Trends in International Migration

Transcription

1 «INTERNATIONAL Trends in International Migration MIGRATION SOPEMI 2001

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3 SOPEMI Trends in International Migration Continuous Reporting System on Migration ANNUAL REPORT 2001 EDITION ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT

4 ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT Pursuant to Article 1 of the Convention signed in Paris on 14th December 1960, and which came into force on 30th September 1961, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) shall promote policies designed: To achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in Member countries, while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the development of the world economy. To contribute to sound economic expansion in Member as well as non-member countries in the process of economic development. And To contribute to the expansion of world trade on a multilateral, non-discriminatory basis in accordance with international obligations. The original Member countries of the OECD are Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The following countries became Members subsequently through accession at the dates indicated hereafter: Japan (28th April 1964), Finland (28th January 1969), Australia (7th June 1971), New Zealand (29th May 1973), Mexico (18th May 1994), the Czech Republic (21st December 1995), Hungary (7th May 1996), Poland (22nd November 1996), Korea (12th December 1996) and the Slovak Republic (14th December 2000). The Commission of the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD (Article 13 of the OECD Convention). OECD CENTRE FOR CO-OPERATION WITH NON-MEMBERS The OECD Centre for Co-operation with Non-Members (CCNM) promotes and co-ordinates OECD s policy dialogue and co-operation with economies outside the OECD area. The OECD currently maintains policy co-operation with approximately 70 non-member economies. The essence of CCNM co-operative programmes with non-members is to make the rich and varied assets of the OECD available beyond its current Membership to interested non-members. For example, the OECD s unique co-operative working methods that have been developed over many years; a stock of best practices across all areas of public policy experiences among Members; on-going policy dialogue among senior representatives from capitals, reinforced by reciprocal peer pressure; and the capacity to address interdisciplinary issues. All of this is supported by a rich historical database and strong analytical capacity within the Secretariat. Likewise, Member countries benefit from the exchange of experience with experts and officials from non-member economies. The CCNM s programmes cover the major policy areas of OECD expertise that are of mutual interest to non- Members. These include: economic monitoring, structural adjustment through sectoral policies, trade policy, international investment, financial sector reform, international taxation, environment, agriculture, labour market, education and social policy, as well as innovation and technological policy development. Publié en français sous le titre : Tendances des migrations internationales RAPPORT ANNUEL Permission to reproduce a portion of this work for non-commercial purposes or classroom use should be obtained through the Centre français d exploitation du droit de copie (CFC), 20, rue des Grands-Augustins, Paris, France, Tel. (33-1) , Fax (33-1) , for every country except the United States. In the United States permission should be obtained through the Copyright Clearance Center, Customer Service, (508) , 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA USA, or CCC Online: All other applications for permission to reproduce or translate all or part of this book should be made to OECD Publications, 2, rue André-Pascal, Paris Cedex 16, France.

5 FOREWORD This twenty-sixth annual report of the OECD Continuous Reporting System on Migration (known under its French acronym SOPEMI), published as Trends in International Migration, draws largely on 31 written contributions from national correspondents (see the list at the end of this report), and on the summary of their discussions at their last annual meeting (December 2000). The 2001 Edition is divided into three parts and a Statistical Annex. Part I describes the overall trends in international migration. It focuses on the magnitude, the nature and the direction of flows, as well as the presence of foreign workers in the labour market and in the various sectors of economic activity. Special attention is also given to the role that immigration could play in moderating the effects of an ageing population. Two additional sections describe in detail migration from Asia towards OECD countries together with migration movements in Central and Eastern Europe. Part I is completed by an overview of migration policies, in particular those relating to the control of flows, the fight against irregular migration and illegal employment of foreigners, as well as the integration of immigrants in host countries and international co-operation. Part II is devoted to a comparative analysis of student mobility between and towards OECD countries. This part shows that student mobility is constantly increasing and that it constitutes a potential flow of qualified workers in host countries. From the point of view of the sending countries, the potential gains relating to this mobility (development of human capital, strengthening of cultural and commercial ties, transfer of technology) may be limited as a result of the brain drain. Greater co-ordination and co-operation between students countries of origin and destination would lead to fairer sharing of the advantages linked to international student mobility. Part III is composed of country notes describing recent developments in migration flows and policies in twenty-nine OECD countries and non-member countries (The Baltic States, Bulgaria and Romania). This volume is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. 3

