Social Exclusion: A Framework for Analysing Transnational Organized Crime in Guyana

Transcription

1 Social Exclusion: A Framework for Analysing Transnational Organized Crime in Guyana Floyd Levi MPhil/Ph.D. Candidate International Relations University of the West Indies Presented at the LIRDS/UWI-IIR Academic Seminar Theme: Analysing Current Issues in the Changing Hemispheric Environment Georgetown, Guyana April 11, 2014

2 Introduction Fall of the Berlin wall and end of cold war ushered in a new era of globalization. Lowering of barriers and opening up of trade, finance, travel and communications spurred economic growth and well-being. Improved opportunities for criminals to conduct their business more efficiently on a much larger scale. Rapid spread of security threats Health pandemics, Terrorism, Transnational Organized Crime

3 Introduction Transnational Organized Crimes, which involve the illicit trade of arms, drugs, people and natural resources across borders, pose a threat to the security of all states, moreso to those economically fragile and conflict prone countries; Fuel corruption Infiltrate businesses and politics Hinder development Undermine good governance by empowering those who operate outside the law. (UNODC 2010)

4 Threat to CARICOM States Regional Small States extremely vulnerable to TOC because of underdeveloped security mechanisms. (CARICOM s Regional Task Force on Crime and Security, 2002) Crime is the number one social issue for much of the Caribbean (UNODC/World Bank, 2007) Economic misfortunes have led to an increase in crime (PM Manning, 2009) Resources diverted from development to crime prevention and crime fighting ( UNODC/World Bank, 2007) Contribute to the exodus of skilled manpower; Drive up business costs; Lower the quality of life. (Girvan, 2007)

5 Threat to CARICOM States Our vulnerability is manifold. Physically, we are subject to hurricanes and earthquakes; economically, to market conditions taken elsewhere; socially to cultural penetrations; and now politically, to the machinations of terrorists, mercenaries, and criminals. (Erskine Sandiford 2004)

6 Guyana Geography

7 Threat to Guyana Guyana s geographical location and socio-economic circumstances make it particularly vulnerable to the many threats posed by transnational organized crime, TOCs particularly drug trafficking is fuelling violent crimes in Guyana. (Rohee 2010) Transnational Criminal Networks use their considerable financial resources to promote corruption, threaten political stability and negatively affect national security at the most fundamental level. (Rohee 2010)

8 Major TOC Threats to Guyana Content analysis of the literature on Transnational Organized Crime in Guyana shows the major threats are: Narcotics Trafficking Weapons Smuggling Money Laundering Trafficking in Persons Migrant Smuggling Fuel Smuggling Gold and Diamond Smuggling Piracy Corruption (Owen and Grigsby 2012; Griffith 2011; US State Department 2012; Granger 2003; Granger 2010).

9 Definitions - TOC A structured group of three or more persons, existing for a period of time and acting in concert with the aim of committing one or more serious crimes or offences which are transnational in nature, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit. (UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crimes, 2004) An offence is transnational nature if: It is committed in more than one State; It is committed in one State but a substantial part of its preparation, planning, direction or control takes place in another State; It is committed in one State but involves an organized criminal group that engages in criminal activities in more than one State; or It is committed in one State but has substantial effects in another State. (UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crimes, 2004)

10 IR Theoretical Perspective Constructivism Focuses on the social context Emphasizes issues of identity and belief Recognizes the role of social norms in international politics Emphasizes the role of non-state [transnational actors] actors Meaning is constructed from a complex and specific mix of history, ideas, norms, and beliefs (Dunn et al 2007, Mingst 2008)

11 Criminological Paradigms Classical School Rational Choice Theorists Cesare Beccaria, Jeremy Bentham Free will - Individuals choose to commit crimes after weighing the consequences of their actions Laws should be used to maintain the social contract Fear of punishment deters potential criminals Certainty of punishment outweighs its severity as a deterrent Pain of punishment greater than the pleasures derived from committing the crime. Theories - Rational choice, deterrence, (Adler et al 2004; Brown et al 2010)

