' a mild alchoholic drink made from fermented rice or barley flavoured with roots of shrubs. At high altitudes, where it is difficult to procure provisions, the Gaddi. lives on for days together on milk of sheep and goat. Gaddis also eat some edible plants like 'lungru' and 'phaphru'. Parched barley made into flour is consumed on their journeys from place to place. Instead of sugar, they use mostly honey which they get from the forest hives. They prefer the crude salt of Mandi District. 111 Social Norms : Gaddis are known for their simplicity and honesty. Brunhes remarks that "Instinct to pillage is inherent in the character of the nomads, but it is truly remarkable that Gaddis are free from pilfering, poaching, theft and any other crime. Even some of their deeds are maintained by oral words only. Neither, is their attitude to settled people hostile". 10 Thi~ may be due to the fact that on either side of their habitat they are hemmed by the valleys of Kangra and Chamba and year after year they have to maintain contact with the valley people during their seasonal migration. It is true that Gaddi may have little appreciation for the intellectual and artistic elements of the agriculturists of the valleys and plains but it cannot be said that morally he is low. In fact the scales may tip in his favour. Crime is unknown amongst them and they are not of litigious.

59 <60 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India mind. Murder and rape are rare. Gaddis are secluded-like by nature and by their old customs and quaint manners. Social Stratification : Gaddis are divided into a number of classes, Brahmins, Khatris, Rajputs, Thakur and Rathis; and Sudras, or menials, Reharas, Kolis, Sipis and Halis.ll The first two classes wear sacred-thread. Gaddi society is organised on the Rajput hypergamous system. 22 They arc much stricter in the o~ervance of Hindu customs and social practices, than most other inhabitants of the high ranges of Himalayas. The custom and social practices vary amongst different classes of Gaddis. such variation is not unnatural. As Forde remarks, "The char acter and scale of the social and political organisation among p_eople who mainly rely on livestock for their support, varies as widely as among agricultural people: u Gaddi dialect belongs to what is known as western Pahari language of the northern group of the Sanskrit Aryan Family. There is no script for their dialect but Devnagri script can easily be adopted. However, the dialect is being preserved through spoken language, songs and folk tales. Cultural heritage : A study of folk songs reveals a rich emotional life. Open air living, healthy diet and hardy habits combine to produce a race of healthy and cheerfull people who -enjoy life with a gusto. In meadows and mountain pastures., -opportunities are not lacking for young people to meet and sing their romantic episodes. They sing in soft low tones as they spin. Gaddis' delight in festive gatherings and are fond of singing and dancing. The latter is a style peculiar to them. Dancing is vigorous and even boisterous. At village fairs, dancing is essential part of procedure and is often accompanied with drinking.~ 4 Ecoaomic Aspect : As the social environments have far re7 aching effect on the economic condition of the people and their capacity to develop themse!ves e<'onomically and socially the -economic and historical background of the Gaddis afford an interesting study. The cheerful, pleasant and friendly Gaddis seen with their flocks of sheep and goats in the foot-hills and the plains every winter, were once the valiant soldiers of the rulers of Bharmaur. Tbe strong ties between them and their rulers and their friendly temperament won for them new frien4s.after independence. The Himachal authorities declared tbe

60 Desription of the Tribal Belt in Himachal Pra1esh 61 Bharmour Gaddis, a Scheduled Tribe. Their brethren in Kangra, which was part of Punjab till November, 1966 were not given this status. However, over 1000 years of life in the midst of unfriendly natural surroundings and poverty as a result of unrewarding yields from small terraced fields in a highly rugged terrain where soil erosion continues to pose a constant threat have transferred the swordsmen into tribals wh6 can be best described as semi-agriculturists and semi-herdsmen. u Eeoaomic Pursuits : Fifty five per cent of the Gaddis depend on farming. The ::trea under cultivation, though not necessarily under the plough, is 2361 hectares which means an average of 0.16 hectare per head. In the absence of irrigation, the farming is limited to only a few months in a year which makes tbeit' farm income extremely meagre. This fact has been sufficiently substantiated in the light of the findings of an evaluation study of this area conducted by the Directorate of Economics ancl Statistics of the Government of Himachal Pradesh. At that time the per hectare yield of vnrious crops like wheat, barley, mai2 and ragi was as low as 6, 9, 10 and 4 quintals respectively. According to horticulturists, however, the area is highly suitable for apple and other fruit cultivation. However, as land is already scarce, shifting to horticulture would only result in acute food problem. Moreover, the long period between planting and bearing and absence of roads are other impediments for the horticulture to become popular. Gaddi farming is characterised by small fields, primitive implements and small yields. The introduction of potato has increased the value of cultivated land. The fields around the Gaddi house which produced at pest only wheat and barley, now produce very lucrative harvest of potatoes. 27 The average annual rainfall recorded at Bharmour is about 145 cm. 28 The major precipit~ttion occurs during summer months from June to September. However, the agroclimatic conditions vary widely as the elevation at which the cultivation is carried on, ranging from moderately high hill slopes about 1524" metres above sea level to well over 3048 metres. Some parts are beyond the range of monsoon current and consequently possess special climatic features. As a result of this, both the sowing and harvesting periods also vary considerably with the elevation of the cultivated lands and rabi crops arc

61 62 Tribal Development Programmes and Admz'nistration in India usually sown from the beginning of September to the end of October and harvesting is done during May to August. Oa the other hand, kharif crops are sown from the middle of April to.the end of July and reaped from August to November. In Kugti valley, the land is scrapped with a 'kudali' and the sowing of rabi crops is undertaken when the kharif crops are still standing. On the high hills, cultivation is carried on in alternate years. Iaclebtedness : During the village survey of Bharmour conducted by the Census Department, only four cases of indebtedness in the village were reported. 11 The indebtedness survey among.scheduled Tribes in Himachal Pradesh conducted by the State's Economic and Statistics Department revealed that 28.9 and 32.1 per cent of the households in Bharmour/Pangi and other areas of Chamba District were under debt 80 The break-up of the household value of cash loan worked out to be Rs and Rs respectively. The area wise break up of these households were 18 (1 1.3%) and 15 (18.5%) respectively 31 Paagi Sub dh i6ion The majority of the population mhabiting Pangi Subdivision belongs to Pangwala tribe. A few of them are Bhots as well. The entire area is highly mountainous with altitudes ranging between 2133 metres and 6400 metres above the sea level. The area is one of the most difficult and remote and remains cut off from the rest of the world for about five to six months due to heavy snow fall during winter. The region is accessible through Sach Pass in Chamba District, Rohtang Pass in Lahaul-Spiti District and Kishtwar hinterland in.jammu and Kashmir. The access to the area is still difficult even after more than two decades of planned economic development mainly due to snow-bound hills. The headquarter of the Pangi Sub-division is located at Kilar. Pangi Sub-division of Chamba District is situated between two lofty mountain ranges of Pangi and Zaskar and is accessible through high mountain-passes which are covered 'with snow for most part of the year. It is bounded by Jammu and Kashmir in north and north-west, by Lahaul Sub-division

62 Dnr:rlpdon of the Tribal Belt in Himachal Pradesh 61 in the east, Churah Tehsil in the west, and by Bharmour Su.,.division in the south. Based on the cultural affi,ity of the people residing in Chamba-Lahaul area beyond Thirot Nullah and comprising 118 villages-of which only 30 villages are inhabited-have recently been transferred to Lahaui-Spiti Diltrict. As a result, a population of 4030 (males 2193, females 1837) have been transferred to Lahaul-Spiti District, There are now 12,256 persons (males 6,401 and females 5,855) who inhabit Pangi Sub-division. Thus the sex-ratio is 915 females per thousand males. The area is entirely rural and a large number of villages are uninhabited and the Pang\Valas mostly reside along the river Chandra-Bhaga and certain other important nullahs, like Saichu, Hundan anrl Sural. The area of the Sub~division is 160 I sq. km. and the density of population is 8 penons per sq. km. The climate of the valley is temperate in summer and semiarctic in winter. As the lowest altitude in the valley is 2133 metres above the sea level, summer is extremely mild and pleasant and owing to scanty rainfall, the humidity is low throughout the year. The winter season in the valley is very severe and the snow falls heavily which paralyses the movement of the people during the se3son. The heavy snowfall, however, enriches the soil and provides a regular flow of water in the streams and springs. Migratloa: Generally, the people in the valley are nonmigratory except in Sural Nullah and Hundan Nullah subvalleys where people migrate to adjoining areas of Chamba and Churah Tehsil during the winter on account of better accessibility. The majority of this migratory population works as labouttrs and domestic servants during the period of migration. The non-migratory population engages itself in spinning and weaving during the winter months. Food : Due to heavy snowfall there is an acute shortage of cereals in this region and hence the people do not clean wheat and grind it with the chaff. The bread seems to be prepared by grass which cannot satisfy their hunger and the poor tribals have to eat bread five times a day. In winter, the entire Sub di'rision is like an isolated island where the human being and animals both stay alike in the houses and sheds continuously for:six months 11 The Pangwalas get only one crop lj..

63 64 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in Indi# year and a slight drought creates famine conditions. On such contingencies they fall back on the stores of black corn (kodra) or grass known as 'Phappra' 33, The staple food of the people is barley, elo (ryo), wheat, buck wheat, siul and cheena. Part of straw often ground with the grain and eaten even in normal years. In times of scar ~ity, certain grasses and roots, such as 'Kangesh', 'Chukri' etc. are also eaten, compounded with the flour. On account of extreme poverty, meat is eaten only in winter and that too on special occasions. Walnut oil and ghee are the traditional fats used as cooking media. Generally, the people take their meals thrice a day. The morning meal is known as 'Kalau' the afternoon meal is 'Rihne' and the night meal 'Behal'. Drinking is traditionally and widely prevalent among both sexes. Considering the tribal habits and the climatic conditions, the people in this area are legally free to ferment drinks for their own use. The only taboo against drinking is the poverty of the people since foodgrains are mostly used for the preparation of local brew called 'Ailo ' 3 ~. Social Stratification : Of the two main tribes, viz. Pangwalas and Bhots, who inhabit the valley, Pangwalas constitute the major local population. The Pangwalas are the aboriginals of the Pangi region of Chamba District of Himachal Pradesh. 'Pangwalas' means the people of Pangi and it includes the following castes which can be divided into two major classes, i.e. (A) High Castes: (a) Brahmins (b) Rajputs (c). Thakurs (d) Rathis, and (B) Low Castes: (a) Halis (b) Lahars (c) Meghs (d) Dakis 36 There are also a few Tibetans in the Sub-division who are ~ailed 'Bhots' but outsiders recognise them as 'Pangwalas' only as they inhabit the Pangi Sub-division. There is no restriction on food and marriages among the high castes but they do not eat or intermarry with the lower castes and not even with the Bbots 38 Cultural Heritage : In order to remain lively, the hill people celebrate their fairs and festivals in their own gorgeous manner and Pangwalas are no exception to this. They forget every thing on these festive occasions and indulge freely in merry-making and rejoicing. The chief festival observed in Paogi is Bishnu or the Bisoa observed on first of Baisalch when

64 D~cription of the Tribal Belt in Himachal Pradesh 65 Sani (small wheat cakes, cooked in ghec), incense, vermilion, flowers, rice, ghee and gur are offered to Devi and at night relatives and friends are feasted and drinking of locally brewed Lugri is freely indulged in 17 Other festivals are: (i) Urrain, observed on tirst Magh in honour of ancestors amidst gala feasting, and (ii) K haul mela held on full moon of Magh. A big feast is held at night and people make small torches called chink which they throw at the walnut trees with the belief that the thrower will have a son. The Pangwalas also -observe Shivratri and hold Sit Mela on the new moon of Magh. On these festivals, excepting Shivratri, drunkenness is quite <:ommon. Sacrifice consists of sheep or goat; the animal's head is taken by the slayer and the rest is divided between the prie!its and the worshippers. Sacrifices are made in order to appease the gods. Economic Aspect: The people ofpangi Sub-division are economically very back ward in view of the fact that the area remains <:ut off from the rest of the world for a major portion of the year. The severe climatic conditions are not conducive to the setting up of either traditional or modern industries there. Agriculture i~ the mainstay, rather the only occupation available with the people and they depend directly on land for their livelihoodas. Out of a total population of 12,256, 52.5 per cent are workers (according to 1981 census) who are engaged mostly in agricultural pursuits. Prior to re-organisation of Pangi Sub-divisi0n. the net area sown was hectares in Of this, 969 hectares were irrigated, which forms 46.3 per cent of the area sown. There is a large scope for harnessing the natural resources, available in plenty, for bringing more area under assured irrigation. The valley is deficit in foodgrains, and in order to fully mt'et the foodgrain requirements of the people, transport subsidy is being given by the Government, since it is a very costly affair to transport foodgrains to these far-flung areas across the Sach Pass. There are practically no roads available and the people have to carry goods for their day-to-day needs on their backs c r carry them on sheep and goats. Vegetation in the region varies with the altitude. Coniferous and deodar forests are abundant, but in the absence of communication facilities its exploitation is very much restricted.

65 66 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India.Ecooomic Pursuits : In order to ameliorate the economy of the area, road construction programme has been accorded a high priority. Once the area becomes accessible the trade can flourish. Kuth is available in some parts of the valley. It is a medicinal herb which is in great demand and is a source of forejgn exchange. 3 ' At present, Kuth is being exported from Lahaul-Spiti District but much headway bas to be made to propagate its cultivation on scientific lines. There is scope for cultivation of Cbilgoza trees in some parts of the valley. The subsidiary occupation of the people of Pangi valley is weaving and spinning and during winter season when the people are confined indoors, because of heavy snow fall, they keep themselves engaged in this activity and prepare woollen cloth for use during the remaining part of the year. The crops grown in valley are mainly barley and wheat, elo, massar and potato. People still practise the conservative methods of farming and economic poverty stands in the way of adopting improved methods and use of chemical fertilisers, etc. As compared to Chamba District, average yield of crops per hectare is very low in Pangi valley. A study conducted by the State's Directorate of Economics and Statistics revealed that the people living in the Miar subvalley are comparatively, more affluent as compared to people in other parts of the valley. According to the study, 15 out of 40 households covered for the purpose were found to be under debt. The amount of debt varied between Rs. 60 and The largest single purpose for which loans were taken was the purchase of food stuffs followed by business and house construcl.ion' 0 The socio-economic study of Pangi Sub-division conducted by the Economics and Statistics Department of Himachal Pradesh revealed that out of 200 sample households 61 were under debt to the tune of Rs. 21, Thus on an average the amount of loan per indebted family works out to Rs It was further revealed that per cent household took I< ans for meeting the household requirements, 3.23 per cent for educational purposes, 9.68 per cent for ceremonies, f.45 per cent for medical care and 8.06 per cent for other purposes41. Regarding the source of finance, 2 household got loans from

66 .JJescrlption of the Tribal Belt in Himachal Pradesh 67 co-operative societies, 19 from money-lenders, 13 from friends and relatives and 35 from various shop-keepers, cultivators and government servants 1 ~. Sixteen households had taken loans from more than one source. The rate of interest in the sample village varied from 7 to 15 per cent which is very high"'. During indebtedness survey among Scheduled Tribes in Himach9l Pradesh, the Economics and Statistics Department of the Pradesh found that 28.9 and 32.1 per cent of the households in Bharmour/Pangi Sub-divisions and other areas of Chamba District were under debth. The break-up of the household value of cash loan outstanding as on June 30, 1976 worked out to be Rs and Rs respectively. The area-wise break up of these households was I 8 (I I.3 per cent) and 15 (18.5 per cent) respectivelycs. REFERENCES I. Sub-Picm ji1r Tribal Belt (ICJ74-79) (Simla, 1976). p. I. 2. Ibid, p. 2. ~- Ibid, p Ibid, p Ibid, p Ibid, p Sub-Plan fur Tribal Belt ( ), op. cit, p. 2. Also refer. Ashok Ranjan Basu, "High Passes in Bharmour" Himm anta, Calcutta, 1973, Vol. Ill, Nos. 9 and Sub-Plan for Tribal Belt ( ), op. cit, p The Statt of HimaclUil Pradesh Act, 1970 (No. 53 of 1970), p. 30. JO. Sub-Pianji" Tribal Belt, op. cit, p. 3. n. Statistical Outline of Himachal Pradesh, 1983, op. cit, pp Ibid, pp Ibid., pp An area of sq. km. consisting of 4,030 persons (3612 Scheduled Tribes) were transferred to Lahaui-Spiti District from Pangi Sub-division as a result of the re-organisation. 14. Revised Tribal Sub-Plan, op. cit, p Ibid, p Ibid, p Chamba State Ga:etteer (Lahore, 1910), p An Evaluation Swdy of Bharmour (Simla, 1966), p. 3 also see T.S. Negi, Sclrcduled Tribes of Himachal Pradesh ; A Profile (Simla 1976).

67 68 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India 19. S.L. Kayastha ' Gaddis of Dhauladhar-A Study in Human Ecology", National Gt ograplrical Journal of India, Vol. 3, Part 2, 1957 p J. Brunhes, Human Geography (London, 1952), p S.L. Kayastha, op. cit. p Chamba State Gazetteer, (Lahore, 1910), p C.D. Forde, Habitat, Ecorwmy and Society (London, 1933), p S.L. Kayastha, c1p. cit, p Revised Tribal Sub Plan, op. cit, p Ibid., p S.L. Kayastha, op. cit, p Revised Tribal Sub-Plan, op. cit, p A Village Survey, Bharmour, Himachal Pradesh (Simla, 1%3), p Report on Indebtedness Survey among Sclzedull!d Tribe Population of Himachal Pradesh (Simla, 1978). p Ibid, p S.S. Shashi, Iiimaclwi-Nalllre's Peace!r1l Paradi.!l!!Delhi 1971), p V.S. Sharma. "The Scheduled Tribes of Himachal Pradesh and their problems" Vanyajati, Vol. VI, No.3, 1958, p Revised Tribal Sub-Plan, op. cit, p S.S. Shashi, op. cit, p Ibid, p Ashok Ranjan Basu, J.T.D.P. Report for Bharmour and Pangi Subdivisions ofchamba District (Chamba, 1977). p. 54 and also refer, Fairs and Festivals in Himachal Pradesh (Simla, 1954). 38. Refer T.S. Negi, Scheduled Tribes of Himaclrul Pradesh: A Profile (Simla, 1976). 39. Revised Tribal Sub-Plan, op. cit, p Ibid, p Pang/ Valley, An Evaluation and A Socia Economic Study (Simla, 1966), p Ibid, p /hid, p Report on Indebtedness Survey among Scheduled Trihes Population of Himat'hal Pradesh (Simla, 1978), p lbid, p. 7.

68 CHAPTER IV Administrative Aspects The administrative system in the tribal areas has undergone a considerable change in the last thirty years. The era of planned development was inaugurated with the launching of the First Plan in early fifties. The Community Development movement gave a new direction to the evolution of India's administrative system. This study of the administrative system in the tribal areas can be broadly divided into four parts: (a) Before }947 (b) \ (c) (d) 1974 onwards. Before 1947 : The tribal areas were the last to come under the British rule because of their difficult terrain and inaccessibility. Besides, the tribal people also asserted their right to self governance particularly in relation to their rights over land and forests. The British declared some of the tribal areas as excluded and some as 'partial 1 y excluded'. The normal administration of the provinces, in which the tribal areas were situated, was not extended to them. In many tribal regions, single line administration was introduced where all authority was vested in one functionary who wa\'. the chief representative of the Empire in that area. The local custom was honoured and there was intervention only wien it was considered inevitable. The system of administration in the tribal areas was in conformity with the pattern of general administration in the British

69 70 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India India and it gave considerable authority and discretion to the field administrators. 1 With the opening up of the areas and establishment of new administration more articulate groups moved into these areas. As the local administration was responsible for protecting the simple tribals from these articulated groups and also for the good governance of these areas it acquired a paternalistic attitude. 2 In the Indian States, the rulers had autonomy in internal administration within the norms fixed by the British Government. The States were small in size and did not have a sophisticated administrative system. The interaction between the rulers and the people was, therefore, at a more intimate and personal level. Thus, the administration in the tribal areas was not formalised during the pre-independence days. The decisionmaking level, both in lndian States and in British India was quite near to the common man. Development as a function of administration had not yet emerged. Therefore, the socioeconomic life in the community was largely left untouched and the contact points between the people and the administration were minimal. Maintenance of law and order and protection of the tribals from the unwanted elements were the main objectives of the administration : After independence, a special place was assigned to the tribal areas.~ Though administration of the tribal areas was not formally ~ ssigned to any one of the three lists in the Constitution but these areas were brought under two schedules of the Constitution, for which special provisions were made. The excluded ~reas were put under the Sixth Schedule and the partially excluded areas and some of the tribal areas in the erstwhile Indian States were included in the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution. The executive power of the Union Government extended to giving of directions to the States for good ~dministration of the tribal areas and execution of the developmental programmes for the tribal communities in general. The Governor has been given vast powers in the Fifth Schedule to make regulations for the scheduled areas. These regulations can negate or modify any law passed by the Parliament or State Legislature in its application to the entire Fifth Schedule area or a part thereof. Special regulations can also be

70 Administrative Aspects 71 made for these areas under the same provisions. The Constitution also provided for establishment of a Triqes Advisory Council under the Fifth Schedule which is consulted by the Governor in relation to his regulation-making powers. Thus. the need to consult the State Legislature was itself dispensed with in the case of these areas. The provisions for the Sixth "Schedule areas are more stringent as no law about certain specified subjects can be extended to these areas without con sulting the District Councils. In these areas, the Constitution..envisages that even the fundamental rights could be compromised for protecting the members of the Scheduled Tribes and for achieving a faster pace of development. Thus, the Constitution as a legal frame provides an ideal setting for effectiveness -of administration and its adaptability and responsiveness to the local situation, keeping the interests of the tribal communities always the uppermost. 6 In the Constitution, raising the level of administration has.been specially provided and schemes prepared for this purpose and approved by the Union Government presumes automatic financial sanction. Outlays for this purpose are made a charge on the Consolidated Fund of India. The Governor is also required to send annually a report on the administration of the scheduled areas to the President. The Union Government provides the general policy frame, the necessary administrative guidance and financial assistance; and the State is responsible for implementation of the policies. The Constitution also provides for the appointment of a Special Officer, who is an independent authority and is required to keep a watch on the working of the Constitutional safeguards and developmental programmes taken up for the members of the Scheduled Tribes.' Thus, the Constitution provides for all contingencies in relation to the administration and development of the tribal areas and tribal communities. The central point in this scheme is flexibility so that on no account the tribal development -should suffer. The Constitution also provides for the setting up of a commission after 10 years of its commencement to review the development of these areas and make suitable re <:ommendations for further action. However, the tribal areas were gradually brought within the fold of normal administrative system and informal and

71 72 Tribal Del'e/opmellt Programmes and Administration in Indio unsophisticated form of administration was gradually replaced by the more formalised administration of British India. The local administration, however, continued to have the advantage of the earlier tradition of considerable discretion and authority. In some cases, looking to the special problems of the tribal areas, the State Governments delegated extensive power to the local administration for the transitional period. This period can be described as an "interregnum" between the earlier British system and the new system which was to emerge after the problems of transition had been sorted out and the system got a better foothold in these regions : The early fifties witnessed some important struc tural changes in the administrative system in India. For the, first time, a clearly defined plan of development was initiated and the administration was properly equipped for undertaking new developmental responsibilities. In the beginning, the general administration itself was assigned developmental tasks but gradually in some States separate development administration machinery got established. After the inauguration of the Community Development movement in India. a special pro gramme of Tribal Development Blocks was taken up in tribal' areas. Since a Community Development Block was expected to cover all aspects of community life in that area, the same principle was accepted for the Tribal Development Blocks. Special Multipurpose Tribal Development Blocks (SMPT) were started in the most undeveloped areas of tribal concentration. These Special Blocks were jointly undertaken by the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Ministry of Community Devel0pment and Cooperation. The concerned Ministries prescribed a schematic pattern as a guide to draw up plans according to the actual requiremen:s. of these areas. Compared with the ordinary C.D. Blocks, the S.M.P.T. Blocks were provided with more funds and staffas the work under this scheme was of intensive and special nature. Special emphasis was laid on the schemes of intensive agricul ture, irrigation, soil conservation, development of communication, health, education, village industries, cooperation, housing and rehabilitation. As against 66,000 persons covered normally by a Community Development Block, each S.M.P.T. Block. covered anly 25,000 persons in an area of 518 sq. km. or so.

72 Administrative Aspects 73 Since 1957, 43 S.M.P.T. Blocks on the Jines of Community Development Blocks had been opened throughout the r;ountry, each with a special allotment of Rs. 27 lakhs for five years In the Third Plan, a target of 300 Tribal Development Blocks was set up with an allotment of Rs. 22 lakhs. The main programmes for tribal development undertaken during the First Plan {195!-56) were for economic and educational development, improvement of roads and communication and provision of medical and public health facilitics. 10 Though economic development attracted the highest financial assistance, health, housing and communication got the highest per capita expenditure. In the Second Plan ( ), the emphasis was on economic development, agriculture, cottage industries, forest cooperatives and also on a new programme of setting up of S.M.P.T. Blocks. 11 During , i.e. in the Third Five Year Plan, which was marked by an extension of the Multipurpose Tribal Blocks, later renamed as Tribal Development Blocks. the priority was again given to economic uplift, education and health, housing and communication schemes. The tribals have also been benefitted by the general funds but it appears that no conscious attempt had been made by any of the State Governments, with the exception of Andhra Pradesh, to ensure that the tribals receive a reasonable share in the general development programmes. 1 ~ The Fourth Five Year Plan came up with the idea of area development approach. The programme of T.D. Blocks was, however, not extended geographically during the Fourth Plan. The life of the then existing T.D. Blocks wa~ increased by another five years making a total of IS years with a view to consolidate the gains of the efforts already made. The different States had their own pattern for Tribal Development. In Madhya Pradesh, for example, the Tribal Welfare Department looked beyond the narrow schemes and assumed the responsibility of agriculture extension and other subjects as well. Ja In Himachal Pradesh, there are seven Sub-divhions which are also Tribal Blocks. These are: (i) Lahaul, (ii) Spiti, (iii) Kalpa, (iv) Nichar, (1') Pooh, (vi) Bharmour. and (vii) Pangi. The first two Sub-divis-ions constitute the J.ahaul-Spiti District.