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS GENERAL INTRODUCTION Part I MAIN TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION A. MIGRATION AND POPULATION TRENDS Trends in migration movements and changes in the foreign population Immigration and population growth in OECD countries B. IMMIGRANTS AND THE LABOUR MARKET Foreigners contribution to the labour force is increasing Participation rates of foreigners by gender and place of birth: persistent imbalances Recent developments in the employment of foreigners and the increasing presence of foreign labour in the service sector Foreigners are more vulnerable to unemployment than nationals Foreign employment and labour market equilibrium C. RECENT TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN ASIA AND CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE Recent developments in Asian migration to OECD countries Trends in migration flows in Central and Eastern Europe Conclusion D. AN OVERVIEW OF MIGRATION POLICIES Policies for regulating and controlling flows Reinforcement of legislation concerning the fight against irregular migration and illegal employment of foreigners Policies for the integration of immigrants Migration, international co-operation and the enlargement of the European Union Part II STUDENT MOBILITY BETWEEN AND TOWARDS OECD COUNTRIES: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS INTRODUCTION A. STUDENT MIGRATIONS: FORM AND PREREQUISITES OF MIGRATIONS OF HRST Student migrations: a form of migration of qualified labour and also a precursor of subsequent migrations, mainly HRST B. SCALE AND DYNAMICS OF THE STUDENT MIGRATION PHENOMENON Numbers of students Dynamic trends C. GEOGRAPHICAL POLARISATION OF STUDENT MIGRATORY FLOWS A phenomenon concentrated in a few large countries Distinction between mobility within/outside OECD countries

7 Trends in International Migration D. THE POPULATION CONCERNED: CHARACTERISTICS OF FOREIGN STUDENTS Level of education Disciplines The science and engineering fields E. DETERMINING FACTORS IN STUDENT MOBILITY Centres of expertise The role of cultural and linguistic factors The role of institutional factors CONCLUSION Part III RECENT CHANGES IN MIGRATION MOVEMENTS AND POLICIES (COUNTRY NOTES) Australia Austria The Baltic States Belgium Bulgaria Canada Czech Republic Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Japan Korea Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovak Republic Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom United States STATISTICAL ANNEX INTRODUCTION A. SOURCES AND COMPARABILITY OF MIGRATION STATISTICS Sources of migration statistics Measurement of migration flows Stocks of migrants and characteristics of the immigrant population B. STATISTICAL SERIES LIST OF SOPEMI CORRESPONDENTS

8 Table of Contents List of Charts and Tables Part I MAIN TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION Maps I.1. Foreign population in the European regions, I.2. Foreign-born population in Canada and the United States by region, latest available year I.3. Foreign-born population in Australia by region, I.4. Asia: main countries of origin of immigrants residing in OECD countries in I.5. Net migration rate (NMR) in Central Europe and bordering countries, 1990 and Charts I.1. Inflows of foreigners in some OECD countries, I.2. Permanent or long-term immigration flows into selected OECD countries by main categories in I.3. Trends in flows of asylum seekers from 1990 to I.4. Change in inflows of migrants by country of origin to selected OECD countries, and I.5. Stock of foreign population in selected OECD countries, I.6. Foreign and national populations by age group and by sex, latest available year I.7. Components of total population growth in selected OECD countries and in the European Union, I.8. Natural increase and net migration rates in OECD countries, I.9. Foreign births in I.10. Changes in foreign and total employment during economic recoveries I.11. Growth of foreign and total employment by economic activity between and I.12. Proportion of foreigners in total unemployment relative to their share in the labour force I.13. Percentage of long-term unemployment according to nationality Tables I.1. Inflows of asylum seekers in I.2. Inflows of temporary workers in selected OECD countries by principal categories, 1992, I.3. Proportion of women in immigration flows in selected OECD countries, 1999 (unless otherwise indicated) I.4. Stock of foreign students in some OECD countries, I.5. Intracompany transferees in selected OECD countries, I.6. Relative importance of the top 5 countries in the total immigration flows and stocks of foreigners in selected OECD countries I.7. Minimum number of countries of origin which represent a cumulative 25 and 50% of the total inflows of foreigners, 1990 and I.8. Intra-European mobility of EU citizens, latest available year I.9. Foreign or foreign-born population in selected OECD countries, 1994 and I.10. Maghrebian, Turkish, former Yugoslavian, Chinese, Vietnamese and Indian people residing in selected OECD countries, I.11. Foreign and national adult populations classified by level of education in selected OECD countries I.12. Change in total population in OECD countries, 1950, 2000 and I.13. Foreign or foreign-born labour force in selected OECD countries, 1994 and I.14. Participation rate and unemployment rate of nationals and foreigners by sex in selected OECD countries, average I.15. Employment of foreigners by sectors, average I.16.A. Stock of Asian nationals in selected OECD countries in I.16.B. Stock of immigrants born in an Asian country in Australia, Canada and the United States I.17. Top five nationalities of citizens from Central and Eastern Europe in selected OECD countries, I.18. Foreigners residing in some central and eastern European countries, by major nationality, latest available year Boxes I.1. Migration statistics: definitions and comparability I.2. The Kosovar refugees I.3. More women in all forms of migration I.4. Intra-European mobility

