The Right to the Press to Gather Information under the First Amendment

Transcription

1 Loyola Marymount University and Loyola Law School Digital Commons at Loyola Marymount University and Loyola Law School Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review Law Reviews The Right to the Press to Gather Information under the First Amendment Kirk Alan Pasich Recommended Citation Kirk A. Pasich, The Right to the Press to Gather Information under the First Amendment, 12 Loy. L.A. L. Rev. 357 (1979). Available at: This Notes and Comments is brought to you for free and open access by the Law Reviews at Digital Loyola Marymount University and Loyola Law School. It has been accepted for inclusion in Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons@Loyola Marymount University and Loyola Law School. For more information, please contact digitalcommons@lmu.edu.

2 THE RIGHT OF THE PRESS TO GATHER INFORMATION UNDER THE FIRST AMENDMENT I. INTRODUCTION Freedom of the press has long been regarded as one of the most important liberties of a free society. In England, before the American Revolution, the courts regarded freedom of the press as essential to the existence of a free state and held that no previous restraint could be laid upon publication.' The importance of freedom of the press to the framers of the United States Constitution was demonstrated by its inclusion in the Bill of Rights. 2 Although the framers of the Constitution considered a free press to be of importance, the meaning they attached to the provision for freedom of the press is unclear. The House debates regarding its meaning are not revealing 3 and there are no records of debates in the Senate. 4 However, it is likely that the framers envisioned a freedom for the press which was more extensive than that granted under the English common-law view. As Judge Thomas Cooley explained: The evils to be prevented were not the censorship of the press merely, but any action of the government by means of which it might prevent such free and general discussion of public matters as seems absolutely essential to prepare the people for an intelligent exercise of their rights as citizens. 5 Thus, the protection provided by the first amendment appears to extend beyond a bar against the traditional previous restraints upon publication, such as censorship, to the point of prohibiting governmental actions which function as previous restraints upon publication. Broad 1. W. BLACKSTONE, COMMENTARIES ON THE LAWS OF ENGLAND * The first amendment to the United States Constitution states: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievance." 3. The House debates regarding the first amendment primarily concerned the provision regarding the right to assemble. I ANNALS OF CONG (Gales & Seaton eds. 1789). 4. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRE- TATION, S. Doc. No , 92d Cong., 2d Sess. 936 (1973) T. COOLEY, CONSTITUTIONAL LIMITATIONS 886 (8th ed. 1927) [hereinafter cited as CONSTITUTIONAL LIMITATIONS]. See Grosjean v. American Press Co., 297 U.S. 233, (1936); Z. CHAFFEE, FREE SPEECH IN THE UNITED STATES (1941) [hereinafter cited as FREE SPEECH]; T. COOLEY, THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CONSTITUTIONAL LAW (3d ed. 1898) [hereinafter cited as GENERAL PRINCIPLES]. Bqt see L. LEVY, LEGACY OF SUPPRESSION 3 & (1960).

3 LOYOLA OF LOS ANGELES LAW REVIEW [Vol. 12 first amendment protection secures the right to a free discussion of publie events. 6 However, the scope of this right is not clearly established in all aspects. For example, while the right to a free discussion of public events is clearly protected, the extent to which the press has a protected right to gather information which, when disseminated, may be a basis for such discussion, is unclear. This comment will analyze the recognition, development, and scope of the right of the press to gather information. A suggested approach for determining the types of information to which the press should be allowed access will also be discussed. II. THE FREE FLOW OF INFORMATION One commentator has stated that the guarantee of freedom of the press protects a societal interest, the interest in the attainment of truth, so that this nation may knowledgeably choose a course of action and follow it in the most desirable way. 7 The Supreme Court has noted that it is a goal of the first amendment to produce "an informed public capable of conducting its own affairs In addition, the Court has often emphasized the need for a free flow of information, finding it to be a purpose of the first amendment to preserve "an uninhibited marketplace of ideas in which truth will ultimately prevail.... "I The role of the press in contributing to this interchange of ideas is a key one. It is one which the Supreme Court has clearly acknowledged: [Tihe press serves and was designed to serve as a powerful antidote to any abuses of power by governmental officials and as a constitutionally chosen means for keeping officials elected by the people responsible to all the people whom they were selected to serve. Suppression of the right of the press to praise or criticize governmental agents and to clamor and contend for or against change...muzzles one of the very agencies the Framers of our Constitution thoughtfully and deliberately selected to improve our society and keep it free.' CONSTITUTIONAL LIMITATIONS, supra note 5, at FREE SPEECH, supra note 5, at Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC, 395 U.S. 367, 392 (1969). 9. Id. at 390. See Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 14 (1976) (discussion of public issues integral to operation of system of government); Roth v. United States, 354 U.S. 476, 484 (1957) (first amendment designed to assure interchange of ideas to bring about desircd changes); Pennekamp v. Florida, 328 U.S. 331, 346 (1946) (free discussion a cardinal principle of "Americanism"); Associated Press v. United States, 326 U.S. 1, 20 (1945) (widest possible dissemination of information is essential to the welfare of the public). 10. Mills v. Alabama 384 U.S. 214, 219 (1966). A similar view was expressed by the Court in Estes v. Texas, 381 U.S. 532, 539 (1965): "The free press has been a mighty catalyst in awakening public interest in governmental affairs, exposing corruption among public of-

4 1978] RIGHT TO GATHER INFORMATION The press plays its role by providing the information upon which decisions can be based." An informed public depends upon effective reporting by the press, for it is often impossible for the individual to obtain information about government misconduct unless it is provided by the press.' 2 Indeed, even if such information is available, its full import is often understood only after extensive discussion by the press. A prime example is the Watergate affair. Initially, the public, due to a lack of information, was indifferent. However, after the affair was discussed and its ramifications developed by the press, the full import became clear to the public, which then reacted.' 3 Thus, in gathering information the press acts as an agent of the public; it provides the information and a forum upon which the public relies.' 4 Considerations such as these led the Supreme Court to recognize, in Grosjean v. American Prss Co., ' the value of "informed public opinion" as "the most potent of all restraints upon misgovernment.... This recognition has led the Court to strengthen the protections surrounding freedom of the press. The Court has held in several contexts that the right to receive information and ideas is protected under the first amendment.' 7 And the Supreme Court has also held in an analoficers and employees and generally informing the citizenry of public events and occurrences...." As Justice Musmanno of the Pennsylvania Supreme Court noted, "[B]y receiving all the news, the American people can, with intelligence based on knowledge, determine for themselves what policy will best serve them in the retention of their freedom...." In re Mack, 386 Pa. 251, 271, 126 A.2d 679, 689 (1956) (Musmanno, J., dissenting), cert. denied, 352 U.S (1957). 11. [I]n a constitutional point of view [the press'] chief importance is, that it enables the citizen to bring any person in authority, any public corporation or agency, or even the government in all its departments, to the bar of public opinion, and to compel him or them to submit to an examination and criticism of conduct, measures, and purposes in the face of the world, with a view to the correction or prevention of evils... GENERAL PRINCIPLES, supra note 5, at See Saxbe v. Washington Post Co., 417 U.S. 843, 863 (1974) (Powell, J., dissenting) ("No individual can obtain for himself the information needed for the intelligent discharge of his political responsibilities."). The Supreme Court, recognizing the demands of a modem society, has recently reaffirmed the importance of this role: [11n a society in which each individual has but limited time and resources with which to observe at first hand the operations of his government, he relies necessarily upon the press to bring to him in convenient form the facts of those operations. Great responsibility is accordingly placed upon the news media.... Without the information provided by the press most of us and many of our representatives would be unable to vote intelligently or to register opinions on the administration of government generally. Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn, 420 U.S. 469, (1975). 13. For a discussion of the role of the press in this instance, see T. WHITE, BREACH OF FAITH-THE FALL OF RICHARD NIXON (1975). 14. See Saxbe v. Washington Post Co., 417 U.S. 843, 863 (1974) (Powell, J., dissenting) U.S. 233 (1936). 16. Id. at Kleindienst v. Mandel, 408 U.S. 753, (1972) (freedoms of speech and press

5 LOYOLA OF LOS ANGELES L4WREVIEW [Vol. 12 gous context that commercial information is protected, finding that society may have a "strong interest" in the free flow of such information.'" However, the Court has not advanced far beyond this point in defining the scope of the protection for freedom of the press. 19 III. RIGHT OF THE PRESS TO GATHER INFORMATION A. Early Development of the Right In 1935, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals noted that freedom of the press refers to freedom from governmental interference for those engaged in news gathering and dissemination. 2 " However, thirty years elapsed before the United States Supreme Court acknowledged the existence of the right to gather information in Zemel v. Rusk. In Zemel, after the Department of State declared passports invalid for travel to Cuba, appellant, a private individual who had no connection with the press, sought to have his passport validated for Cuban travel, claiming that he wanted to be "a better informed citizen." 22 While the Court agreed that the flow of information regarding Cuba was rendered "less than wholly free" by the travel restriction, 2 3 it rejected appellant's claim that such a restriction interfered with his first amendment rights to travel abroad and acquaint himself with the American policies toward Cuba. 24 The Court described the restriction protect right to receive information); Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U.S. 557, 564 (1969) (right to receive information regardless of social worth protected); Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479, (1965) (right to receive birth control information protected); Marsh v. Alabama, 326 U.S. 501, 505 (1946) (free society depends upon right to receive information); Martin v. City of Struthers, 319 U.S. 141, 149 (1943) (statute prohibiting door-to-door distribution of leaflets unconstitutional). 18. Virginia State Bd. of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council, 425 U.S. 748, 764 (1976). As the Court explained: So long as we preserve a predominantly free enterprise economy, the allocation of our resources in large measure will be made through numerous private economic decisions. It is a matter of public interest that those decisions, in the aggregate, be intelligent and well informed. To this end, the free flow of commercial information is indispensable... And if it is indispensable to the proper allocation of resources in a free enterprise system, it is also indispensable to the formation of intelligent opinions as to how that system ought to be regulated or altered. Id. at 765 (citations omitted). See also First Nat'l Bank v. Bellotti, 435 U.S. 765, (1978) (status as corporation does not in itself deny first amendment protection). 19. See Note, The Right of the Press to Gather Information, 71 COLUM. L. REV. 838, (1971). 20. Associated Press v. KVOS, 80 F.2d 575, 581 (9th Cir. 1935) (dictum), rev'd on other grounds, 299 U.S. 269 (1936) U.S. 1 (1965). 22. Id. at Id. at Id.