73 74 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India The Kinnaur District comprises of Kalpa, Pooh and Nichar Sub-divisions. Bharmour and Pangi form a part of Chamba District. The C.D. Block was inaugurated in Bharmour on October 2, 1956 and in Pangi on October 2, The area of Bharmour Block is sq. km. and its population as per last ~census is 29,944. The area of Pangi Block is sq. km. and its population is 12,256. There arc 112 inhabited ''illages in Bh?rmour sub-division and 61 in Pangi sub-division. The jurisdiction of these Blocks is co-terminous with the respective revenue Sub-divisions. The headquarter of Bharmour Block is :at Bharmour and that of Pangi at Killar. Later T.D. Blocks were also introduced and the same B.D.O. looked after both C.D. and T.D. Blocks. The T.D. Blocks were closed on March 31, The activities of most of the development departments are implemented through the B.D. Os. 14 However, the schemes of Public Works Department, Health, Forest, Power, etc. are looked after by the departments concerned. Extension Officers of various departments hflve been posted in the Block. Both the B.D.O. and the concerned District Officer exercise control over them. At the District level, there used to be a District Development Committee to discuss the development activities and to decide the schemes to be undertaken during a particular financial year (April-March). It consisted of all the District level Officers and some non-officials as members. The Deputy Commissioner of a District acts as a captain of the team. He does not have any direct control on the working of other departments, like Public Works, Forest, Health, etc. At the State Level, there is one Director of Welfare whose main business is to look after the welfare of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other backward classes. At the District level, there is a District Welfare Officer whose activity is limited to providing scholarships, stip -ends, uniforms, mid-dtoy meals, sewing machines, grant-in aid, housing subsidy, etc. The activities of the Welfare Department also are mostly carried out through the Block agency. Up to 1974, there had been no tribal administration machinery nor a separate unit for the administration of the tribal area in Himachal Pradesh. The New Strategy for Tribal Development : The next phase

74 Administrative Aspects 75 of tribal development begins with a review in depth of the tribal scene in the country. The Shilu Ao Committee was of the opinion that the T.D. Blocks were too small an area-unit for comprehensive planning and effective implementation. The programme bad become too much schematic, having no relationship with local needs. Significantly, what was expected to be supplemental investment in tribal areas through T.D. Blocks. tended to become the exclusive investment. The benefit of normal programmes hardly reached many of these areas. The difference in the level of development in tribal areas and communities. and the general areas and other communities, therefore, tended to increase.u In the earlier stage, a T.D./C.D. Block was expected to cover all aspects of community life but gradually they became circumscribed by the schematic budgetary constraints. 18 The review of these programmes also tended to be confined to schemes approved. In the meantime, a number of new services in agriculture, education and health outgrew the original Blot k frame. They established exclusive extension agencies in the field. In this way, the T.D./C.D. Block scheme became a sectoral programme siwilar to any other programme like agriculture or education, Thus, during this period, attention of those concerned with tribal development was focused on the T.D. Block programme. Consequently, their perspective got circumscribed by the scheme of T.D. Blocks. The comprehensive scheme envisaged in the Constitution for the speedy development of tribal areas and communities was overlooked. 17 When the S.M.P.T. Blocks were started, the basis of coverage was an area of 518 sq. km. with a tribal population of 25,000 and per capita outlay of Rs In actual practice however, most of the States have ignored this provision and have considerably increased the coverage to an average population of 39,193 and an area of 1418 sq. km. and a per capita outlay of only Rs The schematic budget, in practice, proved to be an obstacle to the a4optation of the programme to the urgent tribal needs. Although the State Governments have been empowered to transfer funds from one head to another within the same Block, in any manner they consider necessary to meet local requirements, this power seems to have not been used with sufficient

75 76 Tribal Del'e/opment Programmes and Administration in India imagination. The schematic budget, thus tends to set a rigid pattern which results in a lopsided expenditure. HI The Shilu Ao Committee referred to the limitations of the T.D. Blocks as follows : (a) fragmented approach to development planning, (b) application of large number of standardised schemes in tribal areas, (c) neglect of the employment aspect of development, (d) failure to take up settlement of land disputes in the preextension stage, (e) investment of as much as 20 per cent in productive schemes in agriculture, animal husbandry, etc.ro Other criticisms of the T.D. Block programme were: (i) they were in most cases the cxcl usive efforts of the tribal sector and the general sector programme failed to reach the tribal areas, and (ii) the be_nefits of development did not percolate beyond the upper crust of the tribal community in most or the areas. 11 Vidyarthi and Rai refer to the following deficiencies in the ~arlier plans for tribal development. (/) Neglect and lack of special attention to tribal and scheduled areas in spite of constitutional provisions; (ii) Poor and inadequate allotment of funds in both general and special sectors to cover all aspects of development of the tribal areas; (iii) Tribal Development Blocks are too small a unit of development for overall development; (iv) Inadequate administrative machinery; ( v) Lack of effective personnel policy; (vi) Lack of reliance on the part of the Government on the local anthropology of the folk; (vii) Excess politicization of the tribal issues, etc. 22 In view of these trends, a major policy decision was taken by the Government of India that henceforth the major thrust for the development of tribal areas and tribal communities has to be rrovided by the concerned sectoral authcrities. Since every department is responsible, within its functional jurisdiction for the development of the entire State, the problems of the tribal areas have to be given special attention at a higher priority in their normal programme.

76 AdminiJtrative Aspects 77 The problem t'lf tribal development has been broadly divided into two parts, viz, (i) areas of tribal concentration, and (ii) dispersed tribal communities. 23 This seemed to be necessary for clearly defining the strategy, policy and programmes for their faster development. In the case of areas of tribal concentration, it is possible to envisage that, programmes taken up for infrastructure development in the area may benefit the tribal communities and provide the necessary conditions for taking up community-oriented programmes. Experience, however, has shown that area development programmes by themselves have not benefited the tribal communities in the past; sometimes area development has been at the cost of the tribal interest. Therefore, a concept of area development with focus on the development of the tribal communities has been evolved for areas where the tribals are a predominant community. In the case of dispersed tribals, no separate scheme of infrastructural development and area development can be envisaged as a part of tribal development strategy. They must partake in the general developmental schemes in the region. The programmes of tribal development, in the case of dispersed tribals have to be community based. In order to give a boost to the tribal development, the plan for the tribal areas have been bifurcated from the general State Plan. Thus, the "Sub Plan" for the tribal belt, which is a part of the State Plan aims at developing the tribal areas within a reasonable time. 1he main objectives of the tribal sub-plans which were prepared during Fifth Five Year Plan are elimination of exploitation in all forms, speeding up the process of socio-economic development, building inner strength of the people and improv~ ing their organisational capability. In relation to the developmental programmes, the tribal sub-plans represent the totality of public sector effort in this area. The resources comprise the following elements: (a) State Plan outlays, (b) Sectoral outlay in the Central Ministries, (c) Special Central Assistance, and (d) Institutional final'\ce.

77 78 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration ;,. India The total outlay on the tribal sub-plans during Fifth Five Year Plan has been fixed at Rs. 1,440 crores. The scope of the sub-plans, thus, is m~h more wider than that of the State Plans. In this case, a problem solving approach has been accepted for the first time not only in principle but with adequate provision for policy review in all important matters and financial support for any action necessary. The guidelines for preparation of sub-plans have set this frame in very clear terms and have stipulated that "As the development of the people has to be the central point of attention of the sub-plan, in many cases, it may be necessary to look at the problems unfettered by the existing formal, procedural or legal frame. The final course may be defined only after fully examining the impact of all the factors of the tribal life. The States may bring up these issues, where necessary, to the Union Government so that they can be considered at the highest level before anything is allowed to stand in the way of fast develop' ment of these people". 1 ' The new approach to the problem of tribal areas has administrative implications in two important respects. Firstly, the problem of development in the tribal areas is a simple one. Two different socio-economic systems of unequal strength are coming in contact in these areas. The two facets of administration in these areas, viz. protection and development become indistinguishable in these areas. The second important implication for administration arises from the need for the total developmental efforts assuming an 'organic' character in the context of simple tribal situation.u The tribal is not used to sectoralised approach which is the distinguishing characteristic of advanced communities. The sectoralised approach, therefore, seems to be not apptopriate in these areas. The entire developmental system in the C0\1ntry is designed on the model of sectoral specialisation. Each sector or sub-sector tries to establish a clear and identifiable chain from the highest level in the Centre or the State to the farthest possible point in the field depending on its capacity to stretch the system. In the tribal areas, this approach many a time becomes dysfunctional. It was in the context of this basic dissonance in the tribal scene that

78 A.dmini&trotive Aspects 79' the Tribal 'Welfare Departments sometimes tended to as!'>ume direct re&ponsibilities for numerous small programme t:. In all the States having tribal population, a Cabinet Sub Committee has now been constituted for guiding the develop mental programmes in these areas and securing their implemen tat{on; The Chief Minister is the Chairman of this Committee: In ibme States, an official level committee, with the Chief Secretary in the Chair and Tribal Commissioner as Member Secretary, has been constituted for speeding decisions in inter departmental matters. The Tribal Development Commissioner is in charge of the tribal development and is responsible for co"'l'dinating the entire programmes in tribal areas. They are not burdened with the details of administrative approvals and financial sanctions, etc. They are responsible for providing general13irection to the effort of individual departments. Their concurrence is necessary for the overall programmes taken up by the different departments in the tribal areas. The entire tribal sub-plan area has been divided into < number of integrated Tribal Development Projects in the areas. where the tribal concentration is more than 50 per cent. It is gradually to be extended to dispersed tribal communities and iso-lated pockets. : Since the Tribal Development Block was too small a unit for planning and coordination, it was decided to constitute a project comprising of a group of development Blocks. For administra tive reasons, a project was not expected to intersect the existing. administrative boundaries. A project would have on an average about three to four lakh population and about six to seven Blocks. In all 178 Integrated Tribal Development Projects. (I.T.D.P.) have been carved out. Some of the projects are coterminus with the District in the case of small Districts. In most cases, the projects are co-terminus with Sub-divisions/Tehsils. Since the project represents the total developmental effort in that area and has to adopt the 'problem-solving approach,. covering, a large spectrum from protection to welfare, it has. been conceived as comprising of the totality of the existing. administrative apparatus in the concerned area. A project authority has been constituted for each I.T.D. P witti' Colleotor ~Deputy Commissioner) as the Chairman, the District heads of departments as members and the Project Officer as- the:

79 80 Tribal Development Programmes and A.dmittistNJtiiNI ;, India. member-secretary. This authority is supposed to bring in an element of collective leadership. The group is responsible for all. round development of the area under the leadership of the Collector, the Project Officer providing the necessary administra tive supporl. Since the individual development departments are responsible for their own functional activities, the Project Officer is relieved of the day-to-day responsibility in respect of specific individual schemes. His basic task js to establish direct contact with. the people and help them in an essentially unequal situation. Inc~ most of the States, the number of Integrated Tribal Development Projeci.s is not large. The project authorities have a direct link with the Tribal Commissioner. J. Delegation of powers, both administrative and financial, is essential to any effective administration. Adequate powers have been delegated to the project authorities, with a view to provide a cut otf point for the bulk of the programmes in an area. A three--tier delegation within the project authority itself has been worked out, viz. (i) the Preject Officer, (il} the Chairman of the Project Authority, and {iii). the Pr<>ject Authority as a collective body. There Integrated Tribal Development Projects were s-tarted in Himachal Pradesh in They were I.T.D.P. Kinna'-'r, LI.D.P. J,:..ahaul-Spiti, and I.T.D.P. l'angi and Bharmour in Chamba Di~trict. The headquarters of three l.t.d.ps. were at Kalpa, Keylong and Chamba respectively. Now Pangi and Bharmour constitute separate ITPPs. : The Commisl)ioner for Tribal Development is. the head of the department and the Project Officer is the head of office. At t~ hea~quarter, the Commissioner is assisted by one Deputy S~ar~tary and Under Secretary. Both the Commissioner (who is Secretary as well), and the Deputy Secretary looks after some other departments as well, in addition, to the tribal administra tion. Below the Deputy Secretary, there is one Section Officer.al)d other staff. At the project level, the Project Officer is assisted by two Assistants, one Clerk, one Steno besides one Driver, one Peon and a Chowkidar. The projects are further sub-divided into sub-projects which are co-terminus with the revenuo- Subdivisions. The Kinnaur project consists of Kalpa, Pooh and

80 Administrative Aspects 81 Nichar sub-projects, the Lahaul-Spiti project is subcdivided into Lahaul sub-project and Spiti sub-project. The Chamba project comprised of Bharmour and Pa.ngi sub-projects. The Subdivisional Officers of these areas have been designated as Sub Project Officers. At Chamba, there is a Project Advisory Committee. The Collector (D.C.) of Chamba District is the Chairman of the committee. The Project Officer.is the Member-Secretary. All the District Level Officeres, S.D.Os. and B.D.Os of Bharmour and Pangi Sub-division, Member of Parliament, Member of Legislative Assembly, Chairman of the Panchayat Samitis of the concerned sub-projects are members of the committee. At the State level, there is a f>imilar advisory committee with the Chief Minister as Chairman and Tribal Commissioner as Member Secretary. There is a separate Minister for tnbal development. Besides, the Minister (T.D.) Chief Secretary, other Secretaries and heads of departments are the members of this Committee. The financial powers of the Commissioner, Collectors (D.Cs) Project Officers and S.D.Os have been ind1cated in Table 4.1. The following functions of the Project Officer have been envisaged: {d) Identification and demarcation of areas of tribal concentration; (b) Recognition of more backward communities; (c) Identification of primitive pockets for special attention for development under the package programme; (d) Formulation of tribal sub-plan and preparation of Integrated Tribal Development Project Report; (e) To serve as a link between the local developmental officers and the Deputy Commissioner on one side and the Commissioner for Tribal Development on the other: (f) To accord financial sanctions for schemes wit~in his powers; (g) To coordinate and supervise all developmental activities : in the sub-plan area; (h) To prepare periodic progre~s reports of schemes; (i) Implementation of protective legislation; (j) To serve as a member-secretary of Advisory Committee on Tribal Development;

81 82 Tribal Development Programme3 and A.dminl.stration in ltupa (k) Reformation of personnel policies; and (/) Identification of basic infrastructure required for economic development and establishment of inter sectoral linkages that are proposed for development. TABLE 4.1 : FJaancial Power Delepted to Projed Autborldes s1. Nature of power Powers delegated to Deputy Commis- No. Commis- sioner S.D.O. Project sioner Tribal (Rs.) Officer Develop- (Rs.) ment J. To sanction individual schemes, includina Administrative approval for repair and maintenancc of work 5,000 25,000 Rs. 1 lakh Full powers 2. To sanction expenditure on the purchase of materials throuah prescribed sources for the execution of the schemes.5,000 10,000 Full powers Full power~ 3. To sanction arantsin-aid to various local institutions 2,500 5,000 Rs. 25,000 Full (each case) (each case) (each case} powers 4. To accord Administrative approval for original works.5,000 25,000 Rs. I Jakh Full s. To sanction expenditure (each case) (each case) powers for tbc repair.of tools, equipments and machinery, etc. 1,000 5,000 f-ull power Full (each case) (each case) power A--.eat: However, at the moment the Project Officer in Chamba (as elsewhere in Himachal Pradesh) is head of the office. He has fins;ncial powers as provided in Himachal Pradesh financial rules for heads of offices. Jn addition to this, he has been given financial powers for sanctioning schemes, etc., to be

82 iajminlstrative Aspects 83 undertaken in the tribal areas, purchase of machines and equipment required for the schemes; etc. He is expected to co-ordinate the activities of the various development departments in the project area. He, however, has no control over any of the District Officers of various development departments. He has no control over the S.D.Os. who are supposed to work as Sub Project Officers. In the same way, he has no administrative or financial control over the Block Development Officers or the Revenue Officers posted within the project areas. Though he is expected to monitor the progress of the ongoing schemes there is no direction authorising him to inspect the schemes of various departments. In the existing system, it appears that he is to assist the Deputy Commiss~ioner for the tribal development work. The Project Officer at Chamba, is thus mainly concerned with according sanctions for the schemes to be undertaken in Bharmour and Pangi. He arranges the Tribal Development Committee meetings, compiles the progress reports sent by the different departments and submits the same to Commissioner for Tribal Development and to Deputy Commissioner. He may inspect the ongoing works and submit his observations to the Commissioner, Deputy Commissioner and the departmen~ concerned. The Project Officer has neither the authority nor the capacity to influence the working of any of the development departments in the tribal areas. His control in the office also is limited. At present, neither the Project Officer nor the Deputy Commissioner nor the Tribal Advisory Committee can divert allocations from one head to other. In case they feel tba~ such diversion is necessary, the Project Officer refers to the Commissioner who conveys his decision or that of State/Union Government. There are some powers of diversion with the head of department. On many occasions, the diversion or re-allocations are done by them directly and the project authorities are unware of the same. The Commissioner for Tribal Development has been given the powers of the Secretary of all the departments withip the project area. The financial powers of the Deputy Commissioner in many cases are at par with the head of department, All these have been done to expedite and streamline the working in these areas.

83 84 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India lt is thus clear that the organisational structure for the Tribal Development in Himachal Pradesh is of a departmental type. Though, the department type of organisation is normally conceived as most suitable, in some states, Tribal Development Agencies and Corporations have also been set up. The 'Agency' and 'Corporation' type of organisation presupposes more delegation of powers, both financial and administrative, more autono my, flexibility, etc. Up to now, the department type of organisation had been formulating and implementing the development programmes in the tribal areas. It may be worthwhile to try agency or corporation type of organisation for formulating and implementing the development programmes in these areas. Defelopment Programmes: The development programmes in these two Sub-divisions include those of agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, power and industry, communication, education, health, etc.. Tl)e programme for agricultural development can be grouped into five categories, i.e. (a) improved seeds programmes, (b) manures and fertilizers, (c) commercial crops, (d) plant protection scheme, and (e) demonstration and populadsation of improved agricultural implements, etc. The improved seeds programme includes distribution of improved seeds (cereals) and construction of seed-cum-fertiliser stores. The manures and fertiliser programme includes; (a) distribution of fertilizers, (h) development of local manurial resources, and (c) soh testing centres. Commercial crops programme includes development of sun-flower, soyabean, pulses and oil seeds. Besides these, there are plant protection schemes and demonstration and popularisation of improved implements as well. The development programmes in horticulture are: (a) development of fruit production, (b) establishment of mobile units, (c) bee keeping development, (d) plant protection (e) training for orchardists, (/) development of hops, (g) development of horticulture-grants of subsidy, (h) grant of subsidy on Panchayat orchards, etc. The animal husbandry programmes include: (i) opening of new veterinary dispensaries and conversion of existing verterinary dispensaries into veterinary hospitals, (il) ~ubsidy for the supply of cattle/poultry/sheep, (iii) training of farmers in animal husbandry techniques, (iv) award of scholarships for the study of animal husbandry science.

84 J4dministrtJtive IJspects 85 The programmes for the development of power comprises of: (i} augmentation of micro hydel schemes, and (ii) rural electrification. The programmes for development of industry and mining are: (i) granting industrial loans, (ii) grant of subsidy to small scale industry, (iii) subsidy on industrial loans, (iv) mineral development etc. The programmes for the development of communications include construction of: ta) motorable/ jeepable roads, (b) bridges, (c) widening of existing roads, etc. Educational programmes include (i) opening of primary schools. (ii) middle schools, (iii) high schools, (iv) providing free textbooks, (v) free writing material, (vi) free clothing, (vii) construction of school buildings, etc. The health programmes include: (i) upgrading of existing health facilities, (ii) opening of new health institutions, (iii) prevention of diseases, (iv) family planning programmes, etc. All these programmes have been discussed in detail in the subsequent chapters. REFERENCES I. B.D. Sharma, "Administration for Tribal Development", lrulit111 Journal of Public Admi11istration. Vol. XXlll, No.3, 1977, p Ibid., p For a historical appraisal, refer L.P. Vidyarthi. "Anthropology. Authority and Tribal Welfare in lndia" in L.P. Vidyarthi (ed). Applied A11thropology of l11dia (Allahabad, 1961), pp Refer L.P. Vidyarthi, "Tribal Development in Independent Ind1a and its Future", Man ill India, Vol. 54, No. I, 1947, pp Refer Articles 46, 164, 244, 275, 330, 332, , 338, 339, 371 A and 342 of Indian Constitution. 6. Article 275 (I) of Indian Cotr.Hilution. 7. Article 338 of Indian Constitution 8. B.D. Sharma, op. cit, p For details, Refer L.P. Vidyarthi, "Tribal Development in independent India and its future". op. cit, pp For details, see First Fi1 e Year Plan (New Delhi, 1951). ll. Refer Second Five Year J>/cm (New Delhi, 1956). 12. Refer Third Five Year Plan, (New Delhi, 1961). 13. For details, refer Harshad R. Trivedi, "Salient Features of Trilla! Administration in States", 111diull Journal of Public Administration Vol. XXII, No. 3,.1977, p. 434.

85 86 Tribal Developments Programmes and Admi11istralion in India 14. Refer C.M. Jain, Dynomics of Development Administration: An En QI4ir-y into the O.ffice of Vikas Adhikari (New Del~i,l971:1) B.. D. Sharma, "Administration for Tribal Development". Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol. XXIII, No. 3, 1977; pp. 524-S. 16. Ibid)'' 521 also refer, L.P. Vidyarthi, "Problems and Prospects of Tribal Developm:nt in India" Indian Anthropologist Vol. 2, No. 2, B.D. Sharma, op. cit., p Report of the Committee on Special Multipurpose.Tribal Blocks, (New Delhi, 1960), p Ibid, p. 178 also refer, Verrier Elwin, New Deal for Tribal India (Deihl, 1963). 10. B K. Roy B11rman, "Perspective for Administration and. Develop ment of the Scheduled Tribes", Perspective on Tribal Development and Admi11istratio11 (Hyderabad. 1915), p Ibid, p L.P. Vidyarthi and B.V. R:ai, Tribal Culture of India (Delhi, 1977) p Refer L.P. Vidyarthi, "Tribal Development in Independent India and its future", Man i11 India, Vol. 54, No. 1, 1974, pp also refer Report of the Task Force 011 De e/opmenl of Tl ihal Area.r. (Delhi, 1973). 24. Preparation of Sub-Plans for Tribe~/ Re}!iolls (New Delhi 1975) p Also refer, Tribal Deve/opme111 in tile Fifth Plan: Some lk1sic Policy Papers. (New Delhi, 1974). 25. Refer B.D. Sharma, "Administration for Tribal Development". Indian Journal of Public Admini.rtration, Vol. XXIII, No. 3, 1977, p Statistically index of tribal concentration can be measured.

86 CHAPTER V Land Reforms -... im of land reforms is to increase agricultural production. While the total area of land in the country is fixed.and cannot be increased, its productivity, however, depends greatly on the manner it is held and operated or the kind of agrarian structure it may have, whether an independent pea~ santry, cooperative or collective farms, huge state or private farms etc. 1 Thus the agrarian organisation in India can possibly have the following four aims : (a) Maximum production of wheat or eradication of poverty, (b) Provision of full employ~ ment, (c) Equitable distribution of wealth or avoidance of undue disparities in income, and (d) Promotion of the way of 1ife that has been chosen in India, or in other words, emergence and strengthening of democratic trends. 2 Trihab and Land Most of the tribal communities in India, like others, not only consider land as their dependable source of livelihood but alsoias the foundation for social prestige. Social status among the tribals is measured in terms of land ownership, particularly possession of hereditary land. Furthermore, land is sometimes linked with the perpetuation of groups of tribal people with their:autonomy. Land is useful to them in several ways:.(a) as a soarce of food gathering and hunting, and (b) as a place to live.and work. The complexity of the land problem of the tribals.stems from: (a) tlature of association of the tribal population with their lands; (b) frequent loss of control of the communities. over

87 88 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India their resources on the introduction of the new land use pattern; (c) self image of the tribal elites and their perception about their actual or potential role in the decision making process at various levels of the national life; (d) conflict between the traditional and modern elite in the perception of the goal of economic and social development, and (e) absence of political preparation for changing production relations, stalemate in productive resources, production technology, but rapid change in consumption norms. 3 In many areas, the association of the tribal communities with the land around them does not belong purely to economic category. Frequently, it belongs to the twilight zone of political and economic categories and can be described as proto-political. The proto-political nature of the relationship of the tribals in some areas raises a number of complex policy issues, e.g. : (a) whether such relationship is conducive to efficient land-use pattern, (b) whether the relationship is in conformity with the objective of social justice, and (c) whether such relationship can be changed by State action without transgressing the constitutional safeguards for the tribal population.' Apart from the proto-political jurisdiction, there are areas where the tribals enjoy special prerogative in utilisation of the land resources. Su h special rights have been specifically recognised under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution. Then, there are areas of historical association and, last of all is the land which belongs. to the purely economic category in the sense as the term is understood among the non-tribals. 6 The policy implications of different types of relations with land are diverse. Where the relationship is of proto-political nature, full participation of the tribal elites is to be ensured at every level in the decision~making process relating to the land system. Where the tribals enjoy special prerogative, complex. social engineering is called for so that, in the wake of economic development, the position of the community in the local power and prestige structure is not adversely affected until it is effectively and voluntarily integrated with a power and prestige structure of higher order. Where it is a question of pure historical association, a vigorous programme is to be undertaken for diversification of economic activities. In the case of land belonging to purely economic category, a positive policy, not only of pro-

88 Ltw1 Reforms tection, but also of development and integration on the larger politico-economic complex is required. The positive policy is to be based on: (a) an understanding of the structure and organisation of customary rights; (b) changes under the impact of contact, technological change, gow rnment policy, growth of ideology and other measures, and (c) review of the legislative and executive measures with reference to recognition of the custom'lry rights in land and forests, survey and settlement operations and preparation of records of rights, protection against land a! ienation, concession and facilities for development of land, restoration of alienated land, priority in settlement of land, elimination of exploitation including exactions by middlemen, collecting agents, etc., and other measures.' With this background land administration in Chamba District can be examined. Land Administration in Chamba District From times immemorial down to its merger in Himachal Pradesh in 1948, the entire Chamba District was a State ruled as well as reigned by a Raja. All private rights, originated from his grants in a general or special manner, and were subject to his overlordship and his pleasure. As time passed, the measure of security that private rights enjoyed increased, but the inherent over1ordship of the Ruler, was never totally absent. The State was primarily concerned with the maintenance of law and order, general administration and realisation of the State dues, the farmer was left very much to his own means and devices. and he had to shuffle for himself as best as he could in the matters of his prosperity and welfare. As a result, the utilisation of land was far from being satisfactory, and there were hardly any progressive trends in this regard. For generations the same equipment, the same techniques and practically the same resources had been used by the agriculturist in his profession. lhe absolute overlordship of the ruler over the land and the resultant insecurity of tenure further added to the unsatisfactory state of things pertaining to Jand utilisation.' The Raja being the de facto as well as de jure landlord of the entire State, the whole territory was a single revenue princi-

89 90 Tribal Development Programmes and Anministration in India pality. However, for purposes of fis:al administration; this principality was divided as follows: (a) 5 Wazarats :- Each. Wazaratcoi:responding to a tehsil, of the present Chamba District. (b) 50 Pargaoas :-The original number in the past is believed to have been a little greater. (c) 149 Circuits : -These were the circles of Mukadams ;and Ugrakhas. CoDection of Land Revenue : The collection of revenue was carried out by the Durbiyals, Mukadams or Ugrakhas of the -different Parganas under the orders of the superior Kardars of each Parganas. To them was assigned the duty of collecting the Bachh or cash revenue only, which was to be paid over to the Likhnehara in each Pargana, who in turn credited it into the treasury at Chamba. The Sal or revenue in kind, was differently dealt with in different Wazarats. In Bharmour and Pangi no Sal was received as the whole revenue. demand was payable in cash. The revenue was collected twice a year, the two instalments being ca1led Bahria and Sairia. The Likhnehara in each Pargana was mainly responsible for all this and he had the -assistance of the 'Char' in all the details of his work. 10 The Original System of Assessment: In the earlier times, the revenue was assessed according to the amount of seed and the 'Cluality of soil, and was realised in cash and kind which was -called Bachh collectively. The Sal or grain-revenue was generally taken in the shape of the grain actually produced and also in the shape of services. Cesses were also levied on the other kinds of produce, such as ghee, honey, wool, etc. Later on, the revenue fluctuated considerably from time to time, and for a long period, it was not assessed on any fixed principle. The holding of each man was called a Nanwa, i.e. a name in the rent roll,.and each Na1.1wa or holding meant one "Chakar" or servant to the State, which employed such servants in the following three ways; (l) 'Hazri', (2) 'Kotwali', and (3) 'Begar'. 11 Modified System of.assessment : In , the services of most of the employees were dispensed with. The Hazris- and Chowkidars were then called upon to pay enhanced Bachh or cash revenue. In addition to paying Sal Bachh, the Kotwali

90 Land Reforms servants and Begar labourers were required to make cash payment, in lieu of the service they used to render. The posts of Kotwal and Mehta of the Pargana were later abolished and a system of cash salaries to the ordinary Kardars was introduced instead of paying allowances in grain and cash,. called 'Rakam' which was formerly leviable on every holdings. The cesses then became an asset of the State and were collected as such with the revenue. 1 ~ Col Reid's Measurements: In 1874, Col. Blair Reid commenced measurements of the cultivated area according t<' each man's actual possession, and the area and revenue were regularly entered in the register in the name of each holder, and not ill that of the head of the family as was the previous custom. This provided for those times and methods, a valuable additional record. The old system of.,levying grain as revenue was also partly replaced by one of ca!ih payments. Later, the revenue rates were again modified by fixing four rupees per acre on irrigated land, and two rupees per acre on un-irrigated land. This. separate assessment of each holding greatly facilitated the collection of the revenues, as the larger holdings were sub-divided, and the entries made in the rent-roll in the names of the indi~ vidual holders, and making every one directly responsible for the payment of revenue. However the Sal, or revenue in kind~ remained the same as before the sub-division. Allellment in Bharmour: In Bharmour revenue was formerly realised in several ways. A money cess, called Bachh Desrit (Desrit meaning country custom), was imposed on all Gaddis, whether they were settled in the State for many generations or were new immigrants: such as those who migrated from Kangra and Jammu. ln addition to this, wheat and various other articles, such as wool, yarn and even woollen cloth were also levied on and collected from the cultivators. The Bachh Desrit cess was paid by every person who held land in the Bharmour Wazarat, whether resident or non-resident. Other dues were paid by those who cultivated land in the absence of the owner. If an absentee land-holder continued to pay the Bachh Desrit, he was entitled, despite his absence, to recover his hereditary share of the produce of the land from his tenants on his return,: including the crop on the ground. When formal revenue rates were fix\!d in 1891, the Bachh Desrit cess was transferred from the names.

91 '92 Tribal De1 e!opment Programmes awl Administra1ion in India of those not in possession (Gha1rkabiz) and a cash revenue in proportion to the area was jmposed on those in actual possession. 13 Assessment in Pangi : The greater portion of Lahaul in Pangi Wazarat was assigned in Jagir to the Rana Trilok Nath, who realised the revenue and paid a fixed amount as Bacbh. A peculiar custom of levying land revenue was in force in Lahaul. This custom was called Phera, and its origin was that the Wazir of Pangi used to visit La haul every third year, when grain and cash were handed over to him as his right over and above the land revenue. The ordinary State dues were collected every year by the Kardars, but the extra cesses were only realised every third year on the arrival of the Wazir. This custom existed even when the salaries of the State servants were fixed, but then all the cesses fopnerly received by tbe officials came to be considered to belong to the State as of right, and the revenue in Pangi and Lahaul began to be paid in cash instead of in grain, etc. 14 Land Alienation : The main occupation of the tribals in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions is agriculturt< and allied activities for which they have to depend on land. Land aliena~ tion is one of the most complex problems in the tribal belt. The dispossession of the tribals from their land h~s become quite common. Due to economic backwardness, the tribals often had to mortgage their land or sell their land as a result of which they became landless. In order to protect the tribals from dispossession and alienation of their land, the Government ofhimachal Pradesh has passed various land laws. The lahd legislation aimed at giving the land to the tillers, protects the rights of the tenant and also protects the rights of the tribals on their land. Broadly, there are three types of legislations regulating the transfer of tribal lands. These place restrictions on: (a) transfer of land by sale or mortgage from tribals to non-tribals; (b) transfer of land to any person with flexible approach in respect of persons belonging to the same tribe; (c) transfer of land to any person, nontribal or tribal; (d) sale of land to other non-scheduled tribe, scheduled caste or other backward classes; and (e) reserved..area. 15

92 Land Reforms 93 Land Reforms Laws : In most of the princely States in Himachal Pradesh the Rulers were recorded as superior owner~ of the land (Ala Malik) and the actual land owners as the inferior owners (Malik Adna). The first step taken, therefore, by way of tenurial reforms was to abolish the feudatory system of superior ownership. With a view to securing uniformity of tenancy laws in the Pradesh, the Punjab Tenancy Act was made applicable to Himachal Pradesh by the Himachal Pradesh Application of Laws) Order, Later, in 1951, the Punjab Tenants Security of Tenure Act, 1950 was extended to Himachal Prades-h. During 1952, the Punjab Tenancy lh.p. Amendment) Act, 1952 and the Himachal Pradesh (Tenants) (Rights and Restoration) Act, 1952 were enacted. Through the former Act, the maximum limit of rent payable by the tenant to a land owner was fixed at tth of the produce. 16 The Himachal Pradesh Tenants (Rights and Restoration) Act, 1952 provides for restoration of land and the rights of pre-emption to tenants. According to the Act, a tenant ejected after the fifteenth day of August, i 950, shall on making an application (within two years of the commencement of the Act) to the prescribed authority and also satisfying him that the applicant was not at the time of ejecting, a tenant to whom the provision of the Punjab Tenancy Act {as amended in its application to Himachal Pradesh by the Punjab Tena.ncy (Himachal Pradesh Amendment) Act could have appli ed, be restored with the possession of such land on the same terms. and grounds on which it was held by him at the time of ejectment. 17 1t further provided that if the land had been given to another tenant on or after fifteenth day of August, 1952, he shall:be ejected therefrom and given nautor land in lieu thereof, as prescribed. The Act thus gave the right of pre-emption to tenants. The said Act further made the operation of pending decrees and notices of ejectment inexecutable save t0 the extent to which such :execution or compliance was not inconsistent with the provisio-n of the Act. This Act repealed the Punjab Tenants (Sec:qrity of Tenure) Act, 1950 as applied to Himachal Pradesh. Th~ Abolition of the Big Landed Estates and Land Reforms Act, 1953 was the first major land reforms legislation. The Act.8<Wtrned the law relatin!' to tenancies in agricultural lands and

93 94 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in. tmjja also contained provisions of land reforms of a far-roaching importance. The security of tenure to the tenants was ensured~ resumption of land by landowners was permitted for personal cultivation up to a maximum area of 5 acres, subject to further provision that no tenant would be evicted from more than one-fourth of the area held by him. This right could be exereised within one year from the commencement of the Act. These dates were later extended to March 1, 1956 and September I, The aforesaid law was challenged by the landowners in courts which later resulted in survival of the law as 'intra vires' of the Constitution in the year The right of resumption was somehow missed by the landowners. 18 Through the Himachal Pradesh Abolition of the Big Landed Estates and Land Reforms Act, the rights, title and interests of a landowners holding land in excess of Rs. 125 of annual land revenue and which was with the tenants, vested in the State Government. On vestment of Jaod in the State Government, the same was transferable in favour of the cultivating tenants against payment of a nominal compensation. The revenue from the land had been a great source of income to State from time immemorial. The Himachal Pradesh Land Revenue Act, aimed to amend and declare a new land revenue law of the Himachal Pradesh, a.ccording to which all lands to whatever purpose applied and wherever situated were liable tg payment of land revenue to the State Government excepting such land as has been wholly exempted from that liability by the special contract with the State Government or by the provision of any law for the time being in force and also such land as is included in the sile of a village. The land revenue is to be assessed in cash and may be assessed as a fixed annual charge payable in a lump sum or by instalments in the form of prescribed rates per acre or other unit of area applicable to the area recorded as sown, matured or cultivated during any harvest or during any year. 19 The assessment of land revenue is to be based on an estimat~ of the average money value. of the.net assets of the estate or group of estates in which the land concerned is situated. The :land rt~venue in case of any assessment circle, however, is not t.o.exceed one fourth ofthe estimated money value of the net usets of such assessment cit~cte> provided that it should not

94 Land Reforms 95 affect any assessment ir force at the time of commencement of the Act. Small and scattered holdings are handicaps for better supervision and production. In order to consolidate the holdings of the landowners and tenants, Himachal Pradesh Consolidation of Holdings Act, 1953 was passed. The aim of this Act was to pro'fide for the consolidation of agricultural holdings in the Pradesh. The distribution of holdings in Bharmour and Pangi' Sab divisions on the basis of a study which covered 20 per cent of the cultivating households shows that most of the holdings are between 1.0 and 2.4 acres. Consolidation operation has not yet been undertaken in these two Sub-divisions. The State Government has taken measures to protect the legitimate interests of the tribals through various special enactments as also through general laws of the Pradesh. The Himachal Pradesh Transfer of Land (Regulation) Act provides that no person belonging to any Scheduled Tribe shall transfer his interest in his land by way of sale, mortgage, lease, gift or otherwise to any person not belonging to such tribe ext'ept with the previous permission of the Deputy Commissioner of the District. 20 Every transfer of land, in contravention of the aforesaid section shall be void. Further, the said Act provides that no right, title or interest held by a person belonging to a Scheduled Tribe in any land shall be liable to be attached or sold in execution of any decree cr order, in favour of any person not belonging to a Scheduled Tribe, of any court except where the amount due under such decree or order is due to the Government or to any Co-operative Land Mortgage Bank or Cooperative Society. Himachal Pradesh Nautor Rules 1968 : Nautor land means that land which could be utilized, only with the sanction of the competent authority. This comprised of waste land owned by the Government outside the town, outside the reserved and demarcated protected forests and outside, such other areas as may be notified from time to time by the Government in thi& behalf for any of the purposes mentioned, is permissible only to the extent by which the total holding of the applicant falls short of 20 bighas. The Himachal Pradesh Registration of Mortgaged Land Act, 1976 provides for the restitution of subsisting mortgages. which were effected more than 20 years prior to the date on.

95 96 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India which an application for the restitution of the possession of the mortgaged land was made. The Himachal Pradesh (Restr.iction to Contest Alienation or Adoption under Custom) Act, 1976, has imposed restriction on the powers of descendants or collaterates to contest the alienation of immovable property or the appointment of heir on the ground that such alienation.or appointment is contrary to custom. Further, in respect of non-ancestral property of any appointment of a heir to such 'Property, no person is allowed to contest such alienation or.appointment on the ground that it is contrary to custom 11 The Himachal Pradesh Debt Reduction Act, 1976, provides for accounting and determination of the amount due and relief of interest on decrees. The amount due by the debtor shall not exceed the amount that could have been due if the rate of interest had been in the case of a secured loan, 6 per cent per annum simple interest; and in the case of unsecured Joan, the rate of interest would be 1 2 per cent per annum simple interest. The total amount due by the debtor as interest and principal shall not, in any case exceed: (a) in respect of a loan advanced before the commencement of this Act, twice the amount of the principal less any amount already received by the creditor in excess of the amount determined by the court as due by the creditor. (b) in respect of a loan advanced after the commencement of this Act, twice the amount of the principal less any amount already received by the creditor. The Act provides that the court shall not order future interest on the aggregate sum adjudged in a decree to which this Act applies or any decree amended under this Act, at a rate exceedings 3 per cent per annum, simple interest. The Himachal Pradesh Relief of Agriculture Indebtedness A~t. 1976, provides relief from indebtedness to certain farmers, landless agricultural labourers and rural artisans of tqe Pradesh. Every debt outstanding on the appointed day, including the amount of interest. if any, payable by a marginal farmer, a landless agricultural labourer, or a rural artisan has been deemed to be wholly discharged 11 All type of bonded labour has been put an end to; any custom or tradition or

96 Land Reforms 97 any agreement whether made before or after the appointed day, to this effect shall be void and of no effect~ 3 Further a moratorium has been placed for a period of one year in respect <>f the recovery of debts from small farmers 24 The Himachal Pradesh Distressed Persons (Facilities for Loans) Act, 1976, aimed to provide for extension of loan facilities to p:rsons affected by distress caused by calamities, "Such as floods, epidemics, famines, earth-quakes, landslides, avalanches. snow, storms, hail storms, tire, severe drought, excessive rains, wind, lightning and electric shock, locusts, etc. Revenue Administration : For the purpose of Revenue Management, Himachal Pradesh is divided into 12 Districts, each in the charge of a Deputy Commissioner who is also Collector.of the District. These Districts are grouped into two Divisions under the Divisional Commissioner. The latter exercises control over all the Revenue Officers and Revenue Courts in the Division and is himself subject to the rcneral superintendence and control of the Finan~ial Commis~ioncr, wlw is head of Revenue Administration in the State. At the headquarters of the District, in addition to the ministerial staff, several officers appointed by the Government, exercise executive and judicial functions under the supervision of the District Collector. One of them is in-charge of work pertaining to revenue and devotes almost whole of his time to business connected with land administration. The District is divided into several Sub-divisions. There are thirty-eight Subdivisions in Himachal Pradesh. The ofticer in charge of the Sub-division is the Sub-Divisional officer. The Sub-division is further divided into a number of Tchsils/sub-tehsils to each of which a Tehsildar and/or Naib Tehsildar are appointed. There are 52 Tchsils and 21 sub Tehsils in Himachal Pradesh 6 Estates are grouped into small circles to each of which the Patwari or Village Accountant is :lppointed. About 5 to 20 Patwar circles form a charge of a Field Kanungo \\-hose duties are to supervise the work of the Patwari. To aid the Deputy Commissioner and the Commissioner in maintenance of records of rights and revenue registers and to advise the Financial Commissioner and the Government on these matters or measures for the promotion of agricultural.efficiency, an officer known as the Dixector of Land Records, is

97 98 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India appointed. He has no administrative functions; his business is to inspect, advise, record and report. The Director of Land Records brings to the notice of the Deputy Commissioner or Commissioner any failure in properly carrying out the provisions regarding the matters contained in the Land Revenue Act and Rules or that in carrying out administrative in,structions issued by the Financial Commissioner. The Director of Land Records is also Inspector-General of Registration. The Deputy Commissioner, as the head of the revenue administration of his District is known as the Collector. Smce the collection of land revenue on many occassions created law and order problem, the power of magistrate was also given and he became the District Magistrate, as well. This concentration of executive and judicial functions has been a subject of controversy. However, there are some advantages resulting from it as well. 18 At present the functions of the Deputy Commissioner are many and varied. 27 He is i~ charge of law and order, incharge of revenue administration as well as development administration. The Deputy Commissioner is being assisted by number of Sub-divisional Officers, Tehsildars and Naib-Tehsildars. He is the captain of the team of officers responsible for running the District administration. Administrative Hierarchy : Chamba District is divided into five Sub-divisions: (i) Chamba, (ii) Churah, (iii) Dalhousie, (iv) Pangi, and (v) Bharmour. Both the tribal Sub-divisions consist of one tehsil. The Pangi tehsil is further divided into 6 Patwar circles which have been grouped in to one Kanungo circle. The Bharmour Tehsil is divided into 14 Patwar circles which have been grouped into 2 Kanungo circles. The revenue administration of the Pradesh has been depicted in Table 5. I. Assessment : As has been mentioned earlier. one of the aims for the agrarian organisation is the maximum production of wealth or eradication of poverty. With that end in view, a system of agriculture is required which will produce or help produce more and more food and raw materials as time passes. In order to provide full employment, there is a need to have an agrarian system, which, compared to all others, must providethe largest employment possibility per acre. The equitable distribution of wealth demands that ceilings have to be imposed on

98 Land Reforms 99 TABLE 5.1 : Organisational Structure of Revenue Department i I>eputy Secretary I Under Secretary I Section Ofliccr Revenue Minister I Financial Commissioner (Secretary, Revenue) I I Divisional Commissioner I Deputy Commissioner (Collector) I Sub-divisional Officer I Tchsildar I Naib Tehsildar I Kanungo I Patwari. I Director (Land Records) I. Deputy D1rcctor I Staff present possessions and future acquisitions of land and if possible a limit will also have to be laid down. The emergence of democratic trends require that every cultivator is made proprietor of the land he owns to eliminate threat of ejectment. The problem of land ownership is chronic in the tribal areas. A thorough understanding of the customary rights of the tribal communities in respect of land and pattern of land distribution and organisation of such rights will be necessary for evolving any programme based on land. After undertaking assessment of the changes which are taking place in the socio-economic land tenure system in the tribal areas due to social contact between tribals and non-tribals, and changes in governmental policy, a review of legislative and executive measures seems imperative. Customary rights of tribals in land may be recognised. It is inevitable that many of the customary rights of the tribals would require changes in the course of time in the larger national interest. However, it must be kept in mind that the tribal interests are not trampled upon. It might be difficult to ensure a uniform approach in different areas in identifying the problem of tribal rights on land. Therefore, detailed information about specific conditions prevailing in each area will have to be obtained for formulating an appropriate policy. The need for cadastral surveys and preparation

99 100 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India of record of rights cannot be over emphasized. Mere administrative or legal approach cannot meet the problem of alienation of land. It should be the endeavour of the governmer.t to restore to the tribals all lands alienated from them. The Study Group on Relief of Indebtedness, Land Alienation and Restoration in Tribal Development Agency areas suggested several measures for debt relief, land records and land alienation, etc. Debt Reilef Courts and Debt Relief Inspectors as in Madhya Pradesh may be set up here. After implementing debt relief measures, a cooperative form of organisation is best suited to help the tribals for grant of assured credit for production (including development of subsidiary occupation), land development and even for consumption purposes. The two-fold object of a 'settlement' is to assess the land revenue and to frame the record of rights. Since survey and settlement operations take time, a quick, on the spot enquiry may be conducted and on the basis of such enquiry the records may be made up-to-date within a period of six months or so. The cooperative institutions in these areas should provide medium-term loans (not exceeding five years) to the tribals to enable them to pay off their old debts and free themselves from the debts. The loans to tribals may be provided by the primary cooperative and not through Central Cooperative Bank. In some States, legal provision exists to debar lawyers from appearing in Revenue Courts considering land restorlltion cases of the tribals, as appearance of lawyers usually results in prolonging the cases. The applicability of such provisions in the tribal Sub-divisions of Chamba District may be examined. In order to avoid dilatory litigation, it is suggested that legislation designed for the benefit of the tribals may be enacted to provide them the protective umbrella of the Constitution. 18 Thus, if the Ninth Schedule to the Constitution were to be so enlarged in scope as to include important items of legislation protecting the interests of tribals, such enactments must not be challengeable on the ground of violation of any fundamental right. Further, it would be useful if the jurisdiction of ordinary civil courts is comp)etely excluded in the matter of implementing land laws in the tribals areas. 21 The Committee on Special Multipurpose Tribal Blocks suggested survey of the tribal areas in order to discover the amount

100 Land Refor/IU 101 of cultivable land availabe and the extent to which the tribal people have no established rights in the areas they CIJltivate. In the Himachal Pradesh Ceiling on Land Holdings Act, the permissible area of a land owner has been fixed as l 0 acres for irrigated area growing two crops, 1 5 acres for irrigated area growing one crop, and 30 acres for others. In case of tribal areas and other backward areas, the permissible area has been fixed at 70 acres. Though the members of Scheduled Tribes have been given preference while distributing land among the landless, no distinction has been made in the area of land to be given to the tribal landless. The permissible area to be retained by a landowner is double in the tribal areas as compared to the non-tribal areas. It is, therefore, suggested that while 5 bighas of land are to be given to the landless in all areas, in tribal areas, it should be increased in the same proportion and may be raised to 12 bighas. In order to consolidate the scattered holdings, consolidation operations need to be started in the tribal Sub-divisions of Chamba District. A survey has already been conducted regard ing availability of cultivable waste land in Pangi Sub-division. Similar survey should be conducted in Bharmour Sub-division as well. A scheme may be drawn up for utilisation of the culturable waste land in these Sub-divisions. Since the problems of land relations are different in tribal areas, it is not possible to ensure a uniform approach for all parts of the country to identify the problems of tribal rights on land and forests. In those tribal areas where land relations are determined by traditional customary laws, any radical restructuring of land relations is not possible. But a thorough understanding of those customary rights of the tribal communities in respect of land and pattern of land distribution and organisation of such rights will be necessary for rationalisation of the traditional land system so that certain development programmes based on land and agriculture might be adopted and carried out without much difficulty. Thus the customary rights of tribals in land should be recognised with some suitable modifications and codified in the statute book.

101 I 02 Tribal Development Programmes and Anministration in India For that purpose, survey and settlement operations and preparation of records of rights are to be adopted as early as possible. In order to take administrative and legal measures for preparation of records of land ownership, an atmosphere of confidence requires to be created among the tribal people. In addition to survey and settlement operations of land records, effective protection against eviction and alienation, restoration of alienated land since 1947, priority has to be given to settle tribals on distributed land. They must also be provided with facility for legal advice and action, concessional facilites for development of land, cheap credit and easy market facilities, elimination of exploitation by money-lenders, diversification of agriculture to include crop agriculture, horticulture, poultry, piggery, etc. for widening the scope of employment in order to.solve the problem or economic destitution of the tribals in these areas. 80 Land reforms have assumed a special significance in view of emphasis on distributional justice. In a predominantly agricultural State like Himachal Pradesh, the scope of enhancing resources is limited to taxation in agricultural sector. It seems that there is a need for upward revision of land revenue. 21 This will only be possible if cadastral survey {record of rights) and settlement operations are completed. REFERENCES 1. Charan Singh, "Notes on Indian Economy" Seminar on Eco110mic Policy Options (24-25 Sept New Delhi), p. I, also see S.C. Jain, Agricultural Policy in India (New Delhi, 1965). 2. Ibid, p B.K. Roy Burman, "Perspective for Administration and Development of the Scheduled Tribes", Perspecti1 e oil Tribal DeYelopment and Administration (Hyderabad, 1975), p Ibid, p. 46. S. Ibid, p Ibid, p. 47.

102 Land Reforms B.K. Roy Burman, op. cit. p T.S. Negi, Settlement Report of the Chamha District (Simla, 1966), p T.S, Negi, Gazetteer of India, Himachal Pradl'sh, Clwmha (Simla, 1963), p Ibid, p For details refer T.S. Neg', Ga:etteer of India, op. cit, p T.S. Negi, op. cit., p T.S. Negi, &ttlement Report o.f the Chamha District, (Simla, 1966), p Ibid, p B.K. Roy Burman, ' Perspective for Administration and Development of the Scheduled Tribes" Perspectil c on Trihal Development and Administration (Hyderabad, 1975), p Refer Punjab Tenancy (Himachal Pradesh Amendment Act (Simla, 1 952). 17. Himachal Pradesh Tenants (Ri.qhts and Restoration) Act (Simla, 1952), Section 3 and Punjab Trnancy (Himachal Pradesh Amend~nt) Act (Simla, 1952), Section D.R. Mahajan, "Land Reforms in Himachal Pradesh" Symposium on Social and Economic Problrms of Hilly Arra (Simla, 1973), p Refer Himachal Pradl'J'h Land Revenue Act, 1953 (Simla, 1954), Chapter V. 20. Himachal Pradesh Transfer of Land Reguhllion Act (Simla, 1968), Section Himachal Pradesh (Restriction to Contest Allienation or Advption under Custom) Act, (Simla 1976 Section 4 and Himachal Pradesh Relief of Agriculture Indebtedness Act, (Simla, 1976), Section Ibid, Section Ibid, Section Report on Agricultural Census in Himachal Pradesh (Simla, 1972), p For details refer Thomason's "Directions for Collectors", paragraph 26 as quoted in Punjab Land Administration Manuals (Chandiprh, 1972), p For details refer, l11dian Joumal of Public Administration Vol. XI, No. 3, Special Number, 1965 also see S.K. Sharma, Deputy Commissioner in Punjab (New Delhi, 1971). 28. Article 313, Indian Constitution, New Delhi. 29. For details refer, "Report of the Study Group on Relief of Indebtedness, Land Alienation and Restoratio11 i11 Tribal Development Agency Areas" (New Delhi, 1974).