9 Trends in International Migration I.5. Measuring foreign births I.6. Labour market integration of immigrants: some case studies I.7. Where do undocumented immigrants work? I.8. EU enlargement and research on its impact on flows of CEE workers I.9. Future status of workers from third countries in the European Union Part II STUDENT MOBILITY BETWEEN AND TOWARDS OECD COUNTRIES: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS Charts II.1. Potential and effective loss for the country of origin of students who finished their PhD in the United States II.2. Net student mobility in selected OECD countries, II.3. Main receiving countries of foreign students, Tables II.1. Current regulations in OECD countries regarding possibilities for student visa holders to change residence status and access the labour market, II.2. Foreign students in OECD countries, II.3. Students from non-oecd countries enrolled in an OECD country, II.4. Relative intensity of student mobility, adjusted for the size of education systems, II.5. Foreign students by region of origin, II.6. Main countries of origin of foreign students residing in selected OECD countries, II.7. Foreign students by level of education in selected OECD countries, II.8. Proportion of foreign students by level of education in selected OECD countries, II.9. Foreign students by field of study (all tertiary levels) in the main OECD host countries, II.10. Proportion of foreign students by field of study in selected OECD countries, II.11. Foreign students by field of study and by level of education, II.12. Distribution of outgoing students by language of the destination country, II.13. Annual costs and gains of receiving undergraduate foreign students Boxes II.1. Statistical sources and methods II.2. Criteria for identification of foreign students in OECD countries Part III RECENT CHANGES IN MIGRATION MOVEMENTS AND POLICIES (COUNTRY NOTES) Charts III.1. Flows of permanent and long-term residents, Australia III.2. Components of population change, , Austria III.3. Stocks of foreigners holding a work permit, , Austria III.4. Migration flows to the Baltic States, III.5. Inflows of permanent settlers, by type, 1999, Canada III.6. Inflows of permanent settlers by entry class and region of origin, , Canada III.7. Foreigners in Germany by country of origin and length of stay, III.8. Trends and characteristics of migration, Ireland III.9. Migration flows and components of foreign population change, , Netherlands III.10. Fertility rates according to the nationality of the mother, , Netherlands III.11. Flows of permanent and long-term residents, 1991/ /2000, New Zealand III.12. Persons accepted for residence, by category of immigration, 1999/2000, New Zealand III.13. Permanent migration flows in Poland, III.14. Demographic characteristics of permanent emigrants, , Romania Tables III.1. Permanent and temporary migration programme outcomes, and planning levels for permanent settlers for 2001, by category, Australia

10 Table of Contents III.2. Socio-demographic characteristics of the native and foreign-born population, Australia, 1996 Census III.3. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force in Austria III.4. Components of total population change in the Baltic States, III.5. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force in Belgium III.6. Current figures on the stocks of foreign population, Bulgaria III.7. Immigrants by type, , Canada III.8. Immigrants by type and by country of birth, 1993 and 1999, Canada III.9. Current figures on flows and stocks of migrants, Czech Republic III.10. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Denmark III.11. Immigrants by region of origin and educational attainment, 2000, Denmark III.12. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population, Finland III.13. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, France III.14. Total population by nationality and place of birth, France (mainland) III.15. Current figures on the components of total population change, on migration flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Germany III.16. Regularisation programme of immigrants in an irregular situation, 2000, Greece III.17. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of foreign population, Hungary III.18. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Ireland III.19. Current figures on foreign population, Italy III.20. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Japan III.21. Inflows of foreigners by status of residence, , Japan III.22. Foreign workers in Korea by category, III.23. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Luxembourg III.24. Mexican emigration to the United States, III.25. Socio-economic characteristics of undocumented Mexican immigrants to the United States, 1990, III.26. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force in the Netherlands III.27. Total labour force, participation rate and unemployment rate of the autochtonous and allochtonous populations according to old and new definitions, 1998, Netherlands III.28. Net migration, 1992/ /2000, New Zealand III.29. Permanent and long term arrivals and departures, 1999/2000, New Zealand III.30. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population, Norway III.31. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of foreigners in Poland III.32. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Portugal III.33. Current migration figures in Romania III.34. Current migration figures, Slovak Republic III.35. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force in Spain III.36. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Sweden III.37. Current figures on the components of total population change, on migration flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Switzerland III.38. Inflows of Turkish people to the Top 3 European host countries, III.39. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of total population and labour force, United Kingdom III.40. Employment-based immigration, by preference, fiscal years , United States Boxes III.1. Longitudinal survey of immigrants to Australia III.2. An overview of the structure and approach of Canada s immigration programme III.3. The educational attainment of immigrants, Denmark III.4. The 1999 census, France III.5. Policy on the entry of trainees and the conversion of their status to technical interns, Japan III.6. The Industrial and Technical Training Programme (ITTP), Korea III.7. New definition for Allochtonous, Netherlands III.8. Links with Portuguese communities abroad, Portugal III regularisation campaign, Spain III.10. The 18% initiative, Switzerland

11 Trends in International Migration STATISTICAL ANNEX A. Cross national tables A.1. Foreign and/or foreign-born population: stocks and flows A.1.1. Inflows of foreign population into selected OECD countries A.1.2. Outflows of foreign population from selected OECD countries A.1.3. Inflows of asylum seekers into selected OECD countries A.1.4. Stocks of foreign-born population in selected OECD countries A.1.5. Stocks of foreign population in selected OECD countries A.1.6. Acquisition of nationality in selected OECD countries A.2. Foreign or foreign-born labour force: stocks and flows A.2.1. Inflows of foreign workers into selected OECD countries A.2.2. Inflows of seasonal workers in selected OECD countries A.2.3. Stocks of foreign and foreign-born labour force in selected OECD countries B. Tables by country of origin B.1. B.1.1. Foreign and/or foreign-born population: stocks and flows Inflows of foreign population by nationality B.1.1. Australia B.1.1. Belgium B.1.1. Canada B.1.1. Denmark B.1.1. Finland B.1.1. France B.1.1. Germany B.1.1. Greece B.1.1. Hungary B.1.1. Ireland B.1.1. Italy B.1.1. Japan B.1.1. Luxembourg B.1.1. Netherlands B.1.1. New Zealand B.1.1. Norway B.1.1. Portugal B.1.1. Sweden B.1.1. Switzerland B.1.1. United Kingdom B.1.1. United States B.1.2. Outflows of foreign population by nationality B.1.2. Australia B.1.2. Belgium B.1.2. Denmark B.1.2. Finland B.1.2. Germany B.1.2. Hungary B.1.2. Japan B.1.2. Luxembourg B.1.2. Netherlands B.1.2. New Zealand B.1.2. Norway B.1.2. Sweden B.1.2. Switzerland B.1.3. Inflows of asylum seekers by nationality B.1.3. Austria B.1.3. Belgium B.1.3. Canada B.1.3. France B.1.3. Germany B.1.3. Italy B.1.3. Netherlands B.1.3. Switzerland B.1.3. United Kingdom B.1.3. United States B.1.4. Stock of foreign-born population by country of birth 10 B.1.4. Australia B.1.4. Canada B.1.4. Denmark B.1.4. Finland B.1.4. Hungary B.1.4. Netherlands B.1.4. Norway B.1.4. Sweden B.1.4. United States

12 Table of Contents B.1.5. Stock of foreign population by nationality B.1.5. Belgium B.1.5. Czech Republic B.1.5. Denmark B.1.5. Finland B.1.5. France B.1.5. Germany B.1.5. Hungary B.1.5. Italy B.1.5. Japan B.1.6. Acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality B.1.6. Australia B.1.6. Austria B.1.6. Belgium B.1.6. Canada B.1.6. Denmark B.1.6. Finland B.1.6. France B.1.6. Germany B.1.6. Hungary B.1.6. Italy B.2. Stocks of foreign or foreign-born labour force B.2.1. Immigrant labour force by place of birth B.2.1. Australia B.2.1. Canada B.2.2. Stock of foreign labour by nationality B.2.2. Austria B.2.2. Belgium B.2.2. Czech Republic B.2.2. Denmark B.2.2. Finland B.2.2. France B.2.2. Germany B.2.2. Hungary B.2.2. Japan B.1.5. Korea B.1.5. Luxembourg B.1.5. Netherlands B.1.5. Norway B.1.5. Portugal B.1.5. Spain B.1.5. Sweden B.1.5. Switzerland B.1.5. United Kingdom B.1.6. Japan B.1.6. Luxembourg B.1.6. Netherlands B.1.6. Norway B.1.6. Portugal B.1.6. Spain B.1.6. Sweden B.1.6. Switzerland B.1.6. United Kingdom B.1.6. United States B.2.1. United States B.2.2. Korea B.2.2. Luxembourg B.2.2. Netherlands B.2.2. Norway B.2.2. Portugal B.2.2. Spain B.2.2. Sweden B.2.2. Switzerland B.2.2. United Kingdom Notes related to Tables Migration flows in selected OECD countries Inflows of asylum seekers Foreign-born population Foreign population Acquisition of nationality Inflows of foreign workers Inflows of seasonal workers Foreign and foreign-born labour

13 Trends in International Migration Overview of migration trends and foreign population in OECD countries Migration flows (in thousands unless otherwise indicated) Stock of foreign and foreign-born population Annual average % of total 1999 Thousands population Inflows of foreigners Stock of foreign population European economic area (EEA) European economic area (1999) United States Japan (1999) Permanent immigration Temporary immigration Stock of foreign-born population Australia United States (1999) Permanent immigration Canada (1996) Temporary immigration Australia (1999) Canada Permanent immigration Temporary immigration Japan Acquisition of nationality Annual average in thousands Net migration (for inhabitants) Canada Australia United States European economic area Japan Asylum seekers European economic area United States Canada Australia EEA United States Australia Canada Japan Austria, Greece, Italy and Spain are not included for Denmark. 3. Excluding visitors and transit migrants. Accompanying dependents are including. Data refer over the period and on the year 1998 respectively. 4. Total of persons issued employment authorisations to work in Canada temporarily excluding persons issued employment authorisations on humanitarian grounds. Persons are shown in the year in which they received their first temporary permit average. 6. Fiscal years (July to June of the given year). 7. Excluding Austria. Sources: OECD Database on International Migration; Statistics Canada; Labour Force Statistics, OECD,

14 GENERAL INTRODUCTION At the beginning of the new millennium, migration for employment and the reinforcement of international co-operation with a view to better control of migration flows remains an issue of utmost concern among the majority of OECD Member countries. Migration policies are increasingly incorporated in the context of a global approach to the monitoring of regular and irregular flows in partnership with the sending countries, not only with the intention of meeting the diverse and changing needs of the host countries, but also to take into account the interests of the country of origin and the migrants themselves. The diversity of immigrants origins as well as the channels they take, together with the growing movement of temporary and qualified workers in overall flows, indicates that migration plays an active part in the process of the globalisation of economies. It remains to be defined in a more precise manner how to adapt policies in order to increase co-operation between sending and host countries in order to better manage migration flows and to develop human resources at both ends of the migration chain. The upturn in the trend in immigration which began in 1997 has been confirmed in several OECD Member countries. If the increase in asylum seekers has contributed to swelling the flow of migration, the new entries of immigrant workers are of increasing importance, to the same extent as reuniting families. A second characteristic feature of recent trends is the greater diversity of the immigrants country of origin. Over and above the traditional migration flows resulting from geographical proximity and historical links with the host country, destinations are increasingly diverse. For example, a growing number of immigrants from Asia to Europe; a greater number of nationals from the African continent, from some Central and Latin American countries as well as from Central and Eastern Europe decide to migrate towards the major countries of settlement (Australia, United States and Canada) and to European OECD countries in which their ethnic communities were, until quite recently, poorly represented. Better employment prospects, easing of entry conditions for certain categories of workers had the effect of significantly increasing migration of qualified and highly qualified workers between 1999 and Recent recruitment policies have tended to converge in this direction seeking an increasing number of temporary foreign workers. Countries which were already relying on this source of temporary entry (i.e. the majority of European OECD countries) have granted temporary work permits valid for up to five years and generally renewable. This represents a reversal of past common practises which limited the period of validity of all initial work permits to one year (renewable). Settlement countries, whose migration policies were principally aimed at permanent immigrants, are now Migration for employment and international co-operation with a view to better control of flows dominates current migration developments The recovery of immigration flows which began in 1997 is apparent as well as the diversity of the source countries, notably those from Asia and Africa Migration of skilled temporary workers is facilitated 13

15 Trends in International Migration increasingly favouring temporary migrant labour, in offering residence and work permits of a duration which can, depending on the country, cover a period of three to six years. most notably in the sector of information and communication technology, health and education The control of flows remains a priority of migration policies as well as the integration of immigrants in society and in the labour market, especially since the economic outlook for 2002 appears less favourable This trend, common to several Member countries, results for the most part in a reversal of the situation, provoked by the development of new technologies. The effect, in the majority of OECD countries, has been to generate qualified labour shortages most notably in the information and communication sectors. Simultaneously, population ageing has structurally affected supply and demand of certain jobs such as home cleaning services, the health sector or that of education which has incited specific labour needs in certain countries. Simple and rapid selection procedures have enabled countries to fall back on qualified workers in order to cope with labour market needs. Certain European OECD countries have, for example, adapted their legislation to offer particularly attractive conditions to immigrants: prolongation of the duration of the initial work permit, possibility of non-wage benefits and access to the labour market of family members. The revival of migration for employment goes hand in hand with the mobilisation of OECD countries to better control migration flows and to effectively combat irregular migration and the illegal employment of foreigners. The reinforcement of border and in-country controls, tougher sanctions against illegal employment of foreigners, the harmonisation of admission procedures concerning asylum seekers and refugees illustrate that the management of flows remains the highest priority of migration policies as a whole. The terrorist attacks of 11th September 2001 in the United States will probably further induce OECD Member countries to implement new measures to combat terrorism. These already include a stricter surveillance of transborder movements and reinforcement of detection measures for false identity papers and residence permits. These controls, aimed at dismantling networks of smugglers and the exploitation of human beings, could by the same token contribute to the reduction of irregular migration. The integration of immigrants and foreigners remains a subject of major concern in many OECD countries. This situation is of particular relevance with regard to the most vulnerable groups and especially young people, women and refugees. More generally, even if conditions of insertion of immigrants and foreigners into the labour market improved with the economic recovery in the OECD area at the end of the 1990s, conditions remain somewhat precarious in certain countries. The recent reversal of the economic situation and the threat of a recession predicted for 2002 may have a negative impact on the employment of foreigners. Most OECD countries have implemented measures to assist immigrants in attaining or improving their knowledge of the language of the host country as well as their professional qualifications. Particular attention has also been devoted to the renovation of distressed urban areas, as well as to the fight against racism and discrimination in access to housing and the labour market. 14 ***

16 General Introduction Part II of this report presents a comparative analysis of international student mobility. This mobility is constantly rising, although it varies from one OECD country to another, mainly due to the nature and range of educational provision and the characteristics of the demand and expectations of foreign students. Student migration is greater the higher the level of education, degree of technical content of the field and the need to master foreign languages. OECD countries whose native language is more widely used internationally attract a larger number of students. The directions of student migration are also governed by geographical, institutional (especially if they originate from one of the member countries of a regional economic group such as the European Union or NAFTA) and academic considerations (centres of excellence). The growing internationalisation of education systems offers many advantages to host countries, for example, the potential reserve of qualified workers constituted by the presence of foreign students could alleviate labour shortages. A number of OECD Member countries have introduced important modifications concerning the possibility of changes in the status and access to the labour market for foreign students who have completed their studies. From the point of view of the countries of origin, the potential gains related to this mobility are important, notably the development of human capital and the transfer of technology, as well as the strengthening of cultural and commercial ties. Bearing in mind the many advantages offered by student migration, for them personally, for their countries of origin and the host countries, the report encourages this type of mobility which could be increased by more transparent procedures for equivalence of degrees or simplified conditions for obtaining student residence permits. A recommendation is also made to introduce safeguards to limit the risk of brain drain, for example, making available a greater number of student grants to promote mobility, conditional on return to the home country. Finally, greater co-operation between students countries of origin and destination would lead to a more equitable sharing of the advantages linked to international student mobility. This year s special chapter of this report is devoted to student mobility The foreign students may assist in alleviating labour shortages in host countries It is highly recommended to encourage student mobility while simultaneously reinforcing the co-operation between sending and receiving countries to limit the risk of brain drain *** Part III presents country-specific notes on the recent developments in migration movements and policies. 15

17 Part I MAIN TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION The analysis of the main trends in international migration is presented in four sections. The first looks at changes in migration movements and in the foreign population of OECD Member countries. The second section considers the position of immigrants and foreigners in the labour market. The following section focuses on two regions, Asia and Central and Eastern Europe. Finally, an overview of migration policies is provided. It reviews policies to regulate and control flows and the whole range of measures to promote the integration of immigrants in host countries. It also describes recent moves to enhance co-operation between host countries and countries of origin in the spheres of migration and development. A. MIGRATION AND POPULATION TRENDS Since the mid-1990s, there has been a gradual upturn in migration flows in most OECD Member countries. Owing to regional conflicts, but also to the restrictions placed on other immigration channels, the number of asylum seekers and refugees has risen substantially, particularly in some European countries. Immigration for employment reasons, permanent but in particular temporary, also increased sharply in in response to economic trends in Member countries and the resulting labour shortages in certain sectors. Nevertheless, immigration for family reasons continues to predominate, especially in the longer-standing countries of immigration. Lastly, the persistence of illegal migration, the volume of which is by definition impossible to determine, indicates clearly the difficulties that host and origin countries are encountering in their attempts to control migration flows. Immigration plays a significant role in the annual population growth of certain OECD countries. They have a high proportion of foreign births in total births, and the foreign or foreign-born population is growing and diversifying. The importance of migration inflows is sometimes emphasised in connection with the ageing of the population. Without denying their potential contribution to reducing demographic imbalances, their impact in this regard should not be overestimated. 1. Trends in migration movements and changes in the foreign population Although the 1980s were characterised by an increase in immigration flows in most OECD countries, a substantial decline in the number of entries was perceptible by This downturn continued until , after which immigration started to rise again, particularly in Europe and Japan. Over the entire period , there was also a diversification of migration movements and an increase in the range of nationalities involved, although the traditional flows and regional movements persisted. The volume of the foreign population shows a trend similar to that for flows. There is a trend increase in numbers, together with a wider range of countries of origin and greater heterogeneity in demographic terms. a) Upward but contrasting migration trends During the 1980s and above all at the beginning of the 1990s, inflows increased in almost all OECD countries (see Chart I.1). This trend peaked in for the main immigration countries such as Canada, Germany, Japan and the United States, while in others, notably Australia and the United Kingdom, the peak had come earlier. Since then, as the result of restrictions, the flows of legal entries have fallen sharply. In 1999 they represented around three-quarters of the volume of entries reported for all European Union countries in 1992 and for North America in The left-hand side of Chart I.1 presents the post-1980 time-series for foreign migrant inflows. The host countries are divided into four groups in 17

18 Trends in International Migration Chart I.1. Inflows of foreigners in some OECD countries, Thousands, per inhabitants and per 100 foreigners Inflows of foreigners, Thousands EU 2 USA and CAN 3 DEU USA Inflows of foreigners in 1999 Thousands, per inhabitants and per 100 foreigners Thousands DEU USA GBR JPN ITA CAN FRA CHE AUS NLD BEL GRC SWE NOR IRL DNK FIN HUN LUX PRT GBR JPN CAN FRA Nordic countries LUX 27.2 CHE DEU NOