Property Offences Subject 1: Theft

Transcription

1 Property Offences Subject 1: Theft Theft Section 1 Theft Act 1968 Either Way Offence Penalty In The Crown Court - 7 Years Imprisonment Penalty In The Magistrates Court - 6 Months Imprisonment And / Or A Fine Mens rea - element 1 Actus reus - element 1 Actus reus - element 2 Actus reus - element 3 Mens rea element 2 Dishonest. Appropriation. Property. Belonging to another. Intention to permanently deprive the other of the property. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 1

2 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise 1 Dishonesty What is Not Dishonest? Section 2 Theft Act 1968 A person will not be regarded as dishonest if they believed that either: Situation 1 Situation 2 Situation 3 They had a right in law to the property. For example: If an individual attended one of our courses without paying for the course fee, it would not be dishonest to take their mobile phone as I believed I had a right in law to appropriate the phone in lieu of the course fee. If the owner knew of: The appropriation; and Its circumstances i.e. why it was taken;...they would have consented. For example: If I needed money to purchase a pint of milk and I took money from my spouse s purse to pay for the goods without her knowledge - I would not be behaving dishonestly as I believed that she would have consented had she been aware of what I was doing. NB It is not necessary for the owner to actually provide their consent after finding out about the appropriation. The owner cannot be discovered by taking reasonable steps. For example: If I find a pound coin on the floor in a crowd of 70,000 at the FA cup final I would not be behaving dishonestly if I kept it having formed the belief that it would not be reasonable to attempt to trace the owner in such a large crowd for such a small sum. NB It is not necessary for the person who found the coin to have exhausted all reasonable steps to find the owner. Learning Point Focus upon the belief of the accused at the time of acting i.e. what was going through their head. It does not matter if the belief is mistaken provided the belief was honestly held. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

3 The Principles Of R v Ghosh If the criteria of section 2 does not assist in determining dishonesty - the judge will apply the 2 stage test derived from the case of R v Ghosh [1982] QB 1053: Step 1 Whether a reasonable and honest person would have viewed the act as dishonest. If the jury decide no the jury must acquit. If the jury decide yes the jury will proceed to step 2. Step 2 Whether the defendant realised by the standards of a reasonable and honest person that what they were doing was dishonest. If the jury decide no the test would fail at the second hurdle and the jury must acquit. If the answer is yes - then the defendant will have behaved dishonestly. The objective nature of the first step of the test prevents defendants with a skewed moral compass from claiming a lack of dishonesty based upon their perception of what amounts to a dishonest act. Willingness To Pay Section 2(2) Theft Act 1968 It is possible for behaviour to be deemed to be dishonest despite a willingness to pay. For example: A person who takes a newspaper delivered to your doorstep and leaves money to cover the cost of the paper or their contact details will still be deemed to be dishonest. 2 Appropriation Definition Of Appropriation Section 3 Theft Act 1968 An appropriation is an assumption by the person of the rights of the owner i.e. treating the property as their own. The Timing Of The Appropriation In a straightforward theft situation the accused will have the necessary mens rea to steal at the point of the appropriation. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 3

4 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise However, it is not necessary for this to be the case - an appropriation can also take place where the accused initially appropriates the property innocently (lacking mens rea at this point); but subsequently decides to keep the property and deal with it as their own (mens rea formed at this point). Duration Of The Appropriation An appropriation can be for a very short period of time. For example - a thief who takes a purse out of a handbag, is almost immediately disturbed, drops the purse and runs off will be deemed to have appropriated the purse. Appropriation And Consent It is possible for an appropriation to take place even when the victim consents to the appropriation. In the case of R v Lawrence [1982] AC a tourist who had a wallet full of unfamiliar cash, offered his wallet to the taxi driver to remove the correct fare. The driver took more than the fare. He was convicted of theft even though he had the owner s consent to remove the cash. In the case of R v Gomez [1993] AC Gomez worked in a shop in London and was asked by a friend to accept two stolen building society cheques in exchange for expensive electrical goods. Knowing the cheques were stolen, Gomez asked the manager to authorise the sale assuring him the cheques were as good as cash. As a result, the manager consented to release the goods to Gomez s friend. Some time later, the cheques bounced and were returned by the bank without being paid. Gomez s counsel argued that the manager had consented to the appropriation and therefore there was no case to answer. The House of Lords upheld the conviction on the basis that it was possible to appropriate property despite the presence of consent. Appropriation Exception Section 3 Theft Act 1968 An appropriation will not take place where: Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 There has been a purchase for value. The person was acting in good faith. The person assumes the rights of the owner. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

5 An Example Of Acting In Good Faith Acting In Good Faith Not Acting In Good Faith If a person gets a good deal at a legitimate car auction and purchases a vehicle worth 5000 for 4000 they will be able to rely upon the defence as they have: Purchased the vehicle for value; Whilst acting in good faith; and Have assumed the rights of the owner by taking the registration documents and driving away. A person buying a car worth 5000 from a stranger in a pub for 200 will not be able to rely upon the appropriation exception as they have: Purchased the vehicle for value; Have assumed the rights of the owner by taking the vehicle; But they have not acted in good faith. 3 Property - Section 4 Theft Act 1968 Property includes: All other property including: Real (land and things forming part of the land); Money. Buildings; Personal (movable things that can be owned e.g. CD, TV, cars etc); Things in action (capable of being enforced in a legal action e.g. patents, trademarks, copyrights); and Other intangible property (e.g. gas). Items that cannot be physically stolen (e.g. trade secrets. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 5

6 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise - Examinations The Paper The Examination Is Written On The Actual Information Contained In The Examination The actual paper that an examination is written upon is property and can be stolen by appropriating the physical script itself. The information contained within the examination paper itself (i.e. the questions posed) is not property. Therefore simply seeing the script and either memorising or photographing its contents will not amount to an appropriation of property - Oxford v Moss [1978] 68 Cr App R 183. Cheques The actual paper a cheque is written upon is property and can be stolen. Contents Of Bank Accounts The case of R v Kohn [1979] 69 Cr App R 395 established that contents of a bank account will be property and can be stolen provided the account is either: Option 1 Option 2 In credit. Within the limit of an approved overdraft facility. Watch out for questions involving the appropriation of funds which have exceeded an approved overdraft limit from a bank account no theft. Personal Data Confidential personal data is not property and cannot be stolen. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

7 Can Land Be Stolen? - Section 4(2)(a) - (c) Theft Act 1968 The General Rule As a general rule land cannot be stolen. Exceptions To The General Rule There are 3 exceptional circumstances where land can be stolen: Trustees / PR s Possession Tennant Trustees or Personal Representatives can steal land by dealing with it in breach of a confidence. For example: An executor of an estate selling land for their own benefit. A person not in possession of the land can steal by severing it. For example: A enters B s land and removes a stone statue fixed to the land. A tenant in possession can steal fixtures and structures. For example: A tenant removing a fireplace fixed to the wall from premises that they rent. Can Things Growing Wild Be Stolen? - Section 4(3) Theft Act 1968 The General Rule It is not an offence of theft to pick any: Mushrooms Flowers Fruits Foliage...growing wild on any land. The Exception To The General Rule It will be an offence if the mushrooms, fruit, flowers, or foliage growing wild are picked for either: Sale. Reward. Other commercial purpose. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 7

8 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise Any Land It is permissible to pick things growing wild on any land. Watch out for questions involving the picking of things growing wild in a persons back garden. The fact that the things growing wild are picked from private land is a red herring and it is permissible to pick such wild items provided they are not picked for either sale, reward, or other commercial purpose. For example: You walk down the road and strike up a conversation with a man standing in his garden and he tells you that the daffodils in his garden grow wild each year. You would not commit the offence of theft if you picked those daffodils, as they were growing wild on any land. If the facts were the same, but this time the man tells you that he planted the daffodils last year, then as the daffodils were cultivated and not growing wild, you would commit an offence if you picked them. Destruction Of The Whole Plant It is permissible to pick wild mushrooms, flowers, fruit and foliage growing wild on any land - such as blackberries from a bush. It is not permissible to dig up the whole bush and take it away. Sale Reward Or Other Commercial Purpose It is permissible for a person to pick wild mushrooms, flowers, fruit, or foliage for their own use. It is not permissible to pick wild mushrooms, flowers, fruit, or foliage for either: Sale; Reward; or Other commercial purpose. Focus On The Point At Which The Intention Was Formed Watch out for questions where: There was no intention to sell etc at the time of picking the wild mushrooms, flowers, fruit, or foliage; and The intention to sell etc was only formed at some later point after the wild mushrooms, flowers, fruit, or foliage was picked. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