103 104 1'ribal Development Programmes and A.dministrtoion In Indkl 30. A Mukhopadhya, "The Structure of Land Relations in Tribal Com mittees in India" Perspective on Tribal Development Administration (Hyderabad 1975), p Draft Tribal Sub-Plan JY78..1J3, Himachal Pradesh (Simla, 1978), pp , also refer Approach to Tribal Development in the Sixth Plan, A preliminary prespective, Occasional Papers On Tribal Development, No. 17 (New Delhe, 1978).

104 CHAPTER VI Agriculture The contribution of agriculture towards the economic development of an area is pivotal and can, in no way, be minimised. Poverty is another name for non-availability of goods, agricultural and non-agricultural, which are vital for satisfaction of human wants that living creates. It is land that is the ultimate source of all these goods; it produces both food for direct consumption by man and raw materials which lead to manufacture of non-agricultural goods, again for indirect or ultimate use by man. 1 While a developing agriculture will furnish purchasing power to the masses to enable them to buy the manufactured goods and the services, it will also release workers from agriculture for transference to industrial and tertiary sectors. With increase in production per acre consequent on application of more capital and higher technology, fewer persons will be required on the same area of land to produce the same quality of crops. Further, since development of industries requires workers, owners ()f under-sized and uneconomic holdings tend to migrate to new industrial areas in their own interest in order to find work with a higher income with the result that such holdings cease to multiply and gradually disappear. Therefore, an important criterion for the development of an area is to increase agricultural yield and simultaneous reduction of the number of workers per acre. 2 Agriculture in Himachal Pradesh: The importance of agriculture in Indian economy can also be seen from the fact that agriculture accounts for about half of the country's national

105 106 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration ilt India economy and employs 70 per cent of its labour force. The development activity in hill areas, like Himachal Pradesh, which have rich forests, have not been able to keep pace with the development in the plains because of the inherent problems of topography, terrain and consequent isolation, climatic conditions, lack of roads, transportation and communication. As agriculture alongwith animal husbandry constitute the main -occupation of over 90 per cent of the population of the hills, it is evident that in any programme of economic uplift of the people of the hills, development of agriculture should receive first and foremost consideration. 4 In Himachal Pradesh, agriculture alone (excluding animal husbandry, forestry, fishery, etc.) accounts for nearly 40 per cent of the total gross domestic product. If the sub-sectors of agriculture are also taken into consideration, this will go up to.more than 60 per cent. 6 The per capita holding of arable land is less than one hectare and to stretch the land for cultivation 11Jnder mountainous conditions is extremely difficult. if not impossible. 1 Under these circumstances, the return from agriculture to farmers is meagre. Agriculture in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions : The tribal areas of Himachal Pradesh are, by and large, located in the dry zone where the temperature is very low for most part of the year. Resultantly, the crops grown in these areas take longer period to mature than in the other parts of the Pradesh. 7 The land available for cultivation in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions is not sufficient and the individual land holdings are scattered and small. The scope for reclaiming additional land for agriculture is also limited. The area remains covered with snow during winter and as such only one crop is grown. The main crops are barley, peas, maize, millets and potatoes. After the introduction of the development programmes, the.tribals have started raising two crops in a year in some lower parts of the Sub-divisions where the conditions are comparatively favourable for agriculture. The economy in these two Sub-divisions is quite primitive. It is mainly based on natural resources comprising land exploited on primitive methods and forest produce. The factors responsible for the backwardness of agriculture in these areas are: (a) poor soil, (b) very small areas under irrigation, (c) lack of

106 Agriculture 107 manuring, (d) ignorance about new agriculture tech~iques and practices, (e) use of crude and primitive agricultural implements, (/) Jack of infrastructure, including transportation and marketing, (g) greater intensity of soil erosion on hill slopes and inability and unwillingness of the farmers to arrest it. a In the lower reaches of the two Sub-divisions, the dependence is more on agriculture than pasturing, but in high altilude villages, where suitable land is scarce, people earn more through goat and sheep shearing than through farming. Even in agriculture, hardly anything is produced for sale, most of the produce is for local use. 9 Agricultusal Practices : Ploughing is done with the help of plains cattle, but high up, a cross between the yak and plains cattle-locally called 'chungroo'-is harnessed for the purpose. When a chungroo is employed, a second person in addition to the one at the plough, pulls the animal and directs it from the front side by a rop:! which passes through the nostril of the animal. Men, women and children work jointly in the field in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions. The agricultural operations for men are tillage, sowing and harvesting. Women play an important role in the conduct of weeding, harvesting and threshing operations. Children also render considerable assistance in thrashing the produce and its carriage to houses. 10 Agriculture is carried out up to a height of 3200 metres. The summer crop is sown in late May in Bharmour Sub-division and harvested in September, thereafter winter crops are sown in the same field which are reaped in June. The field is then kept fallow for 10 or 11 months. Most of the families have, therefore, at least two separate plots, one for summer and another for winter crops every year. At high altitudes, where crops stand longer in the fields, the time for recuperation is shorter. Consequently, in such regions one summer and one winter crop is produced in a field in the course of three years. 11 Cr JP Rotation : The important crop mixtures grown in the three sub-valleys of Bharmour Sub-division are as follows: 1 ~ a) Tundab sub-valley : (i) maize and mash, (ii) maize and ragi, (iii) cheena and mash, (iv) wheat and masur, and (v) mash and seul.

107 108 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in lndill b) Kugti sub-valley: (i) maize and seul, (ii) french beans, ragi, chaula and potato, (iii) maize and french beans, (iv) phuuan and bhares, and (v) wheat and masur. c) Holi, Chanauta.lub l'alley:: (i) maize, mash and ragi, (ii) cheena and mash, (iii) maize and ragi, (iv) wheat and masur, and (v) mash and seul. The important crop rotations followed in the Bharmour Sub-division arc: (i) maize followed by wheat or barley, (ii) <:heena followed by wheat, (iii) wheat followed by mash, (iv) wheat followed by cheena or phullan, and (v) maize followed by masur. The important crop mixtures practised in Pangi Sub-division are maize and beans, wheat and barley, and potato and bhangri. The main crop rotations practised are barley followed by bhangri in the Sural Nalla and Saichu Nalla sub-valleys, barley followed by phullan in the Hundan Nalla sub-valley and wheat and barley followed by cholai and phullan in most of the other areas. Kharif is the principal crop sown in Pangi Sub-division and in only about 19 per cent of the cultivated areas two crops are raised. Potatoes are grown in lines whereas 'broad cast' method is practised for sowing barley, wheat, maize and m1llets. (J rganisational Structure : The department is headed by a full-time Director. There are two Joint Directors to assist the Director. Below them are Deputy Directors in the State. Below them are District Agriculture Officers, Assistant Soil Conservation Officers, etc. There are Inspectors and Sub-inspectors below the District Agriculture Officers. The work of the Agriculture Department is mostly carried out through the Community Development Blocks. To assist the Block Development Officer, Inspectors and Sub-Inspectors have been posted in the Blocks. Their work is co-ordinated and supervised by the Block Development officer. The Agriculture Department at District level is responsible for arranging seeds. fertilizers and othe!' agricultural inputs and to provide technical guidance. The seeds, etc. are further distributed among the farmers by the Inspectors/Sub Inspectors posted in the Blocks. The controlling officers of these Inspectors, etc. are the B.D.Os. whereas the Deputy Director of Agriculture is their departmental head. Thus, there is a dual control over the Inspectors.

108 Agriculture 109 The Secretariat Organisation is headed by Secretary (Agriculture), who is also known as Agricultural Production Commissioner (A.P.C.). Below him is Joint Agnculture Production Commissioner (Joint Secretary), Under Secretary, etc. Programmes : It appears that increase in agricultu.. al production can be brought about if any one or more of the three factors of production, viz., land, labour and capital is increased and/or improvements arc made in the method of ukilising these factors, that is, effecting innovations in the farming arts or techniques 13 In view of the inelastic nature of land availability in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions and the competing demands for its use, an agricultural technology has to be adapted which will help in achieving the immediate goals of more food and more income for the present population, without at the same time endangering the long term production potential of the soil. Productivity in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions may increase if the labour is fully utilised in villages where it finds itself. This calls for a change in the present agricultural practices. Techniques which require more labour than is employed under present conditions will eliminate under-employment and may also serve to increa~e production 11 The third factor of production is 'Capital'. Like labour, it is a variable factor and can practically be increased indefinitely provided that man is prepared to make the necessary sacrifice of not consuming all the production of his labour immediately which he has produced. Thus, in order to seek economic development of an area, surplus men are to be released from agriculture for diversion to industry and other non-agricultural occupations. They will, of course, be released only to the extent that it helps in raising agricultural production with fewer and still fewer men on the soil, capital in land will have to be invested in a far greater measure and also technological improve111ents in agriculture have to be effected at a far greater rate. Thus, the degree of economic development of an area depends on the extent of improvement in agricultural practices the country is able to effect and the amount of capital it can invest in Iand 16

109 110 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India The agricultural development programmes undertaken in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions can be broadly divided into five parts, i.e. (a) Improved seeds programme, (b) Manures and fertilizers, (c) Commercial crops, (d) Plant protection scheme, and (e) Demonstration and popularisation of improved agricultural implements. The improved seeds programme includes: (i) distribution of improved seeds (cereals), and {ii) construction of seed-cum-fertilizer stores. The manure and fertilizer programmes comprise of: (i) distribution of fertilizers, (ii) development of local manurial resources, and (iii) soil-testing centres. The commercial crops programme covers: (a) development of sun flower, soyabeans, pulses and oil seeds, (b) development of seed potatoes, and (c) development of vegetables. Seeds : One of the means to increase agriculture production is to introduce improved varieties of seeds which can increase the yield 11 Agricultural Implements : The third method adopted to increase agricultural production is the introduction of improved agricultural implements. The implements used by the inhllbi tants of these areas are crude and primitive. The Department of Agriculture, in order to increase the production, introduced improved agricultural tools, besides distributing improved seeds and chemical. Agricultural Demonstration : To acquaint the farmers with the use of improved seeds, chemical fertilizers and improved implements, some sort of training is also necessary. The farmers are not likely to change their agricultural practice overnight unless they are satisfied with the new methods and techniques. In order to persuade the farmers to the new practices, demonstration trials are also held by the C.D. Blocks so that the farmers can see the results and get motivated to use better seeds, chemical fertilizers and improved implements. These are the methods adopted by the Agriculture Department of Himachal Pradesh to increase agriculture production in these two Sub-divisions. Performaace : Let us now consider the impact of all these development programmes in these two Sub-divisions. Land 'utilization pattern in Bharmour Sub-division reveals that the total cropped area, the net area sown and the area sown more

110 Agriculture II f than once is on increase as compared to the similar figures in In case of Pangi Sub-division, the change is more vivid as the Sub-division was reorganised in In both the Su}).divisions, the total cropped area forms an ins-ignificant part of the geographical area. In case of Bharmour Subdivision, the total cropped area constitutes 3 per cent of the geographical area, and, in case of Pangi sub-division, it is only 1.4 per cent of the geographical area. The main source for the supply of seed in these Subdivisions is the farmers' own produce. Limited quantities of improved seeds of wheat, maize, potato, etc., are being supplied by the Agriculture Department through the Block Agency. The maximum amount of improved seeds seems to have been distributed during Third Five Year Plan. In both the Subdivisions the amount of improved seeds supplied during the Fourth Five Year Plan was more than the Second Five Year Plan. No programmes in this regard seem to have been undertaken during the First Five Year Plan in both the Subdivisions. There was no seed multiplication farm in Bh Jrmour Subdivision at the time of study; the one at Kilar in Pangi Subdivision was closed a couple of years back. During the Fifth Five Year Plan, there was a programme of starting a: seed multiplication farm in Pangi Sub-division and a potato development farm in Bharmour Sub-division. However, as the land was neither selected in time nor acquired it could not be start <1 during the financial year The use of manures and chemical fertilizers is very essential for quick results in stepping up agricultural production. It appears that the supply of fertilizers in these two Sub-div~s.ions was on the increase during the successive plan periods. The net area sown, the area sown more than once and the area under irrigation in Bharmour Sub-division is 3,848 hectares, 1,861 hectares and 5 hectares respectively. Similar figures for Pangi Sub-division are ],658 hectares, 697 hectares, and 513 hectares respectively. Thus, it appears that while supplying fertilizer&. due consideration was probably not given to the actual requirement of these areas. This seems to be largely true in case of the choice of the kind of fertilizers for these areas as well A survey of selected villages revealed that the use of

111 112 Tribal Development Programmes and Administrotioll in llf4ia chemical fertilizers are concentrated mostly in the villages near the Block headquarters or near the roads. The quantity used by the cultivators is also very limited, which may be due to: (a) non-availability of the fertilizers in sufficient t}uantity, (b) lack of irrigation facilities, (c) high cost of transportation,., and (d) proverty and ignorance of the people. Even after as many as six Five Year Plans, the tribals have not yet resorted to modern farming practices. The basic process involved in the diffusion of farm innovations are ~i) release of an innovation for adoption by the farmers, (ii) -screening and treating the message regarding an innovatioa by the extensi()n agency, (ill} efforts by extension agency for promoting its diffusion and adoption, (iv) mental evaluation and trial by farmers, and (v) adoption or rejection by the farroers and ultimately its spread effect on the social systemp However most of the innovations recommended by research stations are not compatible with the agro-physical and cultural situations of these areas. The extention workers often recommend these innovations without giving due consideration to their compatibility. 18 There are many innovations which have the agro-physical compatibility but the other characteristics, such as high initial cost, complexity, lack of communicability of the results of innovations retard the diffusion process. a The quality of extension workers is also important for the diffusion of farming practices. The administrators of tribal development programmes are guided by expediency and have little time to take into consideration the felt needs of the tti bals.2o Development programmes drawn at a higher level are sent to local offices for implementation within the scheduled time. The attitude of the tribals towards extension personnel is also not very encouraging. The knowledge of the development workers about the content of the programmes and the suitability to the socio-economic system of the tribals of the area is also an important factor that facilitates or hinders the development effort. The factors inhibiting the diffusion of farm innovations among the tribals are: target oriented rather than clientele oriented programmes, ineffective use of tribal leaders, lack of missionary zeal among the extension workers, inadequate knowledge of extension workers and lack of sincere and intensive approach to tribal development. The other barriers are:

112 Agriculture 113 (a) small sizes of holdings, (b) lack of assured water supply, (c) low and unstable family income, (d) inadequate credit and tack' of credit worthiness, (e) exploitation by merchants,(/) inaccessibility of the areas, (g) cultural values and norms, etc. 11 In Bharmour Sub-division the people mostly utilise chemical fertilizers for wheat as the crop remains under snow after sowing and application of the fertilizers, make up for deficiency in irrigation. Some quantities are also applied to maize crop. The use of chemical fertilizers in Pangi Sub-division is comparatively much small. The relatively more prosperous areas have been transferred to Lahaul-Spiti District. It was also revealed that in Bharmour Sub-division 70 per cent of the households preserve the Farm Yard Manure on the surface. The knowhow for the preparation of organic manure seems to have not been sufficiently demonstrated to the cultivators as a result of which it remains unutilised. While most of the local manure is applied by the cultivators in Bharmour Sub-division before the sowing of the crops, the practice of the application of small doses soon after the germination is also not absent altogether. Major portionofthe available Farm Yard Manure is, however, applied to wheat, barely and maize and only small quantities of it are applied to millets and pulses. The other factors for the measure of backwardness in agri -cultural sector in any area are: (a) percentage of agricultural workers to total workers, (b) cultivable area per agricultural worker, (g) net area sown per agricultural worker and per centagc of net irrigated area to net area sown. 21 The following table indicates the percentage of agricultural workers to total workers in these areas. TABLE 6.1: Percentage of Agricultural Workers to Total Workers S. No. Sub-division Total Workers Aaricultural Workers Percentage of agn: cultural workers to total workers Bharmour Pangi 10,297 6,433 6,325 5,

113 114 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India The percentage of agricultural workers to total workers in Pangi Sub-division is higher than all the Districts of Himachal Pradesh. The similar figure for Bharmour Sub-division is more than Lahaul Spiti District. The Pradesh average is Table No. 6.2 indicates the cultivable area per agricultural worker in these two Sub-divisions. TABLE 6.2 : Cultivable Area Per Agricultural Worker S. No. Sub-division No. ofagri cultural workers Cultivable area (net area sown + fallow land+ cultivable waste) '000 Hects. Cultivable area per agricultural workers in Hects. J. Bharmour 2.. Pangi 6,325 5, Among the tribal areas in Himachal Pradesh, the cultivable area for agricultural worker is highest in Bharmour Sub-division (0.82 Hect.), followed by Kinnaur (0.62 Hect.), Lahaul-Spiti District (0. 59 Hect.), and Pangi Sub-division (0.39 Hect.). The following table indicates the net area sown per agricultural worker. TABLE (.15 : Net Area Sown Per Agricultural Worker S.No. Sub-division Total No. of Net Area Net Area sown agricultura I sown per agricultural worker ('000 Hect.) worker (Hect.) I. Bharmour 6, Pangi 5, Thus, among the tribal areas in Himachal Pradesh, the net area sown per agricultural worker is highest in Bharmour (0.60 Hect.) followed by Kinnaur District ((0.38 Hect.).

114 Agriculture 115 Pangi Sub-division (0.30 Hect.) and Lahaut:Spiti District (0.30 Hect.). The Pradesh average is 0.13 Hectares. The following table indicates the percentage of net area irrigated to net area sown in these two Sub-divisions. TABLE 6.16 : Percentage of Net Irrigated Area to Net Area Sown S. No. Sub-division Net ArC<\ Net Irrigated Percent of net sown ('000 areu (ill Hcct.) irrigated area Hect.) to net area sown I. 2. Bharmour I'angi Among the tribal areas of Himachal Pradesh, the percentage of net irrigated area to net area sown is highest in Lahaul-Spiti District (100.0) followed by Kinnaur District(42.75), Pangi Subdivision (32.0) and Bharmour Sub-division (0.12). The Pradesh average is per cent. The following table indicates the average yield of food crops and food crops per head available in these two Sub-divisions. TABLE 6.19: food Crops Available S. No. Sub-division Population Production Area Yield Food of food under of food crop crops food crops per (Ton) crops (Ton/.head (Hect.) Hect.) {Ton) l. Bharmour 29, , Pangi 12, ~--~ ~ Thus the average yield of foood crops in Bharmour Subdivision (0.81 ton/beet.) is less than all the Districts of Himachal Pradesh except Kinnaur District. The yield of food crops in Pangi Sub-division (0.89 ton/hect.) is slightly more than Bhar mour but is less than all the Districts of Himachal Pradesh

115 1 J 6 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India except Kinnaur District. A comparison with other hilly Districts of India reveals that the yield of food crops in these two Subdivisions is less than all other hilly Districts of India except those in Nagaland, and Dehradun and Nainital Districts of Uttar Pradesh where the yields are almost equal. A study of the sample cultivators reveals a diversified cropping pattern. The general tendency of the farmers is to raise as many crops as possible to meet their domestic needs. The uncertainty of weather condition further accentuates this tendency by compelling the farmer to grow a large variety of crops giving preference to those which can stand hard weather condi tions. At the same time, the size of cultivated holdings is another economic factor influencing the cropping pattern. In ~ost of the villages in Bharmour Sub-division the holdings are clustered in the size group of 1.5 acres. Excepting the holdings Jess than 0.20 acres and more than 10 acres, the maximum cropped area is under maize followed by wheat, other mhlets and barley. 13 The details of the selected villages in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions are as follows: TABLE 6.20 : Details of Selected Villages" S. No. Area Name of Popula- Staple Area Area Culti- Village tion food irri- unir- vable gated riga- waste ted (Hect) (Hect.) (Hect.) 1. Bharmour (a) Bharmour 930 Wheat 2S.SO Sub- Maize division (b) Tundah 335 Wheat Maize Barley (c) Holi 535 -do Pangi (a) Dharwas 457 Wheat so ~ Barley division (b) Malet 436 -do do- (c) Saichu ISS -do

116 .Agriculture 117 It is also worthwhile to study the agricultural facilities existing in these villages. The main requirement of agricultural production is the vicinity of fertilizer depot, seed store, agricultural implements repairing facility, werehousing, marketing, etc. The following table indicates the agricultural facilities in these villages. TABLE 6.21 : Distance of Agricultural Facilities s. No. Area Name of Popula Distance of Seed Village tion Fertilizer Store depot (Km.) (Krn.) I. Bharmour (a) Bharmour Subdivision (b) Tundah (c) Holi Pangi (a) Dhawas Subdivision (b) Malet (c) Saichu It thus appears that fertilizer depot and seed store are situat ed quite far off in the Tundah Sub-valley. In Pangi Sub-division these facilities are located around Sub-divisional headquarter only. A study conducted by Bose reveals that the foodgrains produced is sufficient for only 4! months and the income from aarieulture and animal husbandry is of the order of Aaellmeat : The predominant occupation of the people of these two Sub-divisions is agriculture. At the same time, agri culture cannot be said to be an economic proposition in these areas due to a number of reasons. The main problem which is common to both the areas is the steep slopes of the fields which restrict extensive agricultural development. In these hilly areas, agriculture is done on terraced fields and only in some pockets plain land is available. In both the Sub-divisions the menace of soil erosion is caused due to wind and water. Because of this problem of soil erosion extensive irrigation cannot be introduced. The fields have only a thin layer of top soil and therefore, flow irrigation in a lar&e scale might not be possible.

117 1 I 8 'Tribal Development Progr.:mzmes and Administration in l11dia In Bharmour Sub-division, there is a peculiar problem due to migratory nature of the inhabitants. As most of the Gaddis migrate to Kangra District and elsewhere during winter, they normally reap one harvest on both the sides of Dhauladhar Range. As much time is wasted in coming and going, 'the agricultural work is not properly attended to at any side. One of the most important hindrance in agricultural development is the problem of transportation. Though in the Bharmour Sub-division the communication facility has been comparatively developed, in Pangi Sub-division it is in a rudi mentary form. This impedes the development activities as it is difficult to transport improved varieties of seeds, chemical fertilizers, improved implements, etc., as a result of which often seeds and fertilizers do not reach these areas in time. The work of the Agriculture Department in the field is being carried out by the Agriculture Inspectors and Sub-Inspectors, etc. with the help of Gram Sewaks of the Blocks. All of these Inspectors and Sub-Inspectors are under the general control of the Block Development officers. Thus there is a dual control of Agriculture Department's field agency. Seeds, fertilizers, etc. are being arranged by the Agriculture Department and are supplied to the farmers through. th.e Block. The District Officers are not aware of the beneficiaries to whom they have provided the facility. There is no proper feedback to know about the experi ence of the farmers and the result of the seeds and fertilizers. At present, the improved seeds are being collected from various places and are sent to these Sub-divisions without ascertaining whether these would be suitable or not for these areas. It is, therefore, suggested that seed multiplication farms should be set up in these Sub-divisions. The farm should have a store for stocking foundation and registered seeds for effecting distribution and sale of these seeds to the cultivators in time.u Surveys for the assessment of coverage of area under improved seeds should also be conducted regularly. In order to encourage the use of right type of fertilizer.s and in correct doses, it is essential that adequate facilities for soil testing should be made available. For this purpose, fully equipped soil testing laboratory need to be set up in these areas. Correlation data should be established on the basis of the soil analysis conducted at these laboratories which should

118 Agriculture 119 be utilised in conjunction with the data on sample fertilizer trials in determining the responses to different fertilizer in different areas. The internal distribution arrangements of fertilizer in these areas should be adequately geared up so as to ensure effective distribution of fertilizer currently available. The abundant flora and fauna locally available can be used for the preparation of nitrogenous manure also. The cooperative societies need to be strengthened, so that the distribution of fertilizers can be improved. At present, the margin allowed to depot holders for expenses on internal distribution in these areas is inadequate and this is one of the causes for the distributors' not exhibiting sufficient interest in improving distribution arrangements especially in the interior of these Sub divisions. The potentialities for minor irrigation in each region of the two Sub-divisions need to be determined on the basis of surveys and investigations of all types of minior irrigation. Consolidation operations require to be urgently taken up in these Sub-divisions on a priority basis to check fragmentation of holdings which can be integrated with other land development measures, such as soil conservation, drainage, etc. Arrangements for timely supply of adequate quantities of pesticides and insecticides at subsidised rates within the means of the farmers in these areas need to be made. The necessary steps for the use of improved implements suitable for these areas also need to be taken up in these Sub-divisions. Since good land management, an imperative in hill areas,,involves 'capability' studies, detailed surveys are necessary. Such surveys would make varied farming and cropping patterns feasible. When a new crop variety is introduced to farmers, some time is to be given for that variety to establish itself. Introduction of many varieties simultaneously or at frequent intervals tends to put farmers in a dilemma and the farmers do not have enough resources to make farming a long continuous experiment. 27 In order to overcome the problem of lack of supervision, it is suggested that the general control of the agriculture and soil.conservation staff should vest in the B.D.O. while the field staff should continue to get the technical guidance from the

119 120 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in lttdit~ departmental authorities. At present, there is one Assistant Soil Conservation Officer in the District who looks after both the tribal and non-tribal areas of Chamba District. If the District Agriculture Officer is entrusted with the responsibility to look after the tribal Sub-divisions only, under the general control of the Deputy Director, it probably would not be difficult for him to look after both the agriculture and soil conservation work in: these two tribal Sub-divisions. Efforts may be made to increase the production of the existing crops like millets, barley, maize, etc. The development programmes need to be properly monitored and results of various programmes evaluated to see its feasibility in these areas. The modern farming practices, use of improved seeds, chemical fertilizers, improved implements may also be demonstrated. A survey of cultivable waste needs to be conducted in Bharmour Sub-division as had been done earlier in Pangi Subdivision. Efforts then may be made to bring the suitable lands. under cultivation. For proper planning of seed and fertilizer. the area under crop, kind of crop, irrigation facilities, kind of land, etc., for each revenue village may be prepared. This. would facilitate distributing seeds and fertilizers in the villages 9cientifically. Then proper planning can be made to improve the agricultural production in these Sub-divisions. 19 With the improvement of organisational structure and after introduction of improved methods and techniques, agriculture production in these Sub-divisions would improve and the ecoftomy of the tribals augmented. REFERENCES. 1. Cllaran Sinab, "Notes on Indian Economy", Seminar on Economic: Policy Options (New Delhi, 1977), p Ibid., p :Refer First National Seminar on Problems a11d Potential of the Hill ArellS of India (New Delhi, 1975) p N.A. Agha, "AJt'icuJture" First Natioul Seminar on Problem~ and Potentials of tire Hill Areas of Jndia (New Delhi, 1975) p. 81.