6 1978] RIGHT TO GATHER INFORMA TION as "an inhibition of action" justified by the "weightiest considerations of national security." 25 Chief Justice Warren, speaking for the Court, reasoned that "[tihere are few restrictions on action which could not be clothed by ingenious argument in the garb of decreased data flow." 6 However, in a backhanded fashion he also acknowledged the existence of a right, albeit a limited one, to gather information: "The right to speak and publish does not carry with it the unrestrained right to gather information." ' 7 In Zemel, it was considerations of national security which overcame the right to gather information. While the Court did not discuss the extent of this right, the fact that it based the right to gather information upon the right "to speak and publish" implies its applicability to the press, as well as to private individuals, since it is the press which "publishes" information. The Court has never held that freedom of the press is entitled to less protection than freedom of speech. 28 Shortly after its decision in Zemel, the Supreme Court focused its attention specifically on the press in Estes v. Texas, 9 discussing the degree of publicity permissible at a criminal trial. In holding that the television coverage of Billy Sol Estes' trial was a violation of defendant's due process right to a fair trial, the Court noted that although "maximum freedom" should be allowed the press in informing the citizenry of public events, its exercise of that freedom "must necessarily be subject to the maintenance of absolute fairness in the judicial process." 30 For the first time, the Court explicitly defined the press' right of access in terms of the public's right of access: "The television and radio reporter has the same privilege [of access as does the newspaper reporter]. All are entitled to the same rights as the general public. 31 In his concurring opinion, Chief Justice Warren also defined the scope of the media's right of access in terms of the public's right, 32 as did Justice Harlan in his concurring opinion Id. 26. Id. at Id. at 17 (emphasis added). 28. See First Nat'l Bank v. Bellotti, 435 U.S. 765, (1978) (Burger, C.J., concurring) (rights of free press and free speech entitled to same degree of protection). Compare Address by Justice Stewart, Yale Law School Sesquientennial Convocation (Nov. 2, 1974), reprinted in Stewart, Or ofthe Press, 26 HASTINGS L.J. 631 (1975) (freedom of press provision provides protections for media over and above those provided by free speech provision) [hereinafter cited as Stewart] U.S. 532 (1965). 30. Id. at Id. at "When representatives of the communications media attend trials they have no greater rights than other members of the public." Id. at 584 (Warren, C.J., concurring). 33. Unquestionably, television has become a very effective medium for transmitting

7 LOYOLA OF LOS ANGELES LAW REVIEW [Vol. 12 Thus, it is clear from Estes that, at least in the context of a criminal trial, the press has a right to gather information, but that right is no greater than the right of the public. As with Zemel, though, the Court failed to discuss the extent of this right, finding the right to be outweighed in this case by countervailing constitutional considerations.1 4 The Court recognized a situation in which the media's conduct was the key-the information could be reported, but the particular manner in which the media sought access was impermissible as an interference with the defendant's right to a fair trial. In 1972, in Branzburg v. Hayes, 35 the Supreme Court held that a newsman does not have the right to refuse to reveal confidential sources and information to a grand jury. 6 In reaching this conclusion, the Court recognized the existence of, and need for, a constitutional basis for protection of news gathering: "Nor is it suggested that news gathering does not qualify for First Amendment protection; without some protection for seeking out the news, freedom of the press could be eviscerated." 37 However, the Court rejected the notion that such protection is unlimited, 38 and, citing Zemel, again defined the right of the press to gather information as coextensive with the public's right to gather information: "It has generally been held that the First Amendment does not guarantee the press a constitutional right of special acnews. Many trials are newsworthy, and televising them might well provide the most accurate and comprehensive means of conveying their content to the public. Furthermore, television is capable of performing an educational function by acquainting the public with the judicial process in action. Id. at 589 (Harlan, J., concurring). He concluded: Once beyond the confines of the courthouse, a news-gathering agency may publicize, within wide limits, what its representatives had heard and seen in the courtroom. But the line is drawn at the courthouse door, and within, a reporter's constitutional rights are no greater than those of any other member of the public. Id. 34. Id. at U.S. 665 (1972). 36. Id. at Id. at 681. If the provision for freedom of the press is to have a meaning, it must function as more than a guarantee of a right to public information to which the press has access. As Justice Stewart has observed: It is tempting to suggest that freedom of the press means only that newspaper publishers are guaranteed freedom of expression. They are guaranteed that freedom, to be sure, but so are we all, because of the Free Speech Clause. If the Free Press guarantee meant no more than freedom of expression, it would be a constitutional redundancy. Stewart, supra note 28, at 633 (emphasis in original). Thus, the freedom of the press provision has been regarded as providing a constitutional right to gather information. 38. "It is clear that the First Amendment does not invalidate every incidental burdening of the press that may result from the enforcement of civil or criminal statutes of general applicability." 408 U.S. at 682.

8 1978] RIGHT TO GATHER INFORMATION cess to information not available to the public generally." 39 The Court cited specific examples to emphasize its point: Despite the fact that news gathering may be hampered, the press is regularly excluded from grand jury proceedings, our own conferences, the meetings of other official bodies gathered in executive session, and the meetings of private organizations. Newsmen have no constitutional right of access to the scenes of crime or disaster when the general public is excluded, and they may be prohibited from attending or publishing information about trials if such restrictions are necessary to assure a defendant a fair trial before an impartial tribunal. 4 Once again the Court failed to discuss the scope of the right. B. The Needfor Access to Information After Zemel, Estes, and Branzburg, it is clear that the press has at least a limited right to gather information. 4 The acknowledgment of this right is a recognition of the fact that freedom of the press requires a right, at least to some degree, to gather information-the press cannot inform the public of matters about which it cannot obtain information. 42 As one district court stated, "[f]reedom to publish news, without some protected ability to gather it, would render freedom of the press an unduly gossamer right." 43 The Second Circuit Court of Appeals has expressed a similar view: "Freedom to cull information is logically antecedent and necessary to any effective exercise of the right to distribute news. Indeed, the latter prerogative cannot be given full meaning unless the former is recognized." ' Because the press cannot publish unless it has the ability to gather 39. Id. at Id. at Both the press and the public can be excluded from in camera inspections of evidence. See United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683, (1974). 41. One district court, citing Zemel and Branzburg, reached this conclusion: "Journalists and newsmen have a First Amendment right to reasonable access to certain items of news. That right is of necessity a limited one." Lewis v. Baxley, 368 F. Supp. 768, 775 (M.D. Ala. 1973). 42. See text accompanying notes 7-14 supra. As Justice Musmanno described it: Freedom of the press is not restricted to the operation of linotype machines and printing presses. A rotary press needs raw material like a flour mill needs wheat. A print shop without material to print would be as meaningless as a vineyard without grapes, an orchard without trees, or a lawn without verdure. Freedom of the press means freedom to gather news, write it, publish it, and circulate it. When any one of these integral operations is interdicted, freedom of the press becomes a river without water. In re Mack, 386 Pa. 251, 273, 126 A.2d 679, 689 (1956) (Musmanno, J., dissenting), cert. denied, 352 U.S (1957). 43. Lewis v. Baxley, 368 F. Supp. 768, 775 (M.D. Ala. 1973). 44. Herbert v. Lando, 568 F.2d 974, 977 (2d Cir. 1977), cert. granted, 435 U.S. 922 (1978).

9 LOYOLA OF LOS ANGELES LAW REVIEW [Vol. 12 information, denial of a right of access to information is the functional equivalent of a prior restraint upon publication. The Supreme Court has noted that it is essential "not to limit the protection of [freedom of the press] to any particular way of abridging it." 45 The fact that no direct restraint is involved "does not determine the question. '46 If the information is not otherwise available, it would seem that, in practical terms, the press is restrained from publishing. 47 For example, if the press has access to information, some of which pertains to national security, it might not be permitted to publish all of the information. But, the press could publish that information not affecting national security. However, if the press was not given access to the information, then it would be unable to publish even the information not affecting national security. The free flow of information would cease to exist. Thus, denial of a right to gather information could be the most insidious form of a prior restraint upon publication-members of the press are left unaware of what it is that they could be publishing. 1. The Prison Access Cases In 1974, the Supreme Court discussed the right of the press to gather information in the context of media access to prisons. In Pell v. Procunier, 48 prison inmates and journalists challenged the constitutionality of a California regulation prohibiting interviews with prisoners who had been specificially designated in advance. The prisoners contended that the regulation functioned as an inhibition of free speech. 49 The Court rejected this argument, finding that alternative means of communication existed between the prisoners and persons outside the prison. 50 The journalists in Pell contended that they had a constitutional right, in the absence of a clear and present danger to security or some other substantial interest of the prison system, to interview any 45. Grosjean v. American Press Co., 297 U.S. 233, 249 (1936) (citing Near v. Minnesota, 283 U.S. 692, (1930)). 46. Garland v. Torre, 259 F.2d 545, 548 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 358 U.S. 910 (1958). See American Communications Ass'n, CIO v. Douds, 339 U.S. 382, 402 (1950). 47. See note 42 supra U.S. 817 (1974). 49. Id. at Id. at The Court pointed out that under California prison regulations an inmate may communicate with others outside the prison by mail. Id. at 824. Such communication may not be censored unless the decision to do so is accompanied "by minimal procedural safeguards." Procunier v. Martinez, 416 U.S. 396, (1974). The Court also noted that inmates could receive limited visits from their families, the clergy, their attorneys, and friends of prior acquaintance. 417 U.S. at

10 1978] RIGHT TO GA THER INFORMATION inmate who was willing to talk with them. 5 The Court found that the regulation was "not part of an attempt by the State to conceal the conditions in its prisons or to frustrate the press' investigation and reporting of those conditions;" 52 rather, this regulation was designed to meet security needs. 53 The Court, noting that security problems had arisen in the past at the prison when the press was allowed to interview any prisoner it chose, emphasized that there was a clear and present danger to security. 5 4 It also noted that "both the press and the general public [were] accorded full opportunities to observe prison conditions." 55 Indeed, the press actually enjoyed access to the prisons which was unavailable to the general public. 56 Thus, according to the Court, the press had received as much access as it needed. The Court denied the press' request for greater access without specifying whether or not such access would be permitted had there been no danger to security. However, the Court did suggest that the prison could narrow the press' right of access to a level equal to that of the public. Even though the press had been granted greater access than had the public, the Court's position was that such access is not constitutionally mandated: "[N]ewsmen have no constitutional right of access to prisons or their inmates beyond that afforded the general public." 5 7 The Court pointed out that while the first and fourteenth amendments protect the press from government interference with publication, they do not grant the press a right of access to information greater than that enjoyed by the public. 58 And it concluded that the proposition that "the Constitution imposes upon government the affirmative duty to make available to journalists sources of information not available to members of the pub U.S. at Id. at Id. at Id. at Id. at 830 (footnote omitted). 56. Id. at The Court specified the forms of access the press enjoyed which were not available to the general public: In addition, newsmen are permitted to visit both the maximum security and minimum security sections of the institutions and to stop and speak about any subject to any inmates whom they might encounter. If security considerations permit, corrections personnel will step aside to permit such interviews to be confidential. Apart from general access to all parts of the institutions, newsmen are also permitted to enter the prisons to interview inmates selected at random by the corrections officials. By the same token, if a newsman wishes to write a story on a particular prison program, he is permitted to sit in on group meetings and to interview the inmate participants. Id. at Id. at Id.

11 LOYOLA OF LOS ANGELES LAW REVIEW [Vol. 12 lic generally" 59 is one which "finds no support in the words of the Constitution or in any decision of this Court." 60 In Saxbe v. Washington Post Co.,6 the case decided in tandem with Pell, the Court faced a factual setting similar to that of Pell. Here, members of the press were challenging a federal regulation which prohibited interviews with specifically designated prisoners. 2 As in Pell, the Court noted the existence of "liberal visitation privileges." 63 And, the Court pointed out that the press had access to prisons and prisoners which "in significant respects exceed[ed] that afforded to members of the general public." ' The Court also stated that both the press and the public could use recently released prisoners as information sources about prison conditions. 65 The Court advanced these arguments to show that, as in Pell, prison authorities were not attempting to conceal prison conditions from the public. 6 6 In fact, the Court found justification for the restriction because of "substantial disciplinary problems" which tended to result from inmate contacts with the press. 6 7 However, the Court did not undertake to balance such penal interests against the "legitimate de- 59. Id. 60. Id. at However, it has been argued that the press, because of the role it plays in disseminating information to the public, should have a greater right of access, particularly to prisons: The prohibition of visits by the public has no practical effect upon their right to know beyond that achieved by the exclusion of the press. The average citizen is most unlikely to inform himself about the operation of the prison system by requesting an interview with a particular inmate with whom he has no prior relationship. He is likely instead, in a society which values a free press, to rely upon the media for information. Id. at 841 (1974) (Douglas, J., dissenting). Justice Stevens (then Judge) of the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals has advanced a similar argument: Before a democratic society can effectuate drastic institutional changes, the community at large must be informed about the need for change. That there is inadequate public awareness of the nature of our penal system, and that the system as a whole needs to be changed dramatically, are propositions which correctional officials are not likely to challenge.... If the reasons for our faith in the principles embodied in the First Amendment are valid, it is not unreasonable to infer that there is a causal connection between those two propositions. Morales v. Schmidt, 489 F.2d 1335, 1346 n.8 (7th Cir. 1973) (Stevens, J., dissenting), opinion on rehearing en bane, 494 F.2d 85 (7th Cir. 1974) U.S. 843 (1974). 62. Id. at Id. at Id. at 847. Representatives of the press could tour the prisons, conduct brief interviews with any inmates encountered, and photograph any prison facilities. Id. Newsmen were also allowed to communicate by mail with inmates without fear of censorship, id., and to interview a randomly selected group of inmates. Id. at Id. at Id. 67. Id. at

12 1978] RIGHT TO GA THER INFORMATION mands" of the first amendment. 68 Such an undertaking was deemed to be unnecessary in light of the fact that the restriction was merely a "particularized application" of the general rule that a member of the public, unassociated with a designated prisoner, may not enter a prison and demand to speak to that prisoner. 69 In place of this balancing approach, the Court set forth a rule which it seemingly intended to use in discussing all claims under the first amendment regarding the press' right to gather information, a rule holding that the press' right to gather information is coextensive with the public's right to do so. 7 " Yet, the Court still failed to identify the scope of the public's right, thereby leaving the dimensions of the press' right to gather information undefined. This equation of the rights of the press and the public presents a key question: Can any denial of press access to information be justified simply by noting that the public also has no right of access? As Justice Powell argued in his dissenting opinion in Saxbe: From all that appears in the Court's opinion, one would think that any governmental restriction on access to information, no matter how severe, would be constitutionally acceptable to the majority so long as it does not single out the media for special disabilities not applicable to the public at large. 7 ' It seems doubtful, though, that such a restriction would be upheld. 72 As the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals has stated, "[W]e find it hard to 68. Id. at Justice Powell, dissenting, argued that the balancing test employed by the Court in Procunier v. Martinez, 416 U.S. 395 (1974), should be used in this situation. 417 U.S. at In Procunier, prisoners challenged mail censorship regulations which proscribed, among other things, statements which unduly complained or magnified grievances and those which were "defamatory" or "otherwise inappropriate." 416 U.S. at Justice Powell, speaking for the Court, found first amendment liberties to be "implicated" in the censorship of the mail, but also noted that there were several state interests involved in the censorship. Id. at 409. The state interests included the preservation of internal order and discipline, the maintenance of security, and rehabilitation of prisoners. Id. at 412. Considering these interests, Justice Powell declared such censorship justified only if (1) the regulation furthers "an important or substantial government interest unrelated to suppression of free expression" and (2) the limitation of first amendment freedoms is no greater than that necessary to protect the interest involved. Id. at 413. In applying this test in Saxbe, Justice Powell concluded that while the regulation furthered an important government interest, it was broader than was necessary to protect the interest involved. 417 U.S. at 868. He therefore would have invalidated the regulation. 417 U.S. at The Court found this case "constitutionally indistinguishable from Pell... and thus fully controlled" by the holding in Pell that newsmen have no greater right of access than that possessed by the public. 417 U.S. at Id. at 857 (Powell, J., dissenting). 72. But see notes infra and the accompanying text.

13 LOYOLA OF LOS ANGELES LAW REVIEW [Vol. 12 believe that the Court intended [in Pell and Saxbe] that any governmental restriction on access to sources of information is constitutionally permissible as long as it applies to the general public as well as the press." 73 One may find it at least inconsistent with a system of democratic self-rule to allow absolute secrecy in governmental affairs. 2. Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn After the decisions in Pell and Saxbe, it is clear that the press has the right to gather information whenever that right exists for members of the general public. The Supreme Court emphasized this point in Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn. 74 The Court held that sanctions may not be imposed on the accurate publication of the identity of a rape victim obtained from public records. 75 In so holding, the Court recognized the press' right of access to information within the public domain: "Once true information is disclosed in public court documents open to public inspection, the press cannot be sanctioned for publishing it." 7 6 The Court was not expanding the press' right of access. It did not require that the government take affirmative action to provide the press with information. Instead, the Court merely recognized that the press could not be discriminated against-if information is made available to the public, it must be made available to the press. 3. Circuit Court of Appeals Cases The equation of the press' right of access to information with that of the public has continued at the appellate court level. In Garrett v. Estelle, 77 a case in which a television reporter petitioned to film the execution of the first person executed in Texas since 1964, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals held that "the protection which the first amendment provides to the news gathering process does not extend to matters not accessible to the public generally...,t7 The court gave its analysis of what the Supreme Court meant in Pell and Saxbe: The Court made no adhoc determination in Saxbe and Pell; it proceeded from the general principle... that the press has no greater right of access to information than does the public at large; and that the first amendment does not require government to make available to the press information not available to the public. This principle marks a limit to the first 73. Herald Co. v. McNeal, 553 F.2d 1125, 1131 n.10 (8th Cir. 1977) U.S. 469 (1975). 75. Id. at Id. at F.2d 1274 (5th Cir. 1977), cert. denied, 98 S. Ct (1978). 78. Id. at 1276.

14 1978] RIGHT TO GATHER INFORMATION amendment protection of the press' right to gather news. 7 9 With this understanding, the court upheld the denial of access to film the execution. 0 In another case before the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals, United States v. Gurney, 8 ' newspaper reporters sought to examine certain criminal trial documents, including exhibits not yet admitted into evidence and transcripts of bench conferences held in. camera. 8 " While recognizing that the pregs "cannot be denied access to any information already within the public domain," 8 3 the court upheld the denial of access, relying upon Zemel, Branzburg, Pell and Garrett as authority. 8 4 The court distinguished the denial of access to information from a prior restraint upon publication, reasoning that no such restriction "freezing" speech was involved: "The district judge merely refused to allow the appellants to inspect documents not a matter of public record. Appellants were free to obtain whatever information they desired from any source except from the district court and its supporting personnel." 8 5 According to the court, there were several alternative sources of information-the parties to the litigation, the attorneys involved in the case, the witnesses, and members of the public. 8 6 However, the court did not discuss the practicality of these alternatives. It failed to indicate what information members of the general public might have that the press did not. And the court failed to discuss the possibility that the parties, attorneys, and witnesses might not be willing to provide information. By limiting the press to these sources of information, the court might, in effect, have upheld an indirect prior restraint upon publication. The press may not have been able to publish due to a lack of information. In both Garrett and Gurney, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals failed to define the scope of the right to gather information. Instead, it merely followed the precedents set by the Supreme Court and noted that the first amendment right to gather news is defined "in terms of information available to the public generally." 8 " 79. Id. at Id. at F.2d 1202 (5th Cir. 1977), cert. denied, 98 S. Ct (1978). 82. Id. at Id. at Id. (footnote omitted). 85. Id. 86. Id. at 1208 n F.2d at 1208 (footnote omitted).

15 370 LOYOLA OF LOS ANGELES LAW REVIEW [Vol. 12 IV. THE 1977 SUPREME COURT TERM In its October 1977 term, the Supreme Court issued three decisions which are relevant to discussion of the press' right to gather information. A. Nixon v. Warner Communications, Inc. In Nixon v. Warner Communications, Inc.,88 the media sought to copy tape recordings of conversations held in then-president Nixon's offices which were introduced into evidence in United States v. Mitchell, 89 the trial of seven individuals for conspiracy to obstruct justice in connection with the investigation of the 1972 burglary of the Democratic National Committee Headquarters. 9 " Copies of the relevant portions of the original tapes were made. During the trial, these copies, over twenty-two hours in length, were played for the jury and public in the courtroom. The district court furnished the jurors, reporters, and members of the public in attendance with transcripts prepared by the special prosecutor. These transcripts were widely reprinted by the press. 91 Six weeks after the trial had begun, broadcasters filed a motion seeking permission to "copy, broadcast, and sell to the public" the portions of the tapes played at the trial. 92 The motion was granted, with copying prohibited until after the trial. 93 However, after the trial, media requests for immediate access to the tapes were denied on the ground that those appealing the trial verdict could have their rights prejudiced if the petitions were granted. 94 On appeal, the District of Columbia Court of Appeals reversed the decision, stressing the importance of the common-law privilege to inspect and copy judicial records. 95 On certiorari, the Supreme Court held that the release of the tapes to the media was not required. 96 The Court, while acknowledging a common-law right to inspect and copy judicial records, found that this right is not absolute. 97 The Court also acknowledged the difficulty of providing a "comprehensive" definition of the common-law right of access U.S. 589 (1978) F. Supp (D.D.C. 1974) U.S. at Id. at Id F. Supp. 639, 643 (D.D.C. 1974) F. Supp. 186, 188 (D.D.C. 1975). 95. United States v. Mitchell, 551 F.2d 1252, (D.C. Cir. 1976) U.S. at Id. at

16 1978] RIGHT TO GA4 THER INFORM TION and of identifying the factors to be weighed in determining whether access is appropriate, concluding that the decision as to access is "best left to the sound discretion" of the trial court. 98 The Court, after assuming arguendo that the common-law right applied to the tapes in question, 99 listed the interests that would normally be balanced in determining whether or not access should be granted. The interests advanced by the broadcasters favoring release of the tapes were the gain in public understanding that would result from their release and the presumption favoring access; the interests advanced by Nixon, the petitioner, against release of the tapes were his property interest in the sound of his own voice, infringement upon his privacy if the tapes were released, and the fact that United States v. Nixon"0 authorized only a very limited use of subpoenaed presidential conversations. 102 However, the Court did not decide how the balance would be struck among these interests. Instead, it noted the existence of the Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act, 0 3 which provides for "legislative and executive appraisal of the most appropriate means of assuring public access to the material, subject to prescribed safeguards." The existence of this act, the Court held, "tip[ped] the scales in favor of denying release."' ' 0 5 The Court failed to indicate if the result would have been the same in the absence of the statute. And it did not discuss what would happen if the Administrator of General Services did not release the tapes. It would seem, though, that the result should be different. Nixon did authorize only a limited use of the conversations; the Court wanted to ensure that only relevant information which would be admissible at the trial was released and published. 0 6 However, this consideration should not apply in determining whether to allow the recordings actually used in the trial to be sold and broadcast-transcripts of the information had already been published and members of the public would hear nothing more than they would have heard had they attended the trial. The concern for petitioner's privacy was also minimized by the fact that transcripts of the tapes had been released. In reality, there- 98. Id. at Id Id. at U.S. 683 (1974) U.S. at U.S.C (1976) U.S. at Id. at U.S. at

17 LOYOL4 OF LOS ANGELES LAW REVIEW [Vol. 12 fore, petitioner's property interest in the sound of his voice would be balanced against the gain in public understanding and the presumption favoring access. Given the strong policy favoring the free flow of information, the gain in public understanding is probably as important, or more important, than petitioner's property interest. And, the presumption favoring access would place the burden of proof upon the petitioner. Under these circumstances, it seems likely that the balance would be struck in favor of access. The broadcasters also argued that the release of the tapes was required under the first amendment guarantee of freedom of the press.7 The broadcasters, relying upon Cox Broadcasting, contended that the press had a right of access to exhibits and materials displayed in open court, in this case a right to copy and publish that material.' The Court rejected this argument, saying that the broadcasters "misconceived" the holding in Cox Broadcasting: Our decision in that case merely affirmed the right of the press to publish accurately information contained in court records open to the public. Since the press serves as the information-gathering agent of the public, it could not be prevented from reporting what it had learned and what the public was entitled to know The Warner Communications Court found that the press had fully exercised this right: In the instant case... there is no claim that the press was precluded from publishing or utilizing as it saw fit the testimony and exhibits filed in evidence. There simply were no restrictions upon press access to, or publication of any information in the public domain....the contents of the tapes were given wide publicity by all elements of the media. There is no question of a truncated flow of information to the public." 0 Thus, the Court reaffirmed the importance of a "free flow of information" and, in doing so, had recognized once again the role of the press as the information-gathering agent of the public. However, it is questionable as to whether the Court applied these theories in this case. It is clear that the press had access to the information in question. What the broadcasters actually sought was physical access to the tapes. The Court denied this request, holding that the first amendment "generally grants the press no right to information about a U.S. at 608. The broadcasters also argued that the sixth amendment's guarantee of a public trial mandated the release of the tapes. The Court rejected this argument, holding that the sixth amendment did not require that "the trial--or any part of it-be broadcast live or on tape to the public." Id. at Id. at Id. at Id.

18 1978] RIGHT TO GATHER INFORMA TION trial superior to that of the general public."" I I By so holding, the Court avoided dealing with the issue of whether physical access to the tapes should have been granted to the press. The release of recordings of the tapes would have provided the public with information which the release of the transcripts did not provide. Transcripts merely indicate what was said, not how it was said. The listener can notice emotions reflected in the speakers' voices and can hear intonations and hesitations which would not be apparent if the words were only read and not heard. By hearing the words spoken, the listener can get a better understanding of what transpired. Physical access to the tapes would therefore serve to promote the free flow of information to the public. Thus, Warner Communications presents a situation which is similar to that presented in Pell and Saxbe. In these three cases, it is unclear whether the information to which the press had sought access was ever communicated to the public. And, in these cases the Court failed to discuss whether the information sought should have been communicated to the public. B. Landmark Communications, Inc. v. Virginia Shortly after its decision in Warner Communications, the Supreme Court announced its decision in Landmark Communications, Inc. v. Virginia.- In Landmark, the Court faced the question of whether a state may subject persons to criminal sanctions for divulging information about proceedings before a judicial review commission which are declared confidential by state law.'" 3 A newspaper had identified a judge whose conduct was being investigated by the commission. Subsequently, the newspaper was indicted for violating this law. The Virginia Supreme Court affirmed a lower court decision convicting the newspaper.' 14 The Supreme Court reversed the Virginia conviction. It emphasized that a major purpose of the first amendment is to protect free discussion of governmental affairs."' It saw the newspaper and article in question as playing an important role in contributing to the free flow of information: The operation of the Virginia Commission... is a matter of public 111. Id. In support of this decision, the Court cited Estes, Zemel Pell, and Saxbe. Id. at U.S. 829 (1978) Id. at Id. at Id. at

19 LOYOLA4 OF LOS ANGELES LA4W REVIEW [Vol. 12 interest, necessarily engaging the attention of the news media. The article published by Landmark provided accurate factual information about a legislatively authorized inquiry pending before the Judicial Review and Inquiry Commission, and in so doing clearly served those interests in public scrutiny and discussion of governmental affairs which the First Amendment was adopted to protect. 16 Thus, the vitality of the "free flow of information" goal of the first amendment remains undiminished. The Court pointed out that this case involved no claim for any "constitutionally compelled right of access" for the press.'" 7 And the majority agreed with the Virginia Supreme Court that the statute did not constitute a prior restraint upon publication."" However, it determined that the publication sought to be punished lay "near the core of the first amendment" and that the interests advanced by the imposition of criminal sanctions were insufficient to justify encroachments upon the freedom of the press."19 While it is clear that the conviction of the newspaper should have been overturned in this case, the Court's holding presents an irony. In past cases, the Court had rejected the press' attempts to gain access to information by legal means. Yet, here the Court upheld the press' right to publish the information, even though this information was obtained in violation of a state statute. The Court's actions seem to suggest that if the press seeks access to information to which the public does not have access, it will not get it, but if the press obtains the information, even by means illegal at the time of acquisition, it cannot be stopped from publishing it. This is reflective of the Court's treatment of claims by the press for access as demands that the government affirmatively provide information, rather than as requests that government not interfere with press attempts to gather information. While the distinction is a thin one which often rests on semantics rather than analysis, it has served to allow the Court to summarily reject press requests for access to information without considering whether such access is warranted.' Id. at Id. at I1d. at Id. The Court questioned the relevance of the clear and present danger test used by the Virginia Supreme Court in balancing the interests of the first amendment and those involved in the need for confidentiality. Id. at However, the Court concluded that even if this test was used, the risk here fell "far short" of presenting a "clear and present" danger. Id. at The Court used this approach in Pell. It viewed the press' request for access as one which, if granted, would impose upon the government the affirmative duty of making infor-