9 For example: Mrs Smith, the farmer s wife went picking wild blackberries to make some pies for her family. Having baked the pies she fed some to her family. She received such praise that she subsequently decided to sell the leftover pies at a farmers market the next day. In such circumstances Mrs Smith will not have committed the offence of theft as she lacked the intention to utilise the blackberries for commercial reward at the time of picking. That intention was only formed subsequently. Can Wild Creatures Be Stolen? Section 4 Theft Act 1968 The General Rule It will not be possible to steal a wild animal. The Exception To The General Rule A wild animal can be stolen when it has been: Situation 1 Situation 2 Situation 3 Tamed For example: Seigfreid and Roy s pet tigers. Ordinarily kept in captivity For example: The lions at Longleat safari park. Either: Reduced into possession; or Is in the course of being reduced into possession; & Possession has not been either: Lost; or Abandoned. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 9

10 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise Reducing An Animal Into Possession If a fisherman catches a fish and leaves it by his side in readiness to take it home to eat - they have reduced the fish into their possession and become the owner of the fish. It is therefore possible for the fish to be stolen from them. In The Course Of Reducing An Animal Into Possession A fisherman reeling in a fish will be in the course of reducing the fish into their possession. If somebody cut the line and took the fish then the fish would be stolen from them. Reduced Animals Reverting To Their Wild State If a fisherman having reduced a fish into their possession either: Action 1 Action 2 Leaves and forgets to take the fish Throws the fish away to feed the birds...the fish reverts to its wild state - and if any person subsequently saw the fish and took it home to eat (reducing the fish into their possession) they would not have stolen the fish. Are Corpses Property? General Rule A corpse is not property (Doodeward v Spence [1908] 6 CLR 406). Exception To The General Rule The case of R v Kelly [1999] QB 621 established that a corpse will become property if it has been changed in some way by either: Change 1 Change 2 Change 3 Amputation Dissection Preservation Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

11 4 Belonging To Another Defining Belonging To Another Section 5 Theft Act 1968 Property belongs to the person who either has: Situation 1 Situation 2 Situation 3 A proprietary interest in it. Possession of it. Control of it. For example - a PC being repaired in a computer repair shop can have three owners: Owner Of The PC Technician Manager Of The Shop Has a proprietary interest in it. Has possession of it. Has control of it. In such circumstances it would be possible for the owner to actually steal their own PC if they sneaked into the store and took the PC R v Turner No 2 [1971] 1 WLR 901. The Duration Of Possession Or Control The case of R v Kelly [1998] 3 All RE 741 established that possession or control need not be permanent can be for only a defined period. For example in relation to the table above the manager and technician will not have permanent possession or control of the PC. The property will only belong to them for the duration that it is necessary to repair the PC. It Is Not Necessary To Prove Who Exactly Owns The Property The case of R v Rostron; R v Collinson [2003] EWCA Crim 2206 established that: It is only necessary to prove that the property belonged to somebody other than the accused; and It is not necessary to identify the specific individual to whom the property belonged. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 11

12 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise 5 - An Intention To Permanently Deprive Section 6 Theft Act 1968 There are 3 circumstances which may amount to a person having an intention to permanently deprive: Treating The Property As Their Own Regardless Of The Owners Rights Borrowing Beyond The Scope Of The Agreed Terms Parting With Property Under A Condition For Its Return For example: A borrows a fridge from B; and A secures the fridge into their new intergraded kitchen. For example: A lends B their season ticket specifically to watch the first league game of the season. B does not return the season ticket and instead uses the ticket to watch all of the remaining games that season. In the circumstances B will have exceeded the scope of the lending and their actions will have amounted to an outright taking. For example: A borrows (condition being the return of the item) B s lawnmower (another s property) for a week; and Pawns the lawnmower (parts with the property); The theft is complete at the time of parting, even if A intended to return the lawnmower. This is due to the fact that they may not be able to perform the condition of return of the item borrowed. Receiving Property By Mistake Section 5(4) Theft Act 1968 Where a person receives property by mistake they are obliged to restore it to the person who made the mistake - failure to do so will form an intention to permanently deprive the other of that property. For example: Having too much change given to you in a shop; or An employee being paid for overtime that they did not work AG s Reference (No1 of 1983) [1985] QB 182. Changes Of Heart Watch out for questions where at the time of the appropriation the accused had the intention to permanently deprive another of their property but later has a change of heart and returns the goods - the accused will still be guilty of theft in such circumstances R v McHugh [1993] 97 Cr App R 335. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

13 Property Offences Subject 2: Burglary Burglary Violence Used In A Dwelling Indictable Only Offence Penalty In The Crown Court 14 Years Imprisonment Other Offences - Either Way Offence Penalty In The Crown Court 10 Years Imprisonment Penalty In The Magistrates Court 6 Months Imprisonment And / Or A Fine Burglary Section 9(i)(a) Theft Act Offences Burglary Section 9(i)(b) Theft Act 1968 A person enters a: Building; or Part of a building. Having entered a: Building; or Part of a building; As a trespasser. As a trespasser. With the intent (offence is complete at this point) to either: Steal; Do GBH; Do unlawful damage to either: The building; or A person either: Steals or attempts to do so - (result); or Commits GBH or attempts to do so - (result). NB no reference to unlawful damage. Anything in the building. Intent Offence The offence is complete once the intent is formed there is no need for any result. Result Offence The offence is complete once either of the above results occurs. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 13

14 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise Rape is no longer included in the definition of the offence. Entering a building to TWOC a vehicle will not amount to an offence of burglary. Entering a building to or steal electricity will not amount to an offence of burglary. Entering a building to or steal gas will amount to an offence of burglary. 1 - Enters Put simply this means that the accused has crossed a boundary. Defining A Boundary The boundary that is crossed can be either: Boundary 1 The threshold between perimeter and inside of a building. e.g. Entry into a building from outside via a door or a window. Boundary 2 The threshold between separate rooms inside of a building. e.g. Passing via a door from a hallway into a lounge area. Boundary 3 The threshold between a cordoned off area to which access is prohibited and an area to which access is allowed within the same room. e.g. Stepping behind the serving counter in the barroom of a pub or a corner shop; or stepping behind a rope cordon in the viewing area of a public gallery R v Walkington [1979] 2 All ER 716. The Extent Of The Entry Required To Cross A Boundary A person will be deemed to have entered by crossing a boundary if their entry is effective R v Brown [1985] Crim LR 212. This is a question of fact to be determined by the jury. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

15 It is not necessary for the whole body to have entered. Think of the classic smash & grab burglary whereby goods are stolen from a jewellers simply by breaking a window with a brick and reaching in with a hand alone whilst the rest of the body remains in the street. Clearly the act of crossing the boundary by simply reaching in through the window from outside the building with a hand alone will be an effective entry. The Extent Of The Entry & Section 9(1)(a) Burglary For the offence under section 9(1)(a): It is not necessary to establish that the extent of entry was adequate enough to enable the intended act of either stealing / committing GBH / causing damage to take place. It is only necessary to establish that the time of entry (i.e. when the boundary was crossed), the accused was trespassing and they had in their mind at the point of crossing the boundary the intention to either steal / commit GBH / cause damage. Insertion Of Non Body Parts Into The Building The insertion of an instrument alone: To gain entry (e.g. to unhinge a lock) - will not be an entry. To enable stealing, GBH or damage to be committed - will be an entry. 2 - Building A building must have a degree of permanence Norfolk Constabulary v Seekings and Gould [1986] Crim LR 167. Watch out for questions involving portakabins. Whilst they are ultimately portable in nature their function and degree of permanence as a work site make them a building B & S v Leatherley [1979] Crim LR 314. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 15

16 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise Dwellings As Buildings A dwelling is a building. An uninhabited shell of an unfinished house is a building and can be burgled. Tents & Marquees Are Not Buildings Due to their lack of permanence tents and marquees are not buildings. Even if a tent is lived in - i.e. is used as a dwelling (e.g. a tepee) it is still not a building. Watch out for questions involving thefts, GBH, or damage in: A tent at the Glastonbury festival no burglary; A marquee at a wedding no burglary. Inhabited Vehicles Or Vessels As Buildings A building will also include either: A vehicle (e.g. campervan) A vessel (e.g. houseboat)....that is inhabited i.e. is used as a permanent home. The fact that the vehicle or vessel was designed for inhabitation is insufficient in itself. It is necessary to go on to establish that somebody actually lived in it on a permanent basis. It is not necessary for the occupier to be actually in the vehicle or vessel at the time of the burglary. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

17 3 - As A Trespasser? A person will be deemed to be trespassing when they either: Know Are subjectively reckless i.e. foresaw the possibility...that they have crossed a boundary without either: Consent to do so. The right by law to do so. Entering With Consent The General Rule If a person enters a building with consent they will not be a trespasser. Exception To The General Rule - Exceeding The Scope Of The Consent To Enter If A consented to B entering their building as a guest for a specific purpose (e.g. fix their boiler); and At the point of entry B had no intention of entering for the specified purpose; As at the point of entry B instead had the intention of either stealing / commiting GBH / causing damage; B will have entered the building as a trespasser as the initial consent to entry only related to the specified purpose and not their intended prohibited acts. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 17

18 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise Checklist Burglary Section 9(1)(a) Step 1 Step 2 Has the accused made an effective entry i.e. have they crossed a boundary? At the time of crossing the boundary was the accused a trespasser? If no no offence. If yes proceed to step 2. If no no offence. If yes proceed to step 3. Step 3 At the time of crossing the boundary as a trespasser did the accused intent to either: Steal; Do GBH; Do unlawful damage to either: The building; or Anything in the building. If no no offence. If yes the offence of section 9(1)(a) burglary has been committed. Learning Point For an offence to be committed under section 9(1)(a) - the person must at the time of crossing the boundary as a trespasser have a specific agenda i.e. the intention to either steal / cause GBH / do unlawful damage. Watch out for questions where the accused only formed the intent to steal / cause GBH / do unlawful damage after they crossed the boundary. - no offence under section 9(1)(a) will be committed in such circumstances. They would only commit the offence under section 9(1)(a) if having formed the intention to cause one of the prohibited consequences in one part of the building, they proceeded to cross a boundary into another part of the building as a trespasser. Changes Of Heart After Crossing A Boundary Note that offence under section 9(1)(a) will be complete as soon as the person crosses the boundary as a trespasser with the requisite intent. It does not matter if having entered the new part of a building they subsequently have a change of heart and decide against carrying out the intended prohibited consequence. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

19 Checklist Burglary Section 9(1)(b) Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Has the accused made an effective entry i.e. have they crossed a boundary? At the time of crossing the boundary was the accused a trespasser? Having crossed the boundary as a trespasser, did the accused either proceed to: Steal or attempt to do so - (result); or Commit GBH or attempt to do so - (result). If no no offence. If yes proceed to step 2. If no no offence. If yes proceed to step 3. If no no offence. If yes the offence of section 9(1)(b) burglary has been committed. Learning Point A key difference to the offence under section 9(1)(a) is that for the offence to be committed under section 9(1)(b) the accused does not need to cross the boundary with any specific advance agenda. All that is required is that: At the point of crossing the boundary the accused was a trespasser; and Having crossed the boundary they carried out one of the prohibited results of either: Stealing or attempting to do so; or Committing GBH or attempting to do so. It is therefore possible for a person who had no plans to carry out a prohibited act when they crossed the boundary as a trespasser to be guilty of an offence under 9(1)(b) if they hatched the plan and executed the prohibited act after their entry into a part of the building. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 19

20 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise Property Offences Subject 3: Aggravated Burglary Aggravated Burglary Section 10 Theft Act 1968 Indictable Only Offence Penalty In The Crown Court Life Imprisonment Aggravated burglary will arise where both: Step 1 Step 2 A person commits burglary....and at the time has with them (readily to hand) one of a F.E.W. things. FEW Things? F E W Firearm or imitation firearm Explosive Weapon of offence Firearm includes: An airgun; and A pistol. Imitation firearm includes: Anything that has the appearance of a firearm; Irrespective of whether it is capable of being discharged. Any article either: Manufactured for the purpose of producing a practical effect by explosion; or Intended by a person having it with them for that purpose. Any article either: Made (sole purpose); Adapted (e.g. rolling pin with nail driven through it); or Intended; For causing either: Injury; or (e.g. knife, baseball bat, etc) Incapacity; (e.g. rope, gaffer tape, handcuffs, etc) To a person. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

21 At The Time Learning Point For The Aggravated Section 9(1)(a) Offence: It must be shown that they had one of a F.E.W. things with them at the point of entry i.e. when they crossed the boundary. Watch out for questions where the accused: After having crossed a boundary as a trespasser with the intent to do a prohibited consequence (section 9(1)(a) offence is complete at this point); Is disturbed by the occupier and fearing apprehension grabs hold of a weapon lying around in the room to defend themselves. No offence of aggravated burglary will be committed as the accused did not have the weapon with them at the point that the section 9(1)(a) offence was complete i.e. the time they crossed the boundary. For The Aggravated Section 9(1)(b) Offence: It must be shown that they had one of a F.E.W. things with them at the point of the result of either: Result 1 Result 2 Stealing. Causing GBH. Watch out for questions where a burglar who after having crossed a boundary as trespasser is disturbed and opportunistically picks up a weapon lying around the room and causes GBH to the occupier. They will have committed the aggravated offence of section 9(1)(b) as they had the weapon with them at the time of the result of causing GBH. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 21

22 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise Explosive - An empty box with BOMB written on it would be insufficient to constitute an explosive. However, an empty box with BOMB written on it will constitute a weapon of offence if the burglar gave it to a security guard stating, if you move the movement activated bomb in this box will explode. In this set of circumstances, it may be any article made for causing incapacity to a person. Weapon Of Offence If a weapon of offence is made or adapted for causing injury or incapacity to a person: You are simply required to have it with you; and No additional mens rea is required to commit the offence. If a person has anything else (e.g. a screwdriver which is not made or adapted for causing injury or incapacity to a person: Simply having a screwdriver to gain entry is not enough. It is also necessary for the person to have the intention to use it as a weapon of offence to cause injury or incapacity to a person. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

23 Property Offences Subject 4: Robbery Robbery Section 8 Theft Act 1968 Indictable Only Offence Penalty In The Crown Court Life Imprisonment An offence of robbery is committed by a person who: Step 1 Step 2 Steals (i.e. commits a theft)....and either: Immediately before the theft; or At the time of the theft; In order to facilitate the theft either: Uses force on any person; or Puts any person in fear of being then and there subjected to force. Seeks to put any person in fear of being then and there subjected to force. Learning Points 1 - There Must Be A Theft There must be a theft if there is no theft there can be no robbery. Using force to TWOC is not robbery as a TWOC does not amount to an offence of theft. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 23

24 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise 2 - Force Must Be Used Or Threatened Force must be either: Action 1 Action 2 Used. Threatened. (a) Force Used The Extent Of Any Force Used The force used need only be minimal e.g. nudging into a victim R v Dawson [1976] 64 Cr App R 170. Where May The Force Be Applied The force may be applied either: Directly onto a person s body; Via a struggle wrenching an item a victim was carrying (e.g.) a bag snatch. The Force Used Must Be Voluntary The force used must be voluntary. If a pickpocket in the process of stealing a purse and is nudged by the crowd, loses their balance and falls into the victim applying involuntary force no robbery will be committed. Who May The Force Be Directed Towards The force used can be directed towards either: Recipient 1 Recipient 2 The victim. A 3 rd party. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

25 An Example Of The Force Being Directed Towards The Victim A puts B s hand in a vice and starts to crush B s hand (i.e. uses force on the victim). A then tells B that he will continue to crush B s hand until they hand over their wallet. B hands over their wallet. A robbery will be committed as force was used on the victim immediately before the theft and the force was used in order to facilitate the theft. An Example Of The Force Being Directed Towards A 3 rd Party A, B and C are in the same room. A puts C s hand in a vice and starts to crush C s hand (i.e. uses force on the 3 rd party). A then tells B that he will continue to crush C s hand until B hands over their wallet. B hands over their wallet. A robbery will be committed as force was used on a 3 rd party immediately before the theft and the force was used in order to facilitate the theft. (b) Threats To Use Force Puts Or Seeks To Put Any Person In Fear Of Force Being Used There And Then The Accused Must Intend For Their Threat To Have The Effect Of Placing A Person In Fear Of Force Being Used Against Them Self At the time of making the threat the accused must intend for the recipient of the threat to be placed in fear of force being used against them self. The accused s intention in making a threat must be to put a person in fear of force being used against them. An intention to put the recipient of a threat in fear of force being used against another is insufficient this would instead constitute a blackmail. - There Is No Need For The Result Of The Person Threatened Actually Being Fearful Of Force? It is irrelevant whether the threat did or did not have the result of causing the person threatened to be fearful of force being used against them R v Khan [2001] LTL 9 April. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 25

26 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise Threats Must Be Capable Of Being Carried Out There And Then The force threatened must be capable of being carried out there and then at the time of the threat. Any threat of future force: Will not be a robbery; and Will instead be a blackmail. Threatening force at any place other than at the scene is insufficient - as it will not be possible the execute such threats there and then. Threats directed over the telephone will not constitute a robbery - as it will not be possible to execute such threats there and then. 3 - The Timing Of The Use Or Threat Of Force The use or threat of force must be used or made either: Juncture 1 Juncture 2 Immediately before the stealing. At the time of stealing. Using Violence After The Theft A robbery will not arise if force is used only to make good an escape after stealing. 4 - Establishing The Purpose Of The Use Or Threat Of Force The force used or threatened must be used in order to steal. A and B get into a fight and by chance during the fight B s wallet falls out of B s pocket. A seeing the opportunity steals the wallet and runs away. The offence of robbery will not be committed as the force: Was used for the purposes of fighting; and Was not used in order to steal. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

27 Checklist Robbery Force Used Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Was there a theft? Was force used upon either the: Victim; or A 3 rd party? Was the force used either: Immediately before the theft; or At the time of the theft. Was the purpose of the force used to facilitate the theft from the victim? If no no robbery. If yes proceed to step 2. If no no robbery. If yes proceed to step 3. If no (used after the theft) no robbery. If yes proceed to step 4. If no no robbery. If yes a robbery has been committed. Checklist Robbery Threat Of Force Made Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Was there a theft? Was a threat of force made to a person? Did the accused intend for the recipient of the threat to be placed in fear of force being used against them self? NB There is no need to prove the result that the recipient of the threat actually feared the use of force against them. Was the threat capable of being carried out at the time of the threat i.e. there and then? Was the threat made either: Immediately before the theft; or At the time of the theft. Was the purpose of the threat to facilitate the theft from the victim? If no no robbery. If yes proceed to step 2. If no no robbery. If yes proceed to step 3. If no no robbery. If yes proceed to step 4. If no no robbery. If yes proceed to step 5. If no (used after the theft) no robbery. If yes proceed to step 6. If no no robbery. If yes - a robbery has been committed. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 27

28 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise Property Offences Subject 5: Blackmail Blackmail Section 21 Theft Act 1968 Indictable Only Offence Penalty In The Crown Court 14 Years Imprisonment The offence of blackmail will be committed when the accused make an unwarranted demand of another accompanied by menaces with either: Purpose 1 Purpose 2 A view to (i.e. contemplating the possibility of) a gain for either: The intent to cause a loss to another. Themselves; or Another. Learning Point The offence is complete at the point that the demand with menaces is made. There is no need for the result of gain or loss to be suffered. The case of Treacy v DPP [1971] AC 537 established that if the demand with menaces is made via mail the offence is complete at the time of posting and the letter does not have to be received. Defence To Blackmail No offence is committed if the accused believed (subjective test) that both: Step 1 Step 2 They had reasonable grounds for making the demand. The menace was a proper way of enforcing the demand. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

29 For example - A demand from the electricity board saying pay up or we ll switch your lights off is fine. However a demand from the electricity board saying pay up or we ll punch your lights out is not! Note that the test is subjective in nature based upon the accused s belief at the time of making the demand focus on what was going on in the defendant s head. It is not an offence to blackmail a person into having sex with you. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 29

30 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise Property Offences Subject 6: Handling Stolen Goods Handling Stolen Goods Section 22 Theft Act 1968 Either Way Offence Penalty In The Crown Court 14 Years Imprisonment Penalty In The Magistrates Court 6 Months Imprisonment And / Or A Fine Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Was the accused acting otherwise than in the course of stealing i.e. had the goods already been stolen? Did the accused either know or believe the goods to be stolen? Did the accused behave dishonestly in carrying out either of the following acts? If no no offence. If yes proceed to step 2 If no no offence. If yes proceed to step 3 If no no offence. If yes proceed to step 4. Did the accused either: Undertake; or Assist; In the stolen good s: Step 4 Did the accused receive the stolen goods for their own benefit? NB The accused must personally benefit from the receipt of the stolen goods. Retention; Removal; Realisation; Disposal; By or for the benefit of another person? NB The accused must be acting for the benefit of another. If no no offence proceed to step 5. If yes guilty of handling. This element will not be made out if it is the accused alone who derives the benefit. Step 5 Did the accused arrange (i.e. took preparatory steps) to do either of the above acts? NB There is no need for the result of any of the above acts. If no no offence. If yes guilty of handling. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

31 Learning Points Handling The Theft Must Be Complete Prior To The Handling The theft of the goods must be complete before the handling activity takes place - i.e. the handling can only take place after the commission of the theft. Knowledge Or Belief The Goods Were Stolen The accused must either know or believe that the goods were stolen mere suspicion is insufficient. Deliberately turning a blind eye will amount to knowledge or belief. Where Can The Goods Be Stolen From? Handling goods stolen from abroad is an offence in the UK if it also constitutes an offence in that other country. What Will Constitute Stolen Goods? Stolen goods will include either: Goods 1 Goods 2 Goods 3 Goods 4 The original stolen goods. The proceeds from stolen goods. Goods obtained by blackmail. Goods obtained by fraud. For example - a DVD. For example - cash from the sale of the DVD. When Will Goods Cease To Be Stolen? Goods cease to be stolen when they have been taken back into lawful possession. National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 31

32 Property Offences Comprehensive Clear Concise Retaining A Wrongful Credit Section 24A Theft Act 1968 Either Way Offence Penalty In The Crown Court 10 Years Imprisonment Penalty In The Magistrates Court 6 Months Imprisonment And / Or A Fine Step 1 Has a wrongful credit been paid into the accused s account? If no no offence. If yes proceed to step 2. Step 2 Does the accused know that the credit is wrongful (i.e. were they subjectively aware of this fact)? If no no offence. If yes proceed to step 3. Step 3 Has the accused acted dishonestly by failing to cancel the credit? If no no offence. If yes guilty of retaining a wrongful credit. Textbooks Courses E-learning Videos & MCQs

33 The Damage The damage or destruction caused to protect the property must be reasonable and proportionate to the risk to property averted. For example continuing with the scenario above: Having entered the flat by barging down the door to enable the taps to be turned off (which it would be reasonable); It would not subsequently be reasonable to proceed to defecate on the owners bed and put your foot through their TV! National Investigators Examination Textbook 8 th Edition 33