120 AgriCIIIture 121 S. Salig Ram, "Planning and Progress in Agriculture-Himachal Pradesh." Symposium 011 Social and Economic Problems a/ Hilly Areas (Simla, 1973) p. 34-ii. 6. Jbid, p. 34-ii. 7. Suh-Pianfor Tribal Belt : a draft outline (Simla, 1976), p R.N. Tripathy, "Agricultural Problems in Tribal Areas" Perspective.\ Olf Tribal Development a11d Administration (Hyderabad, 1975), p N.K.. Bose, "Some lndian Tribes" (New Delhi, 1973) p Pangi Valley, An Evaluation and a Socio-Economic Study (Simla, 1966), p, 29; and An E~ alualion Study of Bharmour (Simla, 1964) p. 9. II. N.K. Bose; op. cit., p Also refer to Bharmour, A Village Survey (Simla, 1963), and Kuplw, Parmas, Thamoh and Meder. A Village Survey (Simla, 1964). 13. Charan Singh, op. cit. p Ibid, p. 43. IS. Ibid., p Figures collected from District Statistical Officer, Chamba anj Block Development Officer. Bharmour. 17. N.K. Jaiswal and N.V. Kolle, "Barriers to Diffusion of Farm Innovations Among Tribal People" Perspectives on Triha/ Development and Administration (Hyderabad, 1975), p Refer to N.K. Jaiswal. Prohlems of Agricultural E-acnsion Among the Suuria Puharius of the Rajmahal Hills (Bihar Agricultural College, Sabour, 1957). 19. Y.P. Singh, Peoples Response to Soil Conservation in Two Damodar Valley Villages (M. Sc. thesis, Bihar Agricultural College, Sabour, 1960). 20. For further readings, refer to A. Avasthi and R.K. Arora (eds.), Bureaucracy and Development, Indian Perspective (New Delhi, 1978). 21. N.K. Jaiswal and N.V. Kolle, op. cit., pp Identification of Backward Areas, Report of the Working Group, Chapter II Para 7 (New Delhi, 1969). 23. An Evaluation Study of Bharmour (Simla, 1964), p Figures collected from Naib Tehsildar Bharmour Sub-division and Tehsildar Pangi Sub-division. (2.5 Acres= 1 Hectare). (5.7 Bigha~~ l Acre). 25. S. Bose, "The Gaddis of Chamba", Man inlndi:~, Vol, 43, No , p Refer Approach to Tribal Development ins ixtll Plan,.A preliminary Perspective (New Delhi, 1978); and Draft Tribal Sub-Plan (Simla, 1978), p. 200.

121 122 Tribal Development Programme! and Administration in India '27. Also refer Ashok Basu, Technological Possibilities of indian Alfrlculture (Calcutta, 1978) and A.P. Barnabas and Donald C. Pelz, Administering Agricultural Development (New Delhi, 1969). 28. For further readings, refer Michal M. Cernea and B.J. Tepping, A System for the Monitoring and Evaluating Agricultural EKtension Projects (Washington, 1977). 29. Also refer B.L. Kumbhar, "Transforming Tribal Agriculture" YO/ANA, Vol. XXII, No. 7, 1978, pp. 5-8.

122 CHAPTER VII Horticulture Fruits are natural sources of vitamins and minerals. These also supplement carbohydrates and proteins to varying degrees depending upon their composition. One of the easiest and cheapest ways to fortify the average daily diet with vitamins and minerals and some of the essential amino-acid for millions of people in India could be to ensure a certain minimum level of intake of fruits in preference to medicated pills and tonics. 1 The normal daily requirement of fruits for an individual according to nutritional standards is two ounces. 2 Again, consumption, in this country low as it is, is conl1ned mostly to the urban sector, while people in the villages wl~o form the bulk of the population, hardly take any fruit. All this shows that production has to be increased considerably to meet the basic requirement of the nation. According to their natural distribution, the various kinds of fruits are broadly classified as temperate, subtropical and tropical. A particular fruit grows best under conditions very similar to those in which it originated naturally. It is, however, possible to evolve varieties and develop cultural practices that would make its cultivation successful under varying conditions. Some fruits are known to thrive well under different climatic conditions without any special treatment. Horticulture in the Hilly Areas : The po~ulation in the hill areas is comparatively thinly spread, density of population being 57 per square kilometre as against 144 for the country as a whole. 3 Yet there is a heavy pressure on land as proportion of

123 I 24 Tribal De1 e/opment Programmes and Administration in India agricultural land is very much limited i.e. only about 4.8 per cent of the geographical area and population inhabiting it is primarily rural. Due to the population pressure, ruggedness of terrain, fragmented plots coupled with altitude and distance, and primitive methcds of agriculture, the production per unit area is low. As such there is severe under-employment of manpower. The economic conditions of the people living in these areas is poor as compared to the people living in the plains because of small, scattered and un-economic holdings.' Horticulture in Himachal Pradesh: Himachal Pradesh is situated in the extreme north-west of India. Physiographically, the territory can be divided into two-regions; southern and northern. The southern region of the Pradesh is as hot as plains of Punjab, while the northern region has a temperate summer and winter with extreme cold and heavy snowfall. The DistriCts of Simla and Sirmour have alluvial soils while the remaining area has forest and hill soils. Agriculture and horticulture are the most important occupations of the people of the Pradesh and more than 90 per cen:t of the population of this State is directly or indirectly dependent Qn these occupations. The following table will indicate the occupational distribution in Himachal Pradesh as per last census. TABLE 7.1 : Occupational Distribution ia Himachal Pradeslt 5 Sl. No. Item No. of persons J. 2. Cultivators Aaricultural Labourers 3. Household, Industry, Manufacturing, Processing, Servicing and Repairs 4. Other Workers 5. Main Workers 6. Marginal Workers 7. Non-Workers 8. Total Population JO,OJ,n9 40,072 27,006 4,02,418 14,71,025 3,42,974 28,09,793 42,80,8l8

124 Btttticulture 125 The agro climatic conditions prevailing in the Pradesh are -entirely different from the one existing in the plains. The need, therefore, was felt to evolve a strategy to make the best possible use of the limited land resource available. With the advancement of horticulture in the Pradesh, it has been established that it gives higher return per unit of area as compared to the basic agricul~ tural crops. It was, therefore, felt by the State Government that instead of concentrating on cereal production alone, more efforts should be made to accelerate the pace of development of horticulture, vegetables, vegetable seeds production and allied items, etc. As a result of these efforts, in the recent past, the production of temperate fruits, especially apples, has gone up which has gone a long way towards ameliorating the economic condition of the farmers. Keeping all these developments in view, a separate Department of Horticulture was set up in 1970 to bring at least one-third of the culturable area in the Pradesh under horticulture. 7 The main advantages from horticulture are: {a) higher income per unit of area (b) utilisation of areas unsuitable for ordinary crops, (c) conservation of 11oil, etc., (d) utilisation of nature's gift, (e) indirect economic benefits. 8 Himachal Pradesh has immense scope for development of horticulture because of its varied topography, soil and climatic conditions. Though the Pradesh has vast natural resources, the cultivable land resources are, however, very very limited due to georaphical reasons and the net sown area comes only to 10 per cent of its total geographical areas of the Pradesh.' The majority of the farmers of the Pradesh therefore, cannot hope to improve their level of living by merely depending on cultivation of ordinary cereal crops. Though the high yielding varieties programme has opened up new vistas in food-grain production, but even such radical biological innovations are likely to have limited impact on the economy of farmers in non vallcy areas. Thus the capacity of the Pradesh to intensify its land use through traditional agriculture is very much limited. However, horticulture which is very suitable to the terrain is ideal for the Pradesh as, almost all kinds of fruits can be grown here. As such, it is the core sector of the economy of the people of the Pradesh. It is also most intimately concerned with the economic uplift of the major farming population. 10 The basic objective of horticulture development in the

125 126 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration iri lrulia Pradesh is to increase production of quality fruits from the existing orchards through the application of the modern technology on a wider scale. The programme also aims at tapping of potential areas for horticulture development in the backward areas for removal of the regional imbalances and to strengthen the infrastructure for the economic disposal and utijisation of the produce, reduction of disparities in income and consumption of fruits at all levels.u The horticulture zones in Himachal Pradesh have been indicated in Table 7.2. TABLE 7.2: Horticulture Zones in Himachal Pradeshl 2 SJ. No. Particulars Approx. range of Important fruits that elevation (above can be successfully sea level) grown 1. Low Hills and 365 to 914 metres Sub-tropical fruits Valleys near like litchi, loquat, the plains citrus fruits, etc. 2. Mid hills 914 to 1523 Stone fruits like metres peach, plum, aprictjt, persimmon, pear (hard and soft varieties), pomegranate, etc. 3. High hills and 1523 to 2742 apple, cherry, pear valleys in the metres (soft types) walnut,. interior chestnuts, etc. 4. Cold and Dry 1524 to 3656 raisin grapes prunes, Zone metres dry varieties of apricot, almond chilgoza and apple. Horticulture in Tribal Areas of Himachal Pradesh: The tribal areas of Himachal Pradesh have a large potential for development of horticulture, especially for fruits falling in the category of dry-fruits. Considerable emphasis continued to be laid on the development of horticulture in these areas, over since the initiation of planning era. For development of economic'ally and climatologically backward areas, a number of institutions were set up for research and extension work. In Kinnaur District, a Dry Fruit Research Station was established in 1954 at Boktu which was further strengthened and converted into a station of Intensification of Research on Dry Fruits and Nuts

126 127 during In addition, Dry Fruit Research Sub-station was started at Gialong. In order to encourage the culti-vation ot: gapes on scientific and commercial Jines, the Raisin Gra.pes Jle~~earch Station at Sharboo was started in Progeny orchards and mobile units were also set up at various places. The cultivation of fruit trees in compact areas was encouraged by advancing long term loans at liberal terms and garden colonies have been established. The research work also covered almond, walnut, peanut, hazelnut, apricot, plum, apple, cherries, etc. As a sequel to the extension and research effort, almond growing has caught the imagination of the growers. Temperate areas with lesser rainfall have been found to be ideally suited for growing this fruit. Kinnaur District has made a mark in producing thin-shelled almond of good quality which is.gradually reducing the dependence on imports. Chilgoza, which is the main cash crop, grows 'like wild shrub in Ka\pa and some parts of Pooh and Nichar Sub-divisions of Kinnaur District and Pangi Sub-division and some parts of Bharmour Sub-division of Chamba District. II' Most of the area of Bharmour Sub-division is 11ultable for apple plantation. Dry fruits can be taken up in the areas like Kugti, Hadsar, Supa, Tundah, etc., as the rainfau in these areas is comparatively much less. 15 The Khani and Chanhauta areas are suitable for growing almonds. In areas h«yfng an elevation of 2743 metres above sea level and where means of communication are not very developed, apple planta tion is not economical at present and almond plantation might not be suitable. The cultivation of dried apricot, walnut and grapes can be tried in those areas. Pangi Sub-division is also -s\liitable for the development of horticulture. Due to l~ck of communication facilities in this Sub-division, apple plantation has not made much headway nor it is economical there at the moment. However, development of almond, dried apricot, walnut, etc. can be made. The chilgoza and thangi can also be developed. 18 The main objectives of hortictllture development in these areas should be: (i) to narrow the gap between the level of horticultural development in these areas and other areas in the State.

127 128 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India (ii) to develop cash crops for amelioration of economic condition of the people. (iii) to provide conditions for involving tribals in fruit production programme by creating the necessary infrastructure for production, marketing and utilisation of horticulture prod uce. 17 In order to achieve these, a two-pronged strategy was adoptf'(l. Long term strategy was evolved for achievement of the desired results by preparing perspective plans for these areas~ Within the framework of these plans, the short-term strategy comprised formulation of coordinated production goals for every horticultural area, concentration on the resources for the acceleration of production d~velopment of technology for the maximization of production, expansion programmes for the extension of technology and adequate credit facilities for helping the f.trmers to take up horticulture in right earnest. 11 Organization : During the first three Five Year Plans horticulture was only a part of the then erstwhile Department of Agriculture. During this period the general strategy for development of horticulture comprised of giving help for development of commercial crops in only such areas where cereals could not be grown. However, keeping in view the necessity of horticulture development, a separate department was created in At present, the Department of Horticulture consists of the following functional divisions. 19 I. General Administration Division. 2. Horticulture Development and Extention Division. 3. Horticulture Marketing and Economic Planning Division. 4. Fruit Technology and Cold Storage Division. 5. Horticulture Information Division. 6. Plant Protection and Nursery Registration Division. 7. Plant Nutrition Division. 8. Bee-keeping Division. 9. Floriculture and Land Scaping Division.

128 Horticul1ure 129 The Department is headed by a full time Director. He is assisted by a Joint Director. The Pradesh is divided into a numb~ of regions each headed by a Deputy Director. There. is one District Horticulture Officer (D.H.O.) in each District. Below,him there are a number of Inspectors and Sub-Insp.ectors. The field work of the Horticulture Department is executed through the Community Development Blocks. To assist the B.D.O. in executing the horticulture development programmes, Horticulture Inspectors and/or Sub-Inspectors have been provided at the Blocks. The day to day control over the Inspectors lies with the B.D.O. However, the Inspectors are also responsible to D.H.O. at the District headquartt"r. Thus, the Horticulture lnspector acts as Extension Officer of the B.D.O. At present, there are two such Inspectors in Bharmour Sub-division, one at Bharmour and the other at Garola. In Pangi Sub-division there is one Inspector at Kilar. In addition there is provision for Sub Inspectors, Mechanics and Malis as well. PrQgrammes : The programmes for horticultural development consist of: (a) development of fruit production, (b) establishment of mobile units, (c) bee-keeping development, (d) plant protection, (e) training of orchardists, (f) development of hops (g) development of horticulture by grant of subsidy, and (h) grant of subsidy to panchyat orchards, etc. In addition, some special (package) programmes for the tribal areas relate to (a) dry fruits, (b) apples with high density plantation, (c) grapes, (d) hops, (e) currants, (/) establishment of garden colonies, (g) grant for production, procurement and transportation of plants and materials in government nurseries, etc. The basic goal is to increase fruit production per uriit area in the tribal Sub-divisions of Bharmour and Pangi. It involves propet meshing of diverse activities such as plantation, production, processing, storage and marketing. However, up to now no steps have been taken for storage, transport, marketing and preservation offruits in these Sub-divisions. The programmes up to now,are limited to providing fruit plants and pesticides at subsidised rates, pruning and spraying of orchards, training of orchardists, etc. Not much headway has been made in high density plantation, construction of irrigation kuhls, garden colonies, etc. The fruit plants are arranged by the District Horticulture

129 13{) Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India Officer at Chamba and sent to Bharmour and Pangi Subdivisions through Inspectors for further distribution to the orchardists and other interested persons there. However, in order to meet the demands in time, progeny orchards and nurseries have been established in these areas. The fo11owing table indicates the details of progeny orchards and nurseries in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions. TABLE 7.3 : Progeny Orchards and Nurseries Sl. No. Sub-division Progeny Orchard Nurseries Bharmour Pangi Ulan sa Kilar Garola Kilar Besides, accelerating the pace of horticulture development through expansion of direct plantation in the potential areas, the programme of top working of fruit trees is also carried out in these sub-divisions. Upgrading of the wild fruit trees growing abundantly in these Sub-divisions are likely to increase production of fruits. Training : The importance of training to the farmers in improved horticultural practices can in no way be minimised. The orchardists have to be trained in the use of pesticides, promng of trees, spraying, grading of fruits, their marketing, etc. as well. The training of the orchardists are being imparted by the Horticulture Department in collaboration with the C.D. Blocks. During the year , 277 hectares of land were under horticulture in Bharmour Sub-division. It gradually increased to 293 hectares (74-75), 309 (75-76) and 386 during The major area is under apple growing. As compared to this, the total are'!. under horticulture during in Pangi Subdivision was 22 hectares. It gradually increased to 27 hectares (74-75), 28 hectares (75-76) and 31 hectares in The major area is under nuts and dry fruits in Pangi Sub-division. Performance : Table 7.2 indicates the horticultural zones in Himachal Pradesh and various fruits that can be successfully grown in different areas. A comparison with Jammu-Kashmir

130 Horticwture 131 and Uttar Pradesh reveals that percentage of area under fruits to total geographical area is more in Himachal Pndesh (0.62) as compared to Jammu Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh. The percentage of area under fruits to total cultivated area in this Pradesh is also greater than Jammu and Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh. Among the Districts in Himachal Pradesh, the maaimum area under fruits is in Simla followedby Kulu, Mandi, Solan, Chamba, Kinnaur, etc. In Bh;;.rmour and Pangi Sub-divisions, the total are<> under fruits was only 293 hectares and 27 hectares respectively during Thus in these Sub-divisions, 5.26 per~nt and 0.11 per cent of the total crop area is under fruit plants. The percentage of area under fruit plants to total crop area in Bharmour Subdivision is more than that in Pangi Sub-division and Chamba District (2.49). The percentage of area under fruits in Pangi Sub-division is lowest in the State whereas the area under fruits in Kinnaur District (12.07) is one of the highest in the State. Though the agro-climatic conditions in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-d,ivisions are largely similar to that of Kinnaur DistrK:t, the pace of horticultural development in these two Sub-divi.c;ions thus seems to be lagging much behind, as compared to that District. The yield of apples per hectare in Bharmour Sub-division is 2.1 tonnes which is higher than that of Pangi Sub-division (0.3 tonnes), Solan District (2.2 tonnes) and is comparable to that of Chamba District (2.8 tonnes). The percentage of area under fruits to total crop area in Bharmour Sub-division is 5.25 and that of Chamba District 2.~9. The chmatic conditions in Bharmour Sub-division are very conducive for growing apples. Thus it can be concluded that there is more scope for development of apples in this Sub-division. It is, thus, clear tha:t th.ough in Bharmour Sub-division there is some impact of hortic\]l~ural programme, in Pangi Sub-division it i~ almost negligible. Table 7.4 indicates the area under fruit in the selected villages in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions. Thus, it is clear that among the three sub-valleys in Bha~our Sub-division, the area under fruit is highest in BbarJllour followed by Holi and Tund~h. Jn Pangi Sub-djvi$ion the area under fruit is highest in Dharwas followed by Malet and Saichu.

131 132 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India TABLE 7.4 : DetaUs of Selected Villagesto S.No. Sub-divisions Name of Population Area under village (No.) fruits (beet.) L Bharmour (a) Bharmour (b) Tundah (c) Holi Pang! (a) Dharwas (b) Malet (c) SaiChu 'th()ugh there are provisions for bee-keeping development, development of hops, setting up of garden colonies, high density pfaii,tation, etc., no work has been done. DeveJop~ent of irrigation facilities is also one of the programmes but nothing ha~ 6een.done in this regard as well,' i~ these two Sub-di~isions. 'ASsessment: The reason for shortfall in horticultural developh.hnt in the tribal Sub-divisions of Chamba District. can be dueto various reasons.' Jn Bharmour Sub-division the inadeq~ate imp~ct may be mainly due to lack of extension agencies, lack of general and horticultural educational programmes and the migratory nature of the inhabitants. Poor communication facilities in some parts of the Sub-division and poor marketing infrastructure also contribute to this inadequate developme~t. The }lorticulture development in Pangi Sub-division is almost negligible mainly due to non-existtmce of communicat.iq~ faci Jities,,lack of training in horticulture, ljick of extension ff8e~cies and inadaquate supervision and follow up. Moreover the Government orchard in Killar is also in bad shape and do not enthuse the local people to take up horticulture. In,addition to this, there is a chronic problem of nonavailability of suitable personnel which impedes post;ing of J>(:rsomiel to implement the horticultural development programmes. This to a great extent might impede spraying and pruning which reduces the yield. 'n Pangi Sub-division at present more stress may be given to pla~.~~~n of almond, dried apricot, walnut, pears of hardy varieties, chilgoza, etc. Alongwith these, the wild kainth and

132 Horticulture 133 apricot grown there can be improved by top working with superior varieties. The plantation of apples, pears, plums may be co-ordinated with the development of roads 11 On the organisational side, the Horticulture Development and Extension Division may be strengthened at the District level. The District Horticulture Officer should undertake frequent visits in these two tribal Sub-divisions. As these two Sub-divisions are a part of the Chamba District, the officers are more interested in visiting the non-tribal areas due to better communication facilities in those areas. Therefore, either an additional officer should be posted to look after these Sub-. divisions or it should be mandatory on the part of the District Officer to visit these areas regularly and spend a prescribed number of days and nights in these Sub-divisions. At present the Sub-divisional Officer (S.D.O.) has no administrative or financial control over the developmental officials working within the Sub-division. The introduction of Single Line Administration as recommended by Shilu Ao Commission may also be examined 22 In order to popularise horticulture in Pangi Sub-division the cost of transportation of plants up to the distribution centre should be subsidised. The cost of plants in both of these Subdivisions may also be subsidised which may be withdrawn later in a phased manner. Areas for horticultural development should be specifically demarcated in these areas on the basis of findings of preliminary studies and surveys particularly those relating to types of fruit plant suitable for soil and agronomic conditions. Ample credit facilities should be provided to horticulturists, especially by way of pre-harvest credit, for marketing of their produce. A condition precedent would be a detailed survey of the overall credit needs and the agencies required to extent such credit. A strong research base has to be created for expansion of horticulture in the entire Pradesh in general and these areas in particular. The following po\nts need consideration in this regard:

133 l34 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in l.,tiic (i) Evolving high yielding, disease-free plaatts suitable for these localities. (ii) Evolving plants which during certain seasons havo little effect of the short sunlight hours. (iii) Improve orchard management practices, such as tillap and soil management, and standardise these. Since the horticultural marketing is the concern of more than one governmental agency, co-ordination is most essential particularly in the marketing of horticultural produce. Production of some of the quality horticultural produce can be accelerated by proper grading. Since grading, under the law at present, is voluntary only, every effort should be made to encourage voluntary grading of such produce. The marketing infrastructure for horticultural produce need to be improvcci and expanded on a large scale. The money now spent on such infrastructure is hardly commensurate with the total turnover of trade in horticultural produce. Further, some ratio of.. infrastructure to turnover" should be established to devctlop marketing facilities. Progeny orchards and nurseries should be raised in these areas to meet the requirement of the two Sub-divisions. The extension staff should provide ample guidance and training to the orchardists. Demonstration plots should be organised and the orchardists may be taken on a study tour to other horticultural growing areas of the Pradesh. As the inhabitants ar poor, Government should provide adequate funds and implements for converting the cultivable wastes into orchards. The means of transport for marketing of fruits may bo provided. Till then small processing and canning units may be set up. There is a need to ascertain the reason for failure of panchayat nurseries and community orchards and to take remedial measures. Evaluation committee may be revived for mi<j.iterm appraisal of the development programme including sc~mes for the promotion of horticulture. Arrangement should also be made for periodical inspections of all important schemes in order to apply correctives in time. With a view to taking plant protection measures, a survey should be undertaken to

134 Horticulture 135 determine the incidence of root-rot and hail zone areas where orchards cannot flourish. Wild animals destory crops in Pangi and Bharmour Subdivisions. Once the orchards are developed, the depredation by these animals will increase manifold. The proposal of allowing the farmers to have muzzle loaded guns to protect their crops also be. examined. The impact of ceiling laws and land holding tax on the size of fruit groves and orchards requires to be considered at this mage because it is an important factor which would exert an ~nftucnce on the farmers' decisions to take to the cultivation of fruit crops. The fruiting season of apple commences in West Uttar Pradesh hills in the first week of June, in Himachal Pradesh a fortnight later and in Kashmir valley after another 'fortnight. The seasonal supplies reach the market latest upto early November and whatever is sold thereafter is only the fruit stored in cold storages. Therefore keeping quality of apple assumes a very great importance. Except for ambri, which is il'digeneous to Kashmir region, many of the well known varieties, especially of the exotic delicious group have a very poor keeping quality. The supply of ambri is gradually dwindling even within the season because of general neglect of 'tho crop and spreading of mildew and scab diseases, more 'Virulently the latter. Owing to this, the only sweet varieties w.bich remain in the market to meet the taste of northern and -central parts of the country are those of the delicious group. But since this group docs not keep long, the northern aod oeentr~ parts of the country are not left with any other suitable vatiety of comparative apple in the off season. It is also not prudent to rely only on or.e type because there is always the <!anger of widespread failure due to weather or epidemics. It is thus necessary to broaden the genetic base and the pos..<~ibility of utilizing wild germ plasm has also to be explored in this connection. At present, apple cultivation is concentrated between I,500 to 2,000 metres. This is because most of the varieties were introduced in India from temperate regions and suit this range on considerations of longer dormancy and low temperatures. Apple cultivation, to be successful below 1,500 metres, needs

135 136. Tribal Development Programmes and Admini.rtration in India. varieties which have a shorter dormancy period and are accustomed to milder temperatures. Such varieties are not available at present. If this defect can be removed, apple cultivation might be possible at lower elevations of these Sub-divisions. where more area is available. There is experimental evidence to show that apple cultivation can be taken up with success even beyond 3,000 metres. Fruit. setting and colour, etc., have been found to be satisfactory but because of the colder conditions, ripening has not been to the desirable extent. If suitable varieties could be found for higher elevations, this could lead to further increase in the area underapple. However, the economics of successful cultivation at such higher elevations will have to be examined... The following two techniques are available for effecting improvement in apple: (a) top working as a technique for improvement is applicable in this crop. Scientists are aware of it and it has already been applied to ambri in Kashmir with satisfactory results. (b) The latest trend in some of the horticulturally advanced countries is for giving preference to dwarf varieties. The plants grafted on dwarfing rootsticks are fou.nd to give high yields and better quality of fruits. Dwarf trees with dompact canopies allow a higher density of plant populationper unit area, which is an important consideration in their favour. Vertical development in this method of cultivation is prevented by training the branches to take to horizontal positions through tying these by wires, strings, etc. It is obsel'ved that the bearing in this way takes place within twoto thlree years of planting as against about ten years required for the usual trees. The technique has given encouraging results. under experimental conditions and the same may be tried at least in Bharmour Sub-division on trial basis so that the orchardists can expect an early return 23 Walnut also needs special attention because it has good potentiality of earning foreign exchange and they grow in theseareas. The problems, which need attention, are production techniques and care of plantations in general and making available walnut grafts for replacing the sugling trees. More attention is required to be given to tillage aspects of orchards. There should also be provision for irrigation and adoption of plant protection measures. The problem of residual toxicity wilt

136 Hotticulture 13T also need attention when the use of plant protection chemicals became popular in orchards and groves. Improving production through top working should be extended to as many fruits as practicable in Pangi and Bharmou'r Sub-divisions. The technique of top working should be standardised for different crops for large scale adoption. Model orchards are required to be established in both Pangi and Bbarmour Sub-divisions to determine the economics of fruit production. These orchards could also be used as centres of practical demonstration in better methods of cultivation. Horticulture development depends very much upon proper and timely input distribution and post harvest marketing system. Thus it is essential that efforts should be made to proyjde' plants, pesticides, etc. in time to the orchardists and arr~ngements should be made for training the fanners regarding pruning, spraying, grading of apples, etc. With the improvement of' communication and marketing facilitie:; there. ~s a bright cijaijt;;~. for the development or horticulture in these two tribal Sub-divisions of Chamba District which will go.in a long way to improve the economic conditions of the people of these areas. REFERENCES J. Report of the National Commission on Agriculture, Part VJ (New Delhi, 1976), p Ibid. p S.L. Katyal, "Agricultural and Horticultural Development", First Natiotu~l Seminar o11 Problems and Potentias of the Hill Areas of India (New Delhi, 1975), p. 83, 4. Ibid., p Statistical Outline of Himachal Pradesh (Simla, 1978) pp Also refer S.L. Katyal, "Agricultural and Horticultural Development'', op. cit., p K.C. Azad and D.K. Sharma, "Development of Horticulture in Himachal Pradesh", Symposium on Social and Economic Problem.f of Hilly Area,, (Simla, 1973), pp Ibid., p Economic Review of Himachal Pradesh (Simla 1978) p Refer, A Glimpses of Himachal Horticulture (Simla, 1974) and Economic Review of Himachal Pradesh (Simla, 1975).

137 138 Tribal Deve/opme11t Programmes at~d Administration in INiia.. II. Refer Annual Administration &port, Department of HorticultJJre. Himachal Pradash (Simla, 1976). 12. Refer Horticulture in Himachal, An Epitome (Simla, 1975). 13. Sub Plan for Tribal Belt ( ), a draft outline (Simla, 1974) p Asholt.llanjan Basu, Integrated Tribal Development Project ReJ)Ort for Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions of Chamba District (ChaQil.ba, 1977) p Ibid, p Ibid, p Draft Five Year Plan and Draj~ Tribal Sub-Plan /JJ Hint~~t:lwl Pratksh (Simla, 1978) p Ibid., p Annual Administration Report, Department of Horticulture (Simla, 1975) pp Figures collected from Naib Tehsildar, Bharmour and Tehsildhar PanJi. 21. Refer Approach to Tribal Development in Sixth Pla11, A Prelifll.iNrY Perspective (New Dolhi, 1977) and Draft Tribal Sub-Plan (IWU]), Himachal Pradesh (Simla, 1971). 22. Refer Report of the Study Team on Tribal Developml!nt PrograiJ!Hife.v Himachal Pradesh (New Delhi, 1969), p Refer H.B. Singh, Dwarf Apple Cultivation, Farmers &lktin No. J (Simla, 1968).

138 CHAPTER VIII Animal Husbandry It is impossible to think of improving agriculture in India without having good cattle. Because of poverty, illiteracy, smal ler holdings, primitive agricultural practices, agricultural production and marketing of the produce continues to be done with bullocks in majority of cases. They provide the required motive power for various agricultural operations including irrigation and rural transport and also manure for the fields. Again they provide milk and milk products which are the only source of animal proteins in the diet of the predominantly vegetarian population of the country. The farmer also supplements his meagre resources through the sale of milk and milk products, especially during the wide gaps that occur between the sowing and marketing of agricultural crops. Cattle are thus indispensable for the rural economy. India was once a vast pastoral country where domestic ani~ mals constituted an individual's entire wealth and answered most of his needs. Rearing of ~beep was then, as it is even now in some parts of the country, cne of tl:e principal cccupations.. of the reople. Sheep zearir.g, hc\\e\er, still remains the mono~ poly of a class of herders whom tradition has marked out as a pastoral caste. The social, economic and political changes that have taken place have not touched this class and the shepherd still follows his profession in the same manner as his ancestors did for centuries. To him, rearing of sheep is not only a profession ;but also a way of life that he lives. During the rains, his.. sojourn is the desert or the arid hills, where the flocks can gra~

139 140 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India ze on pest-free lush grasses. After the rainy!'cason the shepherds move to the harvested fields. This often involves long journeys. But they get a warm welcome from the cultivatols, for the flocks, wherever they are folded, provide rich manure to the fields. In the Himalayan region-cqmprising hilly regions of Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir- Gures, Karnale, Bhakarwal (J & K), Gaddi and Rampur Bushahri (HP) species are reared. Lobi, Bikaneri, Marwari, Kutchi are avail.able in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, etc. Deccani and Nellore are reared in Deccan Plateau. In the eastern heavy rainfall area, black faced 'Sikkim' variety is reared at high altitudes. 1 The next important livestock is goat. The goat is the major source of meat in India. In addition, it yields milk and is a 'Valuable source of leather. The rearing of goat, as corppared to that of other livestocks, is cheap. On account of its habit. of nibbling the buds of trees and of foraging on a variety of plants, the goat is considered a destroyer of vegetation and is source of.soil erosion. The common breeds available in India are Himalayan Goat, Jamunapuri Goat, Barbari Goat, Surti Goat and Bengal Goat e~~ 1 Cattle Development in Hilly Areas: Cattle comprise of the most important species among the livestock in hilly areas. In the long stretches of the Himalayan region in the country extending from Jammu and Kashmir in the north-west to Aruna -chal Pradesh and Manipur in the east, cattle are deeply interwoven in the economic life and well being of the hiu people. There are about nine million cattle and 1.8 million buffaloes in the hilly areas of the country. 3 Majority of these. animals~ however, do not conform to any well-defined breed and are.. nondescript. They are small in size and low producers of milk. Realising the need for augmenting milk production in, the hilly areas, several steps have been taken in the past _two decades or so, for improving the production of hill cattle. The encouraging results obtai~ed il) the project of the Jndian <;ouncil of Agricultural Research, both in the hilly areas and in areas of high rainfall, clearly showed that the cross breeding oflhe

140 :Animal Husbandry 141 local cattle with exotic breeds would be the best way for rapid :improvement of milk production in the country.' Initially Jersey was the breed of choice for cross:breeding in most States, because of its compact size, high fat percentage in milk and better heat tolerance. Subsequent research work has, however, indicated that other breeds like Holstien-Friesian and Brown Swiss can be used with equally promising results for -cross breeding work. In recent years, Holstien-Friesian bas become more popular because: of its genetic potential for higher milk yield. 6 The exotic and cross bred animals are known to be more -susceptible to some of the diseases particularly foot and mounth disease, rinderpest and protozoan diseases like theileriasis and anaplasmosis. Success of cross breeding programme would, therefore, largely depend on the programme of animal health -cover provided in the cross-breeding areas. Animal Husbandry io the Tribal Areas of Himachal Pradesh : The tribal areas of Himachal Pradesh lie on the international border with Tibet. The topography of the area is dotted with -steep mountains, glaciers and are traversed by fast flowing rivers and rivulets. The population in these areas is scattered mainly along the gorges and valleys. So is the case with animal population. The means of communication in the area being in a rudimentary form, the animals not only provide food, cloth and motive power but also serve as beasts of burden. The land holdings being small and cultivated area still smaller, there has never been an appreciable practice of growing fodder crops. The main source of fodder are the forests and the grazing grounds and some fodder trees. Usually the herds of cattle and flocks of sheep and goats are let loose to graze in the extensive. pastures and during summer months they are sent up to the Alpine pastures. As the winter approaches, herds and flocks are brought down to the villages and subsequently taken to the lower parts of the Pradesh as also to the plains of adjoining areas of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. However, the cattle remaining behind in the villages are per force stall fed during the inclement weather. In Bharmour Sub-division, the cattle are also taken to adjoining States alongwith sheep and goats. In an agro pastoral economy like that of Bharmour and Pangi Sub--divisions where the mechanisation of the agricultural

141 142 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India operations is not possible, cattle are kept not only for providing protective foods, such as milk, etc., but also for the valuable draught power and manure which are essential for agriculture jn th.e region. Sheep and goats are reared for meat and wool purposes. Although animal husbandry mostly provides, subsidiary means of livelihood to the agriculturists, livestock raising bas become an integral part of the agriculture itself. Orgaalsation : The Animal Husbandry Department is headed by a full-time Director. There are two Joint Directors under him. The Pradesh is divided into three regions, each beaded by a Deputy Director. The headquarters of the Deputy Directors are located at Mandi, Simla and Palampur. In rddition to this, there is one Project Officer for the Intensive Cattle Development Project. Each Deputy Director has a number of Districts under them which is headed by a District Animal Husbandry Officer. There are number of Veterinary Assistant Surgeons under them. Stock Assistants occupy the lowest rank in hierarchy. ln addition to this, in some of the Districts there are some additional posts like Research Officer, Wool Analysis Laboratory; ManAger of the Sheep Breeding Farm; Officer-in-Charge Training, etc. All these posts are equivalent to that of the District Animal Husbandry Officers. The Mandi region consists of the Districts of Mandi, Kulu, Bilaspur and Lahaul-Spiti. The Simla region comprises of Simla Solan, Sirmour and Kinnaur Districts. The Districts ofchamba, Kangra, Hamirpur and Una fall within the jurisdiction of Palampur region. Chamba District, thus, is under the Deputy Director at pajampur. There is one District Animal Husbandry Officer at Chamba. In Bharmour Sub-division, there are three Assistant Surgeons, one each at Bharmour, Holi and Tundah. There are Stock Assistants under them. In Pangi Sub-division, there is one Assistant Surgeon at Kilar. There is a Sheep Breeding Farm at Sarol. In addition, there is one Wool Analysis Laboratory and Training Centre for the Stock Assistants at Sarol. The Secretariat Administration is headed by Secretary (Animal Husbandry) who is Secretary of some other departments as well and is also designated as Agriculture Production Commissioner. "Below'him tbere is one Joint Agriculture Production Commis-

142 .Ahimal Hrubandry 143 sioner who is of the tank of Joint Secretary. There is one Uttder Secretary below hirn. Both the Joint and UndetSecretaries have some other departments also with them. The Secretary and the Joint Secretary are from the Indian Administrative Service Cadre whereas the Under Secretary is a member of the State Administrative Service. Programmes : In spite of large livestock population in Bharmotlr and Pangi Sub-divisions the productivity of livestock is comparatively very low. In view of the importance of livestock,. the State Government has taken steps to improve the condition of livestock by organising veterinary services. rt has been found that out of the three methods of raising the productivity, viz. breeding, disease control and improved feeding and management, the last one offers possibilities of immediate impact. But due to the poverty of the people, improvement in feeding of the animals bas not been possible. The Animal Husbandry Department in the Pradesh has, therefore, concentrated on the remaining two methods. Cross breeding of the non-descript animals will no doubt help to improve the stock radically, but the process is very slow in large animals and at the same time the crossbred animals give higher yields only if better fed. However, the disease of bovines are fairly under control with mass vaccination campaign against Rinderpest and availability of vaccine<> against other principal diseases except food and mouth disease whioh still debilitates animals with frequent attacks. 7 In Himachal Pradesh, where agriculture is the mainstay of the people, development of animal husbandry plays an important role in. the rural economy. The development programmes include: (i) animal health and disease control, (ii) development in the sphere of cattle breeding, sheep breeding, wool, poultry, feed and fodder, (iii) veterinary education, and (iv) milk supply schemes. The work of the Animal Husbandry Department in the tribal Sub-divisions of ~harmour and Pangi is being done partly -by the departmental agency in the fields and partly through the agency of Block Development Officer. Specialised work like.disease control, etc. is being done by the departmental agency whereas that of distribution of improved varieties of rams, bulls, cows, etc. is done through the Block agency.

143 144 Tribal Developmetll Programmes and Administration in India Aaimal Health and Disease Coatrol : With a view to meeting out fuuy and effectively the consistently growing requirements of veterinary aids, the department has set up a network of veterinary hospitals and dispensaries in the far-flung areas of these two Sub--divisions. The table below indicates the various veterinary institutions in the area. TABLE 8.1 : Veterinary Iosdtutioas Ia Bbarmour aad Pap Sub-divilloas 1 S. No. Sub-division Veterinary Hospitals Veterinary Dispensaries J. 2. Bharmour Pangi i) Veterinary Hospital, Bharmour ii) Veterinary Hospital, Holi iii) Veterinary Hospital, Tundah iv) Veterinary Hospital, Garola i) Veterinary Hospital, Kilar ii) Dharwas i) Veterinary Dispensary, Kugti ii) Veterinary Dispesary, Kbani iii) Veterinary Dispensary, Chobia iv) Veterinary Dispensary, Bajole v) Veterinary Dispen sary, Chanhauta i) Veterinary Dispensary, Sechnulla ii) Veterinary Dispensary, Sach iii) Veterinary Dispensary, Purthi iv) Veterinary Dispensary, Tai t') Veterinary Dispen sary, Minda I t'i) Veterinary Dispensary, Hudan Improvement of Livestock 1. Cattle Developmeat: In order to develop the cattle breed ing, several strategies have been adopted. The common method is by cross-breeding the hill cows with exotic breeds like Jersey, Holstien Friesian, etc. This can be doue in two ways, i.e. by natural service or through artificial insemination. For cross breeding by natural service in these areas, improved varieties of Jersey cows have

144 Animal Husbandry 145 been distributed to the inhabitants at subsidised rates. These cows crossed with improved bulls have improved the breed. The other method followed is that improved varieties of bulls have been maintained at the hospitals where the cows are brought for natural service. Yet another method that can be followed is artificial insemination but there is no Artificial insemination Centre in these two Sub-divisions. 2. Sheep BreediDg : Sheep breeding forms a major source of wool, mutton, hides and manure. For improvement of sheep in these areas, improved rams and ewes are distributed to the shepherds. There is one sheep breeding farm at Sarol in the Chamba District. One sheep and wool centre has been opened at Bharmour where improved varieties of rams would be kept and used for improving the local breed by natural service. The exotic varieties which were imported by the State Government includes Polworth, Rambauillet, Scotch Blackface, Spanish Merino, German Land Merino, Soviet Merino, Corriedale, etc. 18 Poultry : In order to provide improved type of poultry birds and hatching eggs, the department started several poultry farms/ Poultry Extension Centres in various parts of the State. At Chamba, there is one poultry farm. In order to improve the Livestock, the Government of Himachal Pradesh introduced, Himachal Pradesh Livestock Improvement Act. The aim of this Act is to provide for improvement of livestock in the Pradesh. Section 4 of the Act prohibits to keep a bull unmarked. Sections 5 and 6 of the Act deal with the intimation to be given about the unmarked bulls and submission of bulls for inspection. Section 8 deals with the castration of the unapproved bulls. Animal Feed : Steps such as cross breeding of non-descript animals, artificial insemination, etc. no doubt help in improving the stock radically, but breeding is only a slow process in large animals and as such is considered to be a long term measure. The cross bred animals also give higher yields only when better fed.: Therefore better feeding of animals is needed for improvement of breed and it is also an imprortant measure which yietdll quick results. In Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions livestock keeping is looked upon more as a way of living than as an economic enterprise. Therefore, scant attention is pai4 to the animal feeds. The livestock mainly depends on grazing.

145 146 Tribal.Development Programmes and Admi,istration in India SmaJl quantities of concentrates such as crop mixture arc fed for a short period only to the cows during lactation and the bullocks during the ploughing season. The development of food and fodder resources is of vital importance for promotion of livestock industry. The intrinsic genetic potential in the livestock can only be manifested to the maximum extent and exploited fully by making available optimum nutritional requirements to the cattle. The optimum production of pedigreed and cross-bred animals can only be achieved through balanced and nutritive fodder. Various cattle development programmes launched in the Pradesh can yield tangible results only if this aspect of food and fodder develop-. ment is properly taken care of. Fodder development has to go hand in hand if we really wish to achieve spectacular results in cattle breeding through tht! introduction of superior germ plasm. Presently, the resources available for nutritious fodder are far from satisfactory. Whatever pastures have been left in the State after extensive plantation are in a very bad condition. These have been neglected from time immemorial. Whatever grows naturally is of very poor quality and the production per acre is insignificant. In Himachal Pradesh, there is very little cultivable area which can be spared,for the production of fodder crops. As such, this vital aspect of food and fodder has to be taekled keeping in view the resources available at their command. The condition prevailing in the Pradesh cannot be compared with those of plains. Much land cannot be spared for fodder production exclusively. The irrigation facilities arc also scarce in the Pradesh. Hence, the farmers cannot afford to grow fodder for their animal in place of cereals, the production of which is already deficient. Despite these difficulties, the department bas endeavoured to grow fodder. The "Ghasnies" which are the main source of the feed for the livestock in the Pradesh are deficient in protein as they do n~ contain any leguminous plants. Therefore, it has been the practice to try and introduce some legumes in these Ghasnies. As such, the seeds of velvet beans have been procured which arc planted on the onset of monsoon at various distances rangins from l~-30 metres apart in the Ghasnies. lt is hoped that this will enrich the quality of the grasses':so far as protein level

146 Animal Husbandry 147 is concerned. Similarly, love grass is being multiplied for further distribution to the progressive breeders. The variety is superior to giant napier as it contains less of oxalic acid and the plant is quite succulent.u However, no work has been done in these directions in Bharmour and Pangi Sub--divisions. Performance: In an agro-pastoral economy like that of Bharmour and Pangi areas, where the mechanisation of agricultural operations is not possible, cattle are kept not only for providing protective foods, such as milk, etc., but also for the valuable draught power and manure essential for agriculture in the region. Sheep and Goats are reared for meat and wool purposes. Although animal husbandry mostjy provides subsidiary means of livelihood to agriculturists, livestock raising has become an integral part of agriculture itself. Due to tropical climate and uneconomic conditions of the enterprise and consequent low productivity of livestock, the value of production of livestock industry is not commensurate with the large size of livestock population. However, the Jive-. stock population generally goes on increasing thereby adding to the wealth of the community. An evaluation study of selected households in Bharmour Sub-division reveals that in most cases the deficit in income from agriculture was made good from that of livestock. This is largely true of Pangi Sub-division also. A survey conducted by Bose in the Lower Kugti Village of Bharmour Sub-division reveals that contribution of agriculture and animal husbandry to the total economy of the area is in the proportion of 9: 14 which implies that animal husbandry is much more important than agriculture in Bharmour region. 12 The return from sheep and goats is as follows: I. Sale of grown up sheep and goat for meat, especially in the markets in the plains, 2. Sale of wool extracted from sheep; 3. Sale of products of wool, like blanket, carpet etc.; 4. Manuring the field from the dung; and 5. Manufacture of shoes, ropes, 'thobii' etc. from the hair of goats.

147 14.8 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India The survey conducted by Bose in Upper and Lower Kugti Village reveals that the net profit per sheep per year is about Rs and that from goat is Rs On the average, Gaddis at present possess about 100 heads per household of goat and sheep. Assuming that 60 per cent of them breed and presuming that each female animal gives birth to two lambs at a time, the total number becomes l20 in the next year. lf the mortality rate is presumed to be 30 per cent, then the number in the next would be around =154. If 25 per cent of the original herd of I 00 is sold out, 74 remain for multiplying. The average price of sheep/goat being around Rs. :SO/ the total price fetched from selling 25 sheep or goat comes to around Rs. 3750/. Thus the gross income from a h rd of I 00 sheep/goat is around Rs. 3750/.. Besides the sale proceeds of sheep and goat, a shepherd shears the wool thrice a year. The annual wool yield frem a Gaddi sheep is around I kg. The wood yield during first second and third shearing is about 200 gm, 300 gm and 500 gm. respec tively. Raw wool is sold to woollen mills in Punjab. Besides this, blankets are also prepared from the local wool. The double length blanket known as "Gardu" weighs about 3! kg. and fetches a price of Rs "Pattis" (Coat length) fetches a price of Rs. 50 to Rs. 75. The Gaddis spin the raw wool and prepare garments and blankets for their day to day use as well. Ropes are also prepared. A Thobi fetches a price around Rs. 10 per sq. ft. Thus the sheep and goat greatly con tribute towards the flow of cash economy to the Gaddis. Livestock Population : The livestock population in Bhannour and Pangi as per cattle census of 1956, 1961, 1966 and 1972 has been indicated in Table 8.2 and 8.3 respectively. From these two tables, it is clear that sheep and goat population constitutes the most significant category of the Livestock popula tion in Bharmour Sub divjsion whereas in Pangi Sub-division sheep is the most important livestock. Next in importance is the cattle followed by other animals. A comparison with similar figures of other Districts of Himachal Pradesh reveals that as per census figures, the cattle population of Bharmour Sub-division (18,270) is more than that of Lahaul Spiti District (9,094). The number of cows giving milk is also more in Bharmour Sub-division than Lahaul Spiti.

148 A.F1imtd Hwbandry 149 TABLE 8.2: Livestock in Bharmour Sub-division During Varioos Yearsa Sl. Category No. ~~- Number of Livestock during --~-~ ~ Cattle 14,710 15,890 17,923 17,517 18, Buffaloes IlK 3. Sheep 74,719 39,616 69,708 60,01!9 58, Goat 65,496 36,366 35,595 44,871 41,407 s. Donkey Horses and Ponies Mules 71 9 II Others Total l,55,094 92,112 l,23,630 1,22,813 1,18, ~ _,... TABLE 8.3: Livestock in Pangi Sub-division During Various Years 16 Sl. Category Number of Livestock during ~ No l. Cattle 6,920 9,211 8,973 8,277 8,23R 2, Buffaloes 3. Sheep 16,785 17,914 22,954 24,013 18, Goat 5,583 6,110 5,574 6,672 5, Donkey Horses and Ponies Mules 8. Others (Yaks) I,341 Total 29,289 33,350 37,599 40,334 31,845 The sheep population in Bharmour Sub-division (58,840) is more than that of Bilaspur (33,024), Hamirpur, (49,1 19), Lahaul-Spiti

149 150 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India (47,884), Solan (26,194), Sirmour (42,468) and Una (9,754) Districts. The number of goats in Bharm,our Sl,l\'> division (41,407) is more than that of Hamirpur (31,783), Kinnaur (18,399) and Lahaul-Spiti (12, I 06) Districts. The cattle population in Pangi Sub-division is 8,238. The sheep population in Pangi Sub-division (18,011) is more than that of Una (9,754) District. Functionol C/as.rljication : While sheep and goats are reared for meat, wool and carriage, the contribution of bovine population w the economy of Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions is in terms of milk and milk products. animal manure and animal power used on farms and for transport. The cattle are, therefore, kept mainly for draught, breeding and milk purposes. It reveals that only a very small percentage of male bulls are used exclusively for breeding purpo&es in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions. An overwhelmingly large percentage (more than 90%) is used for both breeding and working in the farms. The percentage of idle scrub bulls is also very small. As against this, buffalo bulls are mostly used for breeding purposes. Among the female adult stock in Bharmour only 1/3 of the adult female stock is in milk. Compared to this the percentage of cows in milk in Pangi is higher. In both the Sub-divisions, more than 50 per cent of cows are dry and not calved. Same is the case with the female buffaloes in Bharmour Sub-division. Cows and female buffaloes are not used for any other purpose in these Sub-divisions. AYBJlaltility of Uve stock and Uve stock products: From Tables 8.2 and 8.3, it can be seen that in both the Sub-divisions, the number of draught animals is on the increase. As a result of this, the cultivable area per working bovine and net area sown per bovine have been reduced. But at the same time, the pasture land per bovine is also increasing. During 1961, the number of adult cows per breeding bull was very high in both the Sub-divisions. It was greatly reduced in Bharmour during In Pangi also, the number of cows per bull came down during The number of milch cattle per thousand of population in these two Sub-divisions is also insufficient though the position in Pangi Sub-division is better than Bharmour Sub-division. The number of cows and buffaloes

150 Animal Husbandry 151 in milk in Bharmour Sub-division per thousand population is coming down in the consecutive census. Same is the position in Pangi Sub-division. PRODUCTION OF MILK AND WOOL Milk : The productivity of livestock is very low in the areas. 'During the evaluation study of Bharmour the average yield of milk per cow and goat per day was found to be and '0.13 kg. respectively in sample households. During the village :survery of Bharmour the average milk yield per cow varied from! Sr. to 1 Sr. (i.e. from 0.46 kg. to 0.93 kg). At present, the milk yield per cow is about 1 kg. In Pangi the milk yield is 1.05 kg. per cow, 1.6 kg per Choori and 0.2 kg. per goat. Wool : The I 0.5 lakhs of sheep population in the Pradesh makes it the second largest livestock industry, next to cattle 'Only, which forms the major source of livestock and main 'Source of income of the sheep breeders. In spite of the large population of sheep in the Pradesh, the output of wool per :sheep is very meagre compared to foreign breeds. Data on the number of ewes, rams, lambs, etc. are collected once in five years during the livestock census. But no detailed information on age-wise and breed wise composition is available. The reliable statistics of wool yield is also not available as no scientific survey has been conducted after The only source of st:ltistics on average wool yield and factors affecting these yields is the Breeding Farms. It is obvious that these figures cannot be used for depicting a live picture of the wool production level in the Pradesh as these sheep are maintained under better conditions and management and are better fed. The important local breeds are Gaddi, Rampur-Bushahri, and Bi. ngi. In all about 3/4th of the flocks arc sheared thrice and remaining twice a year. The average wool yield is about l kg of coarse quality which is much less than 3.5 kg. of wool yield of superior quality from its contemporary breeds of the foreign lands. During the evaluation study of Bharmour and Pangi, the average annual yield of wool per sheep and Jamb respectively in Bharmour was 1.24 kg. and 0.85 kg. and the similar figures for

151 152 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in lnditl Pangi were 0.9 kg. and 0.24 kg. respectively as against a yield of 1.4 kg. and 0.3 kg. for the Pradesh as a whole. On the average, the wool yield of Gaddi sheep is about 1 kg. per year. The average wool yield during the first, second and third sheering is about 200 gms, 300 gms and 500 gms. AIISeiSment : There are a number of impediments in the development of animal husbandry in these areas. The area being highly mountainous and accessibility being arduous, it becomes difficult to provide improved varieties of cattle in these areas. Particularly it becomes difficult to send Jersey cows in Pangi Sub-division across the Sach Pass as there is no regular track here. Hence Jersey calves are sent to these areas. The local 1 people being unaware of the feed and management technique required for rearing these improved animals, the mortality among these animals is high. There being no fodder develop ment programme in these areas, either by the local people or the Government agency, the yield of these improved animals comes down. The cattle being reared in these areas mostly for drought purposes and ll'anure, the people are not much interested in the improved varieties. During winter, the fodder problem becomes more acute. Another problem is the proper distribution of the improved cattle nod sheep to the. right person. Unless the improved varieties go to the right person, the breed cannot be improved. The animal husbandry though contributes a major share to the economy of the people. of these areas, the inhabitants are not much aware of the commercial aspect nor there is any arrange ment for the marketing of the products. The area being arduous, it becomes difficult to send medicines in time to all the veterinary institutions. These two Sub divisions being a part of the District and approach to these two Sub-divisions being difficult, particularly in Pangi Sub-division, the supervision is not very effective. To add to these problems, the local people also do not come forward despite persuasion. To precipitate the matter, they even go to the extent of selling the improved animals to the non-tribals at a higher price. Moreover, though animal husbandry contributes largely to the economy of the local people, it is not duly taken care of in the order of priorities and budget allotment.

152 .t4nbrial Husbandry 153- Thus, while formulating plans for these areas, improvement of livestock should be given high priority. Steps should be taken for better implementation of H.P. Livestock Improvement Act which envisages improvement of livestock through (i) Castrvtion of animals, (ii) Opening of key village centres, (iii) Cross breeding, and (iv) Establishment of gosadans for old and useless cattle. For breeding purposes, besides the opening of key village centres and distribution of improved animals, some inducement may be given to those who are prepared to share the use of improved animals with their co-villagers. As cross breeding of local animals is a slow process, good results in raising productivity of livestock are possible if these are better fed. Efforts should be made to develop fodder and pastures. Some arrangements should be made to provide concentrates at the Sub-divisional headquarters at a subsidised rates. The people should he educated to consider the livestock rearing as an economic proposition than as a way of life. The results of management surveys in other hilly and tribal areas should be explained to the people. During winter, the people have to migrate along with their livestock as grasses, etc. are not available during winter. Research in the methods of conservation of grass and green fodder during winter is necessary. Schemes should be drawn UJ>' by improving veterinary first-aid training to the people so as to reduce mortality of the livestock. The Cooperative Department should organise livestock rearing societies in the area to meet the financial needs of the people engaged in livestock rearing. Some more veterinary institutions should be opened. Selected areas suitable for breeding purposes, may be earmarked for the cattle improvement scheme. These areas when developed would serve as "reservoirs" supplying healthy cattle to other hill regions. Within the framework of this scheme, local farmers may themselves evolve, through crossing strains, species suitable to their areas. Fodder development programmes may be put through in these areas. They could be integrated with the area development programmes. Lands not fit for production of cereals or for use as forest plantation could be turned over to cultivation of pastures or growing fodder. The number of sheep and goats should be limited to the

153 154 Tribal Development Programmes and A.drniniltrlltion in India availability of the pastures and to get the best out of grazing, :sheep and goats should be of improved vaiety. It is, therefore, important to supply good rams and goats to every flock to grade up the progency. There is an urgency of dairy.development in view of the shortage of milk and milk products in these areas. However_, in the case of the tribal people, the cattle of improved level are a little too splendid as they are not habituated to using milk and milk products. Therefore, they do not show any interest in -cattle development. It is necessary first to popularise improved dairying among them by demonstration. The tribals are fond of sheep and goat keeping also. These animals are sacrificed during ritual occasions and also meet their protein requirements. Malnutrition is endemic in tribal communities; it is more due to protein-caloric deficiency than anything else. In such a situation, improved goat and poultry rearing could be the next step. The Committee on Special Multi-purpose Tribal Block& recommended that: (i) In order to develop milch and draught cattle, cattle consciousness should be created among the tribals by means of audio-visual units, exhibitions and propaganda, (ii) The incentive to improve the condition of their domestic animals should come from the tribals themselves and this can -only be achieved if Government takes effective interest by spreading facilities in the Block areas by providing the outlying dispensaries with medicines, instruments, medical staff and creating a congenial and enthusiastic atmosphere, (iii) Facilities for educating men and boys in animal husbandary and veterinary training should be enlarged by including this subject in schools, colleges or even by opening special schools. Local tribal boys should be gfven training as stockmen, veterinary compounders and vaccinators-cum-compounders. This will go a long way in enriching the cattle population and development of poultry farming, pisiculture, etc. with a beneficial effect on the general economic condition of the tribal areas, (iv) Officials employed in the special Blocks should be mainly selected or recruited from the tribal areas themselves, as this would create a rural and tribal setting and there will be less need to draw trained veterinary personnel from the towns. ( v) The present practice of -dealing with the diseases, castration of bulls and other so-called <:rude methods in treating the animals can only be changed by a

154 J.nlmal Husbandry 155 proper atmosphere and the introduction of educational facilities by the Government, and (vi) It is important to develop cooperatives to handle and market dairy products, eggs, etc. and to provide them with working capital. These recommendations of the Committee on S.M.P.T. Blocks are largely applicable to Bharmour and Pangi Subdivisions. Some other suggestions recommended by Verrier Elwin are (a) Establishment of a special unit for the development of atj.imal husbandry to guide and direct the Tribal Development Bloek Agency, (b) Establishment of a nucleus cattle farm in each region for developing a draught and milch breed, (c) Survey of the milk and other needs of the people and an assessment of the possibility of meeting them. A sheep and wool centre has been started recently in Bharmour Sub-division. A similar centre may be started in Pangi Sub-division as well. At present sheep is the most important animal in Bharmour Sub-division and cattle in Pangi Sub-division. While improving the livestock, these factors should be kept in view. A special fodder development programme should. be started in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions. This. can be done with close co-operation of Forest Department and Animal Husbandry Department. It is obvious that even after six plans, the breed of cattle and sheep in these areas has not improved. It is, therefore, essential that while giving improved varieties of animals it should be ensured that it goes to the proper person. Moreover, some arrangements for artificial insemination and natural service should be made at some selected centres. At present, the number of veterinary institutions in these areas is below the norm fixed by the National Commission on Agriculture. While opening new institutions, the livestock population in the villages should also be kept in view. In these areas, animal husbandry greatl~ contributes to the cash economy of the people. Hence due weightage should be given to the development of animal husbandry in these two Sub-divisions.

155 156 Tribal Deve/opmetu Programmes and AdministratiQn in 111/Jia REFERENCES J. Refer N.S. Randhawa, Agriculture and All/mal Husbmtdary irt India (New Delhi, 1952) pp Ibid, pp B.K. Soni, "Cattle Development", First National Seminar on Prohlems and Potentials of the Hill areas of India, (New Delhi 1975) pp Ibid, p Ibid, p Ashok Ranjan Basu, Integrated Tribal Development Project Report for Bharmour and Pang/ Sub-divisions of Cllamba Dlslrict (Chamba, 19n). 7. Ibid. 8. Refer Statistical Abstract of Chamba District (Simla, 1977). 9. Also refer B.K. Soni, "Cattle Development" op. cit., p Refer Annual Administration Report, Department of Animal Hus bandry (Simla, 1977). 11. Refer, Ashok Ranjan Basu, I.T.D.P. Report, op. cit. 12. S. Bose, "Gaddis of Chamba", Man;, India, Vol. 43, No.3, 1963, p S. Bose, op. cit., pp ~4. Refer, All E1 aluation Study of Bllarmour (Simla, 1966) and Sub-Plan for Tribal Belt (Simla 1974). 15. Refer Pangi Valley An Evaluatia11 and A Socio-Economic Study (Simla, 1966) and Sub-Plan for Tribal Belt (Simla, 1974).

156 CHAPTER IX Power and Industry (A) POWER The two major objectives that the planners have set to accomplish are: (i} removal of poverty, and (ii) attainment of economic self-reliance. The strategy for the attainment of these two goals underlines boosting up the programmes of develop ment along socialistic lines, i.e. rapid economic growth and expansion of employment opportunities, reduction of interregional and interpersonal disparities in income and wealth, and prevention of concentration of economic power. Recent energy crisis, shortages and scarcities have shown that the energy power has a significant role to play as an effective catalyst and driving force for economic growth. Power provides the basic infrastructure for economic growth. Power provides the basic infrastructure for economic development; it is a vital input for agriculture and industry thereby helping both in achieving a higher national production. 1 Sources: There are various sources from which energy can be obtained, viz, burning coal, oil, gas, wood waste, etc. It can also be obtained in substantial quantities from nuclear materials. However, the most important source of energy, which man found, is the power of water when it falls from a height. This hydro-power has been utilised by man in the form of water mills for grinding wheat and other food stuffs. There are many advantages of hydro-power. First and fore most is that hydro-power is the cheapest of all the other sources of producing power.' The additional advantage of man y

157 158 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India of the hydel projects is their irrigation potential, which is so important for the economy of the rural areas. 3 The benefits accruing from the usage of energy in agriculture are two-fold: (i) change in the area irrigated through lift irrigation, and (ii) change in the cropping pattern and intensity of cropping.' Some of the case studies conducted in different parts of the country to assess and analyse the benefits of energy whether electricity or diesel oil, show a positive trend. Power Po&eatlal in Himachal Pradesb: The total estimated hydro power potential in India is about 41 million KW at 60 per cent load factor. Power potential in the Himalayas is 24 million KW and in the Western Ghats 6 million KW. Thus three-fourth of the hydro-potential in India is in these mountain ranges. 8 The hydro-power potential in the Himalayan mount ains is far more than the Western Ghats because of the height of the mountains and the large perennial flow of the snow-fed rivers. Himachal Pradesh abounds in substantial power from the upper reaches of Indus and Ganges systems. The estimated power potential of Himachal Pradesh is as follows: TABLE 9.1 Power Potential of Himachal Pradesh' Sl. No. Name of River Potential Capacity in MW 1. Yamuna Sutlej Beas Ravi Chenab Total Thus the total potential of power in Himachal Pradesh is 9.4 million KW of which only one third has been harnessed ot under construction. 8 The greatest advantage of hydro-power in Himachal Pradesh is: (i) easy accessibility of the sites and (ii) the area is well served by roads as there is already develop ment in Sutlej and Beas valleys. Therefore, the development of

158 Powerand Industry 159 hydro-power in Himachal Pradesh is the easiest. Also,. Himachal Pradesh is the closest area to the load centres in northern India. In fact, a careful analysis of the power plann ing in northern India leads to the conclusion that hydro-power can be harnessed immediately in Himachal Pradesh and the neighbouring Himalayan State of Jammu and Kashmir, At present, there is a deficit of 7 million KW hrs. per day in northern region which causes: (i) loss in economic production, (ii) inconvenience to community, and (iii) problem of lay otfs. 10 Power Potential in Tribal Areas of Himachal Pradesh: The tribal areas of Himachal Pradesh have a large potential for power generation through Micro-Hydel schemes. Though the laying of transmission lines to these areas are fraught with exorbitant investment and energy losses on the way, yet the tribal areas of the Pradesh provide an ideal setting for establishment of a net work of hydroelectric projects. These are nest ling in the lap of the snow-clad Himalayan ranges. The rivers and their tributaries crisscrossing the area have, therefore, perennial source of water supply. With plentiful supply of water, the rivers and their feeders which flow through gorges and valleys provide innumerable sites for the location of hydro electric projects of all types. The table below gives at a glance the assessed hydel potential of the tribal areas of HimachJ.l Pradesh: TABLE 9.2 Power Potential in Tribal Areas 11 Sl. No. l Area Sutlej Basin Chenab Basin Ravi Basin Power Potential in MW Total 3877 Table 9.3 indicates the projects that have been identified in the tribal areas.

159 160 Tribal Development Programmes and A.dmlllittrtrtion fn India TABLE 9.3 Projects fn tlte Trlht Ateu Sl. No. Area PowerinMW 1) 'tile Slatlej Basin: Kinnaur District: 1. Shongtong-Wangtoo Hyde! Project 2. Tbopan-Powari Wydel Project 3. Jangi Thopan Hyde! Project 4. Baspa Hyde! Project s. Bhaba Hydel Project 6. Nathpa Jbakri Hyde! Project low 200 l1s 4SS )20 Total 2110 MW 2) 1be Cbenab Basin: Lahoui-Spili District 1. Gyspa Dam ProJect 2. Sordang Hydel Scheme. 3. Thirot Nullah Hyde! Scheme 225 Ill Pangi Sub-dlvision 1. Sell Hydel Scheme 2. Roali Hyde! Scheme 165 soo 665 3) The Ravi Basin: Bharmour Sub-division Chamera Hyde! Project Hibra Hyde! Project Mechhetri Hyde! Project 400 so

160 PtJwer and Industry 161 Ill addition to these, following projects are also being tllken up:l, I. Continuing 1 Rukti (Kinnaur) 2 Sissu (Lahaul-Spiti) II. New: 3 Kilar (Pangi) 4 Holi (Bharmour) 5 Rongtang (Lahaul-Spiti) 1500 KW JOOKW 200KW 4500 KW 2500 KW During the Fourth Five Year Plan, small projects, like Gharola in Bharmour Sub-division and Pangi in Kinnaur District were commissioned. Slightly bigger projects of Rukti (Kinnaur) and Sissu (Lahaul-Spiti) are likely to be completed within a couple of years. 13 The tribal areas of the Pradesh, being more mountainous and closer to the snow range, provide better promises for development of hydro electric power. In addition to this In these areas irrigation is necessary for production of food grains. In many places lift irrigation and sprinkler irrigation schemes are required. These can be undertaken only with the development of power. Moreover, for industries including village and small scale industries power is required. Thus, the power potential in the tribal areas ofthe Pradesh should be harnessed for the betterment of the socio-economic condition of the tribal people. Micro Hydel Schemes: People in plains live in small scattered villages. Therefore, in our country, we have more than half a million villages with population up to 10,000. In the mountains, village population is even smaller. So, supply -of electric power to thousands of small communities involves <:ostly transmission facilities. In India, the general average is about 4 Km. to transmit one MW of power, while it is less than one third of a Km, on an average, in Europe. In mountain regions, the transmission lengths will be even greater. Therefore, for several small communities, Micro Hydel Projects will have to b: considered in places where water with ftow falls from steep heights.

161 162 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration.in India. At p"'ent, thcro are.soll,lc nine Micro Hydel stations. ia: the Pradesh with total generating capacity of 3250 KW. Six such small projects are under construction in the State. These are Neogal (6000 KW), Holi (4500 DW), Thisit (3000-KW), An<J,l;u:~I_(!S~O KW), Bener (6000 KW), and Binwal. (6000 KW), ;{\~~age estimated cost of these. is Rs per KW. 14 Oraanisatioa: The Himachal Pradesh State Electricity Board, which was set up on September 1, 1971, consists of six,tl;l~plb.:rs, including the Chairman. The Board is entrusted with the.general duty of prompting the coordinated developmeqtof g(1neration, transmission and distribution of power, rural electrification and construction of power projects in the Pradesh.in. the most efficient and economic manner.u The head,office of the Board is in Simla. Except some of the field offices, which are located in Simla, other field offices are located throughout the Pradesh. The Head Office consists of four main wings, each under a Member. These are Project Wing, under the Member {Projects), Operation Wing, under the Technical Member (Electrical), Finance and Accounts Wing, under Member (F & A), and the Secretariat and Purchase organisation under Member (Administration). The field organisation consists of Chief Engineer (Operation}, and Chief Engineer (Projects), and various Circles, Divisions and Subdivisions under them. Director of Industries and Secretary (Finance) to Government of Himachal Pradesh are the exofficio Members of the Board. l;he operation wing is headed by a Chief Engineer. There are a number of Superintending Engineers, below him. The Pradesh is divided into a number of Electrical Divisions, each headed by an Executive Engineer. The Divisions are further divided into a number of Sub-divisions. The revenue Sub-divi sion of Bharmour and Pangi fall within the Electrical Division with headquarter at Dalhousie. There is one Assistant Engineer at Bharmour who looks after Bharmour Sub division. There are n~mber of Junior Engineers, Line men, Beldars, etc. under him,. whereas.in Pangi Sub-division there is none. The Executive Engineer at Dalhousie who looks after both Bharmour and Pansi Sub-divisions is under the Superintending Engineer stationed at Dharamshala.

162 Power 'tm'd Industry 163 The Projects wing is headed by a Chief Engineer. There are a number of Superintending Engineers, Execuhve Engineers and Assistant Engineers below him. The investigation work of Bharlhour and Pangi Sub-divisions is being looked after by Executive Engineer (Investigation) at Chamba. He is under the Superintending Engineer (Investigation) at Dharamshala. There is one Assistant Engineer at Holi. There are a number of Junior Engineers and Line-men, under him. The Board Secretariat is headed by Secretary. There is one officer on Special Duty, Assistant Secretary, 0 & M Officer, Law Officer, Chief Purchase Officer, etc. Electrification of rural areas has great importance for Himachal Pradesh where as much as 93 per cent of its popula tion lives in villages. Electricity is no longer an item of luxury for the villagers but it has become an important ingredient as we)l as a measure of the standard of living of the people in the region. The purpose of rural electrification is not only to light up every home in the Pradesh but also to supply power to agricultural pumpsets, lift irrigation schemes, small scale and cottage industries for increasing agricultural production and creating more employment potential in rural areas. An important purpose is also to reduce pressure on forests by providing electricity as an alternative fuel for domestic needs and thus help in making a success of the three dimensional forest farm ing adopted by the State Government. There are 16,916 inhabited villages in Himachal Pradesh. During the year , I, 129 villages were electrified, raising the total number of electrified villages in the state to 10,050 A level of 59.4 per cent in electrification of villages covering 70.0 per cent of rural population of the Pradesh was achieved by the end ofthe year t u By , 75.6% of the villages have been electrified. The Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) is the main source for financing the rural electrification scheme. Funds under normal development programmes (State Plan) for rural electrification are inadequate to provide new electric connec tions, and agricultural augmentation of sub-stations and lines in alr~dy electrified areas of the Pradesh. At the same time, due to long distance of transmission and distribution lines and sparse population of villages, some of the rural electrification

163 164 Tribal Dev~/opment Protrammes and Administration in India schemes do not fulfil the viability criteria fixed by R.E.C. for advjlncing loans. The Rural Electrification Corporation also finances schemes uoder 'Minimum Needs Programme for such areas in which t~ percentage of population benefited by electricity is les$ than ' The followjng table indicates the villages electrified in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions during the years (ending March 31) 1974, 1975 and 1976 and SI.No. TASLE 9.4 Villaaea Electrlfted18 Area Villages electrified as on --- """ a). Bhannour Sub-division b) Percentaae of villages electrified to total no. of villqes % 15% 18% 68% 2 a) Pangi Sub-division b) J»~~entap of vill~s e1~rifted to total no. of villaaes. Power Geaerated and Coqu-..etl; The electricity generated in :tlijll~hal Pradesh in 1950 was 0.36 million KWli mainly t~rough hydel/diesel sets at Chamba, Solan, Jubbal, Mandi, NaJwt and Sundemagar. The generation increased to 0.87 mihjpn KWH in 1955 and 0.95 million KWH in The progress during the next decade ( ) was 52.8 million KWH which works out to 55 times of the electric generation in 19~0-61. Puring it rose to 431.7MU. The consumption of el,ctricity is also rising in the Pradesh. It increased from 1.0 milliqn KWH in 1950 to 3 million KWH in WitP the extension of electricity to more and more rural and qrba,n areas and its diversified usc, consumption increased to 13.9 million KWH iu t965 66, 112 million KWH in an4 2~6 MU in An all round increase has been wit-

164 Power and Industry 165 n""" in the case of electricity for various purposes. Though th Qvetall consumption has increased but the per.capita con Silmption of electricity for the Pradesh is much below the level Qf the country. The per capita consumption in was 33 KWH in the Pradesh as against the national average con!iuijlption of 87 KWH. 19 During , the per capita consumption of electricity was KWH. The following table indicates power generated in Bharmour Sub-division during the years (ending March 31) 1974, 1975 and TABLE 9.5. Power Generated in Bharmour Sub division St. Hydro Installed Electricity generated during No. Stations capacity Gbarola 0.05 MW Break up Break up 39,158 KWH not not 2 Bharmour 0.02MW available available 14,996KWH Total 0.07MW KWH KWH 54,754 KWH The following table indicates the consumption of electricity dudng these periods in Bharmour Sub division. TABLE 9.6 Consumption of Electricity 21 --~----- Sl. Item No. (KWH) (KWH) (KWH) DQIQestic Consumption Commercial Liaht Industrial Power 4 Street Light 5 Irrisation & Agriculture 6 Public Works & Sewage Pumping 7 Other Small Power Total S ~--~--- ~ ~----~

165 IJ.66 1 Tribal Development i'rogrammes and Administration In India From Table 9.6, it is evident that the major part of efectri city ge11erated in Bharmour Sub-division is being consumed for domestic purpose followed by commercial light and other small power. Electricity is not being consumed for industrial power, irrigation agriculture, etc. in this Sub-division. From Table 9.7 it would appear that up to March 31, 1974 there were 309 electric connections in Bharmour Subdivision. It gradually increased to 512 and 588, during' the subsequent years. Most of the connections are taken for domestic purpose followed by commercial and industrial purposes. The per capita consumption of electricity on March 31, 1974 was about I KWH. It gradually increascd to 1.3 KWH and 2.1 KWH respectively during the subsequent years. Performance: Among all the States in India, only in Haryana all the villages are electrified. In Himachal, 75.6% of the inh~bited villages have been electrified. The percentage of villages electrified in Himachal Pradesh is more than Assam, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura and West Bengal. Among the Districts of Himachal Pradesh, the percentage of electrified villages is highest in Kinnaur District and lowest in Lahaul-Spiti District. Up to 1976, only 18.7 per cent of the inhabited villages in Bharmour Sub-division were electrified as compared to 25 per cent in Lahaul Spiti and 56 per cent in Kinnaur. If Bharmour is compared to other non-tribal Districts of the Pradesh, then also the percentage of villages electrified in Bharmour Subdivision is less than any other District of the Pradesh. However, the percentage of inhabited villages electrified in Bharniour Sub-division is more than Assam, Manipur, Megba:laya, Sikkim and Tripura. In Himachal Pradesh, 70 per cent of rural population has been covered by electricity. which is more than similar figures obtained for Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,,Manipur, Meghalaya. Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. The per capita consumption of electricity in Himachal

166 TABLE Eleetrieal FaclJities fa Bharmour Sub-dfdsioa As on ~~ 544' 4~} I - ; I -I KWH ~ i... a :;- ~ ~ ~ -0\ -.J Sl. No. Item As on As on No. of villages electrified 2 Percentage of villages electrified to total no. of villages 3 No. of electric connections (a) Domestic {b) Industrial excluding agriculture (c) Commercial 4 Electricity Generated (KW) 5 Electricity Consumed:- (a) Domestic Consumption (KWH) (b) Commercial Light (KWH) (c) Industrial Power (KWH) (d) Street Light (KWH) (e) Irrigation & Agriculture (KWH) (f) Public Works & Sewage Pumping (KWH) (g) Other Small Power (KWH) 6 Per Capita Consumption as per 1971 census 10 9"' 0 283~1 1 :>309 25) 52i 'i I I -I lkwh 17 w~ 474'1 2 (512 36j '[ 57~1 - : I -I 2909j 1.3 KWH

167 16' Tribal Development Programmes and.a.dministratiolf In lll!ila Pradesh during was 57 KWH which is DlOrc than Assam (26 KWH). Jammu & Kashmir (43 KWH), Manipur (8 KWH), Nagaland (35 KWH) and Tripura, etc. The per capita consumption of electricity in Bharmour Sub-division was about 2 KWH. In Pangi Sub-division there is no electricity and hence per capita consumption is nil. The per capita consumption ia Lahaul-Spiti District comes to about 11 KWH which is more than that of Manipur and Tripura. The per capita consumption in Kinnaur District comes to about 8.5 KWH. Thus the per capita consumption of electricity among the tribal areas in Himachal Pradesh is the lowest in Bharmour Sub-division (excluding Pangi Sub-division). Tbe total electricity generated in Bharmour Sub-division during was 54, 754 KWH which was less than that in Lahaul Spiti ( KWH) and Kinnaur (424,753 l(wh). The total electricity consumed in Bharmour during 1~75-76 was 58, 506 KWH against the total local generation of 54,754 KWI{. The additional demand was met from Chamba. The consumption pattern of electricity in Bharmour Sub-division reveals that maximum consumption is for domestic purpose and ejectricity was not used for agricultural purposes. Ap:~ong the sample villages in Bharmour and Pangi Subdivisi~ns, only in Bharmour viilage there is electricity. A leuident: The development of power in any area requires certaip basic infrastructure. One of the basic infrastructures linked with power development is construction of roads. Withqut an infrastructure of roads, the creation of hydroelectric plants in the far flung mountainous area of Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions would prove both difficult and costly. Withqut good roads, the cost of construction of a power plant would also soar considerably. T~e cost of transmission of power and its maintenance from the major hydro-electric projects located at far off places from these two Sub-divisions is likely to be very high, besides losses and frequent break downs in transmission system due to climatological and topographical conditions of these areas. It wopld, therefore, be advisable to augment the generation capacity of existing microprojects at Bharmour (20 KW) and Ghar,la (SO KW). At present, there is no electricity in Pangi Sub-division. It is, therefore, suggested that either a diesel

168 Power ani lndusrry 169 &*rating set may be started at Kilar as has been done in Kaza S~Jb~division or a new project may be started at Kilar. The project at Holi may also be finalised and completed immedia tel)' The number of villages electrified in Bharmour Sub-division is very small as compared to the other tribal areas of Himachal Pradesh. Thus the rural electrification programme in these arep needs improvement. The rural electrification in these areas as in any other tribal areas has to be planned carefully as th~ first result of rural electrification is likely to provide more congenial condition to the stronger groups which in a way, may help the process of exploitation. Once this character of rural electrification is appreciated, it will be possible to harness this force for the benefit of the poorer sections by suitably adopting the relevant programme. In these areas, first priority may be given to electricity for irrigation and industrial purposes. At present, the entire Chamba District is a part of the same Electrical Division with headquarters at Dalhousie. The Electric Sub-division with headquarters at Gehra looks after the tribal S1,1b-division of Charmour in addition to some non-tribal areas. It may be advisable to shift the headquarter within the Sub divi$ion and it may be entrusted to look after Bharrnour Sub division only. The Electricity Department has no activity in Pl$nJi Sub-division. It would be better if power generation is aisq started there. At the first instance, the Sub-divisional headquarter may be provided with electricity through the diesel generating sets. Investigation of power potential in the Sub divis,ion may be carried out in the meantime. Thus an elactric Sub-division may be set up at Kilar and for the time being one Assistant Engineer can possibly look after both the operation and investigation work. Development of hydro-power in these regions may be entrusted to a Himalayan Hydro Authority specially ~rcated for the purpose. This authority would be, by and large, an executive organisation concerned with the projects. Moreover, it would be better to install at reasonable cost small hydro electric units. These projects are estimated to take less than three years to complete and power from them could be distri~uted locally without requiring complicated transmission system.!..

169 270 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in!wdia Power being a crucial source for bill area development. the existing norms for allocation of funds in the Five Year Plans need to be recast. Instead of money bein-g made availabtci sector-wise within a plan ceiling and on the basis of other <;riteria, finances may be made available on the basis of requirements for executing identified projects in the shortest possi'ble time. A revolving fund may be constituted for constructio.n. of power project roads in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-division. Preparation of plans for proper utilisation should proceed almost alongside with plans for power production. No occasion should arise for declaring the areas surplus with unutilised power. Cultivable land in a mountain area like Pangi.and Bharmour is an asset built up assiduously over decades. In launching irrigation and power projects, the size of the da,ms and the corresponding reach of the reservoirs should be such that the minimum acreage of fertile land goes under water.. ' The traditional approach of giving compensation for reba bilitation of tribals uprooted by major projects is not. very satisfactory. The project must take care of the total problem of ~ehabilitation of the tribals so affected. The land in the.common area of the new project will immensely benefit from the irrigation scheme and the effective acreage under agriculture would increase. A part of land being benefited could be.compulsorily acquired for rehabilitating the uprooted people. In the more backward tribal areas, this should not pose any problem because the people are used to such adjustments. Since the acquired land will be in the vicinity of the affected villages their migration will also not pose any psychological problems. All these aspects have to be built into the power project programme. The tribal development project, should, however, take note of these problems and the possible solutions. The.role of tribal development agency may also be defined in this regard. 11 Research activity in utilising other sources of energy such as geo thermal energy, solar energy and wind power should be further strengthened. Practical applications of these energy resources, adapted to hill situations, should be worked out -early to bring in much needed benefits. The tempo of rural electrification in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-division should also be stepped up so as to make electricity available for agriculture

170 f9)f1f;f ant! Industry 17~ and p~rat industries in practically all villages. The State Electri~ity Board may prepare a well considered and co-ordinated pro.aramrne of rural electrification in Bharmour and Pangi Subdivisions in consultation with other development departments of the Pradesb. 24 Advance planning for the future programme of electrification is essential and the State Electricity Board may take early action on the following aspects: (a) assessment of requirement of power and making arrangements to meet the same, (b) asse~~ment of requirement of Extra High Tension (EHT), and High Tension (HT) networks and appropriate action to meet it, (d assessment of requirement of matetials and arrangements for their indigenous procurement, (d) assessment of requirement of personnel and arrangements for their trainings, and (e) carrying out of connected resources and development work. The Centre/State Government may subsidise part of the capital cost of the schemes for transmission and subtransmission lines to be installed by State Electricity Board in these two Subdivisions so as to satisfy the norms prescribed by the Rural Electrification Corporation (REC). Similarly, where villages are far away from each other and the inclusion of the cost of 11 K V lines makes the schemes for electrifying them unremunerative, the REC may consider giving special loans for the 11 K V lines by treating them as loans. transmission lines. 25 It is hoped that with the development of power on the lines suggested above, the economy of the tribals in these Subdivisions will improve. (B) INDUSTRY Industrial Potential in Chamba District: Himachal Pradesh has set out on the road of industrial development in the recent past. As such there is no detailed asse~sment of the resources. of the State and the industries which could be based on these resources. A techno-economic survey of the State was conducted in e Another survey was conducted by the Indus trial Development Bank of lnuia alongwith some financial institutions in This was the first survey which highlighted the industrial potential of the Pradesh. However, inspite

171 172. Tribal Development Programmes and A.dministratian in ltidlt1 <>f identification of some projects, the survty only touched th6 fringes of the potential. 28 The need of micro-level study of the industrial potential and identification of :projects particularly in the small scale sector cannot be over emphasized. Being far off from the nearest railway station, Pathankot. rapid industrialisation has not been possible in Chamba District. Adequate means of transport and communication, 'technical know-how, power and marketing facilities are not available here. Moreover, the District is surrounded by moun tains and there is only one passage via Pathankot which is at.a distance of about 122 km. from the District headquarters. To overcome these difficulties in the path of industrialisation, <:hamba District was declared as Rural Industrial Project area -during the year Industry Ia the Tribal Areas: Large and medium scale industries do not suit the tribal belt of this Pradesh located in the hinter-land of the Himalayas. The scope for coming up of 11uch industries in near future in the region is still an open question. However, as in other parts of the country, tribals of this Pradesh are also known for their handicrafts and also for producing goods of their daily requirements. Thus one finds in these areas artisans like blacksmiths, silversmiths, carpenters, etc. Village industries, handicrafts and small scale industries are being practised in the tribal areas of the Pradesh. The coming up of small scale industries is a result of expanding jnfra structure facilities and also on account of the extension work being carried out by the Department of Industries under previous plans. Village industries and handicrafts are deep rooted in the socio-economic matrix of the tribals. The tribals of this Pradesh are well known within and out side the Pradesh for the fabrication of woollen clothes of several kinds like "gardus", "patoos" and "pattis", wood carving, making of metal sculpture, artistic metal works, tnusical instruments and paintings besides products of tradi tional village and cottage industries. The Government of India introduced a scheme of assistance from financial institutions <luring the Fourth Plan under the programme of "Removal of Regional Imbalances" in the selected backward Districts." The whole of the tribal belt, spreading over the Districts of Kinnaur, Lahaul Spiti and the tribal Sub-divisions of Bharmour and

172 PoWir and Industry 173 Pan&i of the Chamba District, is covered by this scheme. However, no progress has been recorded for the obvious reasons that the basic inputs required are not available, besides there is also lack of appropriate infra-structural facilities.' 0 The development of industries in the tribal areas of Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions suffers a sevete handicap because of the remoteness of these areas, lack of adequate and all-weather communication, scattered population and expensive transporta tion. It is, therefore, imperative that development of industries in these areas has to be made to cater to the local needs. Only such industries may be encouraged for development as are labour intensive and are based on local handicrafts for which the consumer can pay a reasonable amount. Thus at present, it seems that no large and medium scale industries are possible in these areas. Even the development of small scale industries is difficult due to shortage of power. So the only possible alternative is to develop cottage industries in these areas in the near future. Organisation: The Department of Industry is headed by a full time Director who is a member of the Indian Administrative Service. There are two Joint Directors of Industries, one is normally from the I.A.S. cadre and the other post had been occupied sometimes by the departmental officer or a member of the Himachal Pradesh Administrative Service. The Joint Director who is an I.A.S. Officer is also designated as the Additional Controller of Store Purchases. The other Joint Director looks after the Rural Industries Projects, etc. There are four Deputy Directors of Industries, and eleven District Industries Officers in all the Districts except Lahaul-Spiti where there is one Assistant District Industries Officer. Besides them, there are several other officers at the headquarters, such as, Research Officer, Tehsildar and Store-Inspection Officer. There are Project Officers (Industries) at Simla, Palampur and Chamba. Besides them, there are Planning and Survey Officer, Technical Officer, Industrial Promotion Officer, Economic Investigator, etc., under him at the District level. In Chamba District, there is one Mining Officer also. Under him there are two Mining Inspectors. One is posted at Gehra, who looks after the Bharmour and Mehla Blocks. The other one is posted at Chamba who looks after the remaining area of the District.

173 1 74 Tribal Development Programmes and Administr:alion in India UDder.. each Mining Inspector, there are four Mining Guatds: The Mining Officer is under the control of State Geologist who is dir~tly under ~he Director of Industries. Programmes: The programmes for industrial development include: (a) setting up of industrial estates, (b) grant of indus~ trial loans, (c) grant of subsidies, (d) grant of subsidy on interest, and {e) revival of extinct or dying handicrafts and the develop.; ment of the existing ones. The works done by the department in the Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions are given below- Bharmour Sub-division (I) Wearing Tralniag Centre: A weaving training centre at Bharmour was started in the year The main object of the centre was to impart training to the local people of this area in spinning and weaving trades. The centre is training ten trainees every year. It was transferred to the H.P. Khadi and Village Industries Board in 1968 and thereafter it was closed by the Board. (2) Government Tralalag Centre, UJaosa: The centre was started in the year 1960 in Bharmour. At present, it is function ing at Ulansa. This centre bad imparted training in cutting and tailoring trade to about 90 trainees since its inception. During first four Five Year Plans about 186 sewing machines were distributed in Bharmour Sub-division through the Block. The Department has registered seven small scale industrial units in Bharmour Sub-division and a sum of Rs. 14,000 had been given as industrial loans during 1974~75, Rs. 10,000/ during , and Rs. 11,000/ during the year There is one wood centre at Jagti being run by H.P. Handi crafts and Handloom Corporation with an annual produc~ tion of Rs. 65,000/~ approximately. 81 Paap Sub-division (1) Weaving Training Centre, Kllar: A weaving training centre was started in Kilar during the year 1957 and it was transferred to the Kbadi and Village Industries Board of the State in July The main object of the centre was to impart training to the local people of Pangi Valley in spinning and

174 Powe.r and Industry 175 weaving trade till this centre was converted into industrial Extension Centre (Weaving) in (2) Wood Working Centre, Kll r: This centre was intitially stated by the Development Department and was handed over to the Industries Department in the year The main object of the centre was to impart training to the local people in carpentry and furniture making and also to introduce improved techniques of carpentry. Subsequently, the centre was converted into Production-cum-Training Centre and there after, in 1966, it was converted into Industrial Extension Centre. Before its conversion it was training ten persons every year. (3) Govemmeat Tailoring Ceatre, Kilar: In the year 1973, the decision of setting up one tailoring centre in each Block was taken. Accordingly, the Tailoring Centre functioning at Kiani of Chamba Block was shifted to Kilar in Pangi Block. About 10 to 12 trainees are being trained in this centre annually. There are 692 pit-loom weavers in Pangi Sub-division. There are six backsmiths in this Sub-division, two each in Sach and Kilar panchayats and one each in Karyas and Dharwas panchayat.3 1 As per last survey there are 995 pit-loom weavers in Bharmour Sub-division. There are five band saw units in Bharmour Sub-division; one in Khani, one in Lahal, two in Bharmour and one in Sirdi. 33 Another industrial activity of the local people is to set up water mills for grinding flour, etc. At present there are 335 "Gbarats" (water mills) in Bhrmour Sub-division, 323 "Gharats' have one "Chakki" and 12 have two "Chakkis" 9 In Pangi Sub-division there are 191 "Gharats", 189 of them have one "Cbakki" and 2 of them have two "Chakkis" each." Mialag Activity: There are five slate quarries in Bharmour Sub-division, namely; (i) Khai slate quarry near Garola, (ii) Baswaraga slate quarry, (iii) Bakarmaun slate quarry, (iv) Ganuguardes Chbo slate quarry, and (v) Baharungodkar near Holi. Though slate strata is also availabe on Bharmour Hadsar road, due to lack of communication, only the first one has been put to auction upto now. There are some magnesite and dolomite deposits near Garola. A licence has been granted to M/s Orissa Cements Ltd. Ragangpur. Quartz crystals are also available in this Sub divi~;ion.as A mining lease bas been granted to one

175 176 Tribal Development Programmes and A.t:hninlltrtJikJit i11 lnlia firm in Chamba. Theile is however, no mining acti\'ity id Pansi Sub-division at present. J.austrial Cooperati e Secletie.l: There had been the following two industrial Co-operative societies at Bharmour Sub-division: (ij The Mahamaya Industrial Co-operative Society Ltd., and (ii) The Prabha Weaver Industrial Co-operative Society Ltd. However both the societies proved unsuccessful and were closed. Perfornaaace: In Bharmour Sub-division agriculture forms the main occupation of the people. Industries are usually run during slack agricultural seasons at the residence of the artisans as their secondary occupation only. In these industries, m.ostly family labour is employed and work carried on manually in the absence of power. The industrial goods are predominantly manufactured for use of the households engaged and in view of the difficult means of communication neither these goods have been standardised nor outside markets tapped for sale. These industries are local in nature and form an integral part of the economy of the area; these form a major source of augmenting the otherwise meagre income of the people. 31 An evaluation study of Bharmour Sub-division revealed that the spinning and weaving of the locally available wool is the most important household industry per cent of the households having any industrial occuption are engaged in this industry. 1 7 The household industries have not been developed on modem lines and, therefore, are not attractive as a wholetime occupation. The industrial units are small in size zmd in most cases only cater to the domestic needs of the households engaged in these industries. The common household industries are spinning and weaving of wool, car pentry, flour grinding, tailoring, etc. Normally manual labour is used by the households engaged in these industries. However, in case of flour grinding and oil crushing industries, water power and bullocks are also used. The raw materials used are locally available and tools are mostly indigenously prepared. The working season of the households, who do not migrate, extends from October to March. The migrating households, on the other hand, spin during the period of migration and the weaving is done during the summer and the rainy season from May to September when they are partly free from agricultural

176 Powerand Industry 177 opcr~tioas. Flour grinding is done during the slack.rainy &ellson from May to September when sufficient quantity of water is available in the nullahs to run the 'Gharats' (water mills). Since the construction and repair of houses and sewing of new clothes for the fairs are got done by the farmers during slack alficultural seasons, the peak working period of carpentry and tailoring also falls in these seasons. T:he gross value of annual output of household industries varies considerably from one industry to the other. On an average, it varies from Rs for spinning and weaving industry to Rs. 530 for carpentry. 38 It appeared that out of the selected households, 7.7 per cent were rendering services only 8.9 per cent were both producing woollen articles for their own use and rendering services to others and the remaining 83.4 per cent were only producing woollen goods for their own use by utilising wool available from sheep reared by them. The households engaged in carpentry, flour grinding, tailoring and other industries (oil seed crushing and blacksmithy) did servicing only. The spinning and weaving of wool, which is the most common industry in the area contributes only Rs worth of gross output to the already meagre income from agriculture. All the industrial units surveyed except those engaged in spinning and weaving of wool, were found to be doing job and service work against cash/barter payments on behalf of households supplying raw materials. Out of the 78 spinning and weaving units surveyed, six units were doing only servicing and remaining 72 units produced blankets and patties worth Rs. 14,083. Only products worth about percent of the total production wer.e, however, marketed by these units. Thus, the spinning and weaving industry had only a meagre marketable surplus mainly due to idle capacity. The predominant pra9.tice of sale prevalent in the area was that of direct sales to consumers. It was found that bulk of the sales is effected in the same or neighbouring villages. Only a small portion of the total marketable surplus is sold in other markets, especially during the migration period. All the 18 spinning and weaving units surveyed in B!larmour village were found depending on their' own financial resources. 39 The people in this area, because of procedural difficulties and strict recovery of loans, are shy of utilising assistance from the Government. 40

177 171 Tribal Del elopmtnt Programmes and Administration in India In Pangi valley, where agriculture is only a way of life, cottage and rural industries play an important role in augment ing the otherwise low income of the people. The main household industries practised are spinning and weaving, blacksmithy, carpentry, tailoring and bee-keeping. In these industries, mostly family labour is employed and work carried on manually in the absence of power. These industries are generally carried on during winter months when, due to heavy snowfall, agricultural operations are almost at a standstill. Among the main items manufactured are pattoos, pattis, chaddars, etc. These items are manufactured generally for household consumption and very little quantities are offered for sale locally. According to an industrial survey conducted by the Block, the total number of artisans engaged in Pangi Sub division were 1260 weavers, 64 tailors, 3 oilmen, 26 blacksmiths, 4 tin and brass-smiths, 72 carpenters, and 3 goldsmiths. Thus, it is clear that the most important industry-weaving and spinning of wool-provides employment to the largest number of workers. 41 It was further revealed that all the industries use manual power and full capacity of the primitive machines and tools is utilised except in spinning and weaving industry in the sub-valley ofsaichu where it ranges between per cent of the capacity. The main reason for such a low capacity is the shortage of wool and other raw materials. The gross value of the annual output of household industries varies considerably between the industries. i.e. Rs for spinning and weaving, Rs for blacksmithy Rs for flour grinding, and Rs for bee-keeping... The main sources of finance to run these industries are own funds, relatives or friends and village money lenders. Very little is obtained from the co-operative societies.'' Assessmeat: For any region, including the hill areas, to go forward industrially, an industrial 'tempo', evenly spread, has to be built up. Industrial tempo can be generated only by building up the average level of skills in the region, giving a push to both local demand and local supply and by running industry efficiently with the available management skills. While industrialisation of these areas, at best, is a gradual process, it could be accelerated if the local persons are trained in process-

178 Ptt.,. er and Industry. 179 ing the raw materials locally available. With a little training, the local artisan could add to his earnings by manufacturing finished or semi-finished products. At present, locally available raw materials are being sold to large-scale manufacturing units or factories, which, while making use of local resources, were themselves generally not located in these areas. The goods produced by the industrial units in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions are generally sub-standard and therefore, do not fetch reasonable prices in the open market. Therefore the supply of improved equipment and machinery, e.g. spindles, looms, etc., by the Government on attractive terms which may be within the reach of average working household is an essential prerequisite for raising the productivity of these industrial units to enable them to face outside competwon. There is, thus, a need for long and short term financial assistance on easy terms of repayment for the adequate and timely purchase of raw materials, maintenance of the family in the initial stages and slack season, marketing of finished goods and saving of the workers from the clutches of money lenders. The desired assistance could be preferably provided by the Government through the cooperative societies. The problem of idle capacity is due, beside the lack of finances, to the difficul ties of procuring timely and adequate supplies of the right type of raw materials at reasonable rates. The Government may procure the raw materials of the desired specifications and supply those to the industrial cooperatives formed for the purpose. At present, there is hardly any marketing facility for the industrial products of Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions. Arrangements for the production of standardised goods of modem design need, therefore, be made for proper tapping of local and outside markets. Cooperative marketing societies may be started for the collection of finished goods while the sales could be effected through Government emporia. Besides, a system of sale, rebate, etc. could be introduced for providing necessary incentive to the workers. The training facilities in the preparation of standardised goods of new design catering to modern test" should be made available to the workers in the vicinity of their village homes in these areas. Possibilities for the provision of storing sheds

179 180 Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India for fodder for use during winter could be explored so tha~ the peoples t;>f Bharmour do not migrate with their flocks to the plains in winter. Thus, the people -could be usefully employed in the production of industrial goods during their agriculturally slack winter season. The wool produced in these areas, particularly in Bharmour Sub-division is generally sold outside. All possible efforts should be made to ensure its spinning, weaving, etc., right in the areas. Dhoop is also available in sizeable quantities in Bharmour and Pangi Sub-divisions. Slate is also available in Bhar.r:nour Sub-division. Units should be set up to exploit these raw materials. The local weavers may be trained in wool processmg, carding, spinning and weaving, calendering, pattern making etc. Blankets, pattoo and patties prepared in these Subdivisions arc quite good. Organised on co-operative basis or with the help of Handicrafts Corporation, this industry can provide better employment facilities. Other handicrafts. such as metal works, embroidery works, grass shoes, etc. may also be encouraged. Necessary financial assistance may be provided tq the Wood Centre at Ranukothi. With power being made available in increasing measures, number of power based industrial units could be set up and existing units expanded. Among the power based units, whose network can be rapidly expanded, are power-looms for produc ing cotton and silk hartdloom cloth, flour mills, fruit and vegetable processing and canning centres. Yet others, which can be established over a period, are small cold storage units, sports good industries, handicrafts, electrical and precision light enginf.iering units. Larger units, which can be set up, may include, for example. cement plants and paper factories. In these areas, particularly in Bharmour Sub-division, apples grow in plenty. A fruit processing unit may be set up to process apples which are not suitable for marketing. This unit can be developed on the cooperative basis and can be made 'a part of the District unit at Chamba. The industrial finance policy of the Reserve Bank of Jndia ml\y be made flexible enough to allow it to. take special cognizanc~. of the backwardness 9f these.areas. Recognising that the re$o~rces of the State GoverniJlent are limited, these All. India

180 Pown and Industry 181 Financial Institutions and Nationalised Banks may be directed by Government to pay special attention to the financing and organising of industries in backward areas. II Handicraft products have a special sales appeal to Indians as well as to visitors from abroad. Sales emporia may be set up at important places of the District and the State headquarters. Establishment of organisations, such as credit-cummarketing societies is important for promotion and sale of handicrafts. Credit availability and elimination of intermediari~s in the trade are objectives which would be of immediate be~t to the artisans. Standardisation of the handicrafts of these areas is necessary both for highlighting their characteristic qualities and for making them saleable even in the face of competition with machine made products. If need be, a handicrafts standardisation agency may be set up at Chamba. To promote the development of small scale industries, a survey should be undertaken of the existing local industries with the help of the Khadi Commission and selection made of industries which could be encouraged for the benefit of the tribals of these two Sub-divisions. Thus, at the first instance. villase industries, cottage industries and small scale industries may be encouraged and developed in these areas so that the inhabitants can remain engaged during the slack agricultural season. Among these industries, the demands ofthe inhabitants may be met to help them augment their otherwise meagre income from agriculture. Thus, with the development of these industries there would be a cash flow in the economy of the inhabitants of these areas. Some arrangements should be made for setting up fair price wool purchasing centres in these areas. A mobile unit may be started for imparting training to the weavers for improving their traditional designs. The Himachal Pradesh Handicrafts and'. Handloom Corporation may examine the feasibility of opening one production-cum training centre in these Subdivisions for tweed, blankets, shawls, etc. The prospect of c\rying 'thangi', 'zeera', etc. through solar drier may also be explored in consultation with the National Fruit Research Laboratory, Jammu. These products can be packed in polythene bags and marketed. A survey of the medicinal herbs in these areas may be done by Ind JStries and Forest Departments

181 132 'Tribal Development Programmes and Administration in India of Himachal Pradesh Government in consultation with the National Drugs and Pharmaceutical Corporation of India. It is hoped that in times to come the small scale industries would improve and the economy of the inhabitants of these Sub-divisions would be augmented. REFERENCES 1. G.R. Davar, "The Energy Crisis and its impact on Planning and Administration" Indian Journal of Public Administration Vol. XXI, No.4, 1975, p K.L. Rao, "Power from the Himalayas" First National Semifflll' on Problems and Potentials of the Hill Areas of India (New Delhi, 197S}, p V.K. Malhotra, "Hydro Electric Generation and its utilisation in H.P., Symposium on Social and Economic Problems of Hill Areas <Simla, 1973), p G.R. Davar, The Energy Crisis and its impact on Planning and Administration" Indian Journal of Public Administration. Vol XXI, No. 4, 1975, p Ibid, p. n8. 6. K.L. Rao, op. cit., p Exploitation of Hyde/ Potential of Himachal Pradesh for Northern Region, (Simla, 1974), p K.L. Rao, "Power from the Himalayas" First National Seminar on the Problems and Potentials of the Hill Areas of India (New Delhi, 1975), p Ibid, p Ibid, p Sub Plan for Tribal Belt , a draft outline (Simla, 1974), p Sub Plan for Tribal Belt , a draft outline (Simla, 1974), p Ibid, p K.L. Rao, op. cit. p Administration Report , Himanchal Pradesh State Electricity Board (Simla, 1976), pp Administration Report , op. cit., p. 16 Also refer Lalit K. Sen,.. The Role of Rural Electrification Corporation in the Development of Backward Areas" Indian Journal of Public Administration, Yo/. XXIll, No. 3, 1977 pp Administration R~ptJrt , op. cit., p Compendium of Development Plans in Himachal Pradesh, 1984, Simlap V.K.. Malthotra, "Hydro Electric Generation and its utilisation in H.P.-Sy"!PPiium on Social and Economic Problems of Hilly Areas (Simla, 1974), p. 199.

182 Power and Industry Fiaures collected from District Statistical Officer, Chamba. 21. Fiaures collected from District Statistical Officer Chamba and Asstt. Enaineer (Electricity) at Gehra. 22. Figures collected from District Statistical Officer, Chamba and Assistant Engineer (Electricity) at Gehta. 23. Tribal Development in the Fifth Plan -Some Basic Policy Papers Vol. 1 (New Delhi, 1974). 24. Report of the National Commission on Agriculture, Part V. Re:wurce Development (New Delhi, 1976) p For further details refer Draft Five Year Plan cmd Draft Tribal Suh Plan Himnchal Pradesh (Simla, 1978) and Approach to Trltxll Development in the Sixth Plan, A preliminary perspective: Occa.tional Papers on Tribal Development, No. 17 (New Delhi, 1978). 26. Industrial Potential Survey, Chumba District (Simla, 1976), p Ibid, p Ibid, p Sub Plan for Tribal Belt , a draft outline (Simla, 1974), p Ibid, p Figures collected from District Industries Officer, Chamba. 32. Figures collected from Tehsildar, Pangi. 33. Figures collected from Naib-Tehsildar, Bharmour. 34. Figures collected from District Industries Officer, Chamba. 35. Figures collected from respective panchayats. 36. Information provided by Mining Officer, Chamba. 37. An EvalUiltion Study of Blrarmour (Simla, 1964), p Ibid, p Ibid, pp Ibid, p Also Refer Pangi Valley, An Evaluation and A Socio-Economic Study (Simla, 1966.). 42. Ibid. p Ibid p Ibid p , Ibid p Refer First National Seminar on Problems a11d Potentials of t/je Hill Areal of India (New Delhi, J975) and S.C. Vajpey "Industrial Pro motion in Backward Areas-Role of Specialised Financia\lnstitu tions" Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol, XXII. No. 3, 1977, pp