12 Positivist School Criminological Paradigms Theorists Auguste Comte, Cesare Lombroso, Emile Durkheim Social phenomena should be studied using scientific approach with observable facts, employing experimental and inductive methods. Causal Factors beyond individuals control Biological and psychological factors Deficient social processes and structures State definitions of crime and social control agents (eg. Police). Theories biological, psychological and sociological determinism (Devroye 2010; Adler et al 2004; Brown et al 2010)

13 Criminological Paradigms Critical School - (Social Reaction theories) Theorists Karl Marx, George Mead, George Vold, Power elite define crimes and operate agencies of social control in their own interest, preserving their position in society. society is made up of groups with opposing values and interests and that the state represents the values and interests of the groups with the most power Capitalism involves a constant conflict of interests which make men more egoistic and hence, more capable of crime." Theories Labelling theory, conflict theory, group conflict theory, feminism (Devroye 2010; Adler et al 2004; Brown et al 2010)

14 Social Exclusion - Background Rene Lenoir (1974) first used the term to describe individuals and groups who were excluded from the social insurance protection offered by the French state. mentally and physically handicapped, suicidal people, aged invalids, abused children, substance abusers, delinquents, single parents, multi-problem households, marginal, asocial persons, and other social misfits (Silver 1994, Sen 2000). In French political debates of the era social exclusion came to symbolize new poverty and inequality and referred to long term and recurrent unemployment; growing instability in social bonds; the decline of class solidarity based on unions, and social networks (Silver 1994).

15 Social Exclusion - Definition A condition or outcome, in which excluded individuals or groups are unable to participate fully in their society because of their social identity (race, gender, ethnicity, religion), or social location (stigmatised areas). (Beall & Piron 2005) A multidimensional and dynamic process, where social relations and organisational barriers block the attainment of livelihoods, human development and equal citizenship, sustaining poverty and inequality, and restricting social participation. (Beall & Piron 2005) Social exclusion is governed by social and political relations, and access to organisations and institutional sites of power. (Beall & Piron 2005)

16 Social Exclusion Poverty Nexus social exclusion is not an analytical concept, but rather a political concept which has been introduced for political reasons to the detriment of the ongoing debate on poverty. (Else Oyen 1997) social exclusion and poverty are two perspectives of the same issue: Aristotelian perspective of an impoverished life where one is without the freedom to undertake important activities that he has reason to choose ; Adams Smith s capability deprivation ( the ability to appear in public without shame ). (Sen 2000) The term social exclusion came about from a discursive shift away from the politically unpalatable terminologies of poverty and deprivation and was intended to cause a rethink of social issues and problems. (Peace 2001)

17 Social Exclusion Usefulness for Crime Analysis The concept of social exclusion has been applied to circumstances of social disadvantage and capability deprivation (Silver, 1994; Sen, 2000). It enjoys wide adoption by researchers and policy makers across Europe and in parts of the developing world Used extensively to study marginalization, poverty and inequality, social justice, equality of opportunity, discrimination and disparity in capabilities (Daly & Silver, 2008; Zelenev, 2011).

18 Social Exclusion Framework Example: Organized crime took root in the Guyanese society during the 1970s and 1980s when the official economy failed to provide consumers with the goods and services they needed, thereby creating a shadow economy which initially sought to provide the critical goods and services which were in short supply. The shadow economy in Guyana is now dominated by organized crime and accounts for 47 percent of official GDP. (Thomas 2003)

19 Social Exclusion Framework Social Exclusion Interpretation: The ban on some imported food items such as flour and peas was interpreted by some social groups as unjust. As a result segments in many border communities and even in our major towns engaged in illegal cross border trade, developing linkages which later grew into Transnational Organized Crime networks. Concepts: Social identity; social locations; attainment of livelihoods; access to institutional sites of power.

20 Social Exclusion Framework Constructivist Interpretation: State interest at the time was generated by the ruling Socialist PNC which was pursuing a policy of self sufficiency and import substitution. Concepts: Social context; beliefs; role of non-state actors; historical relations and norms.

21 Thank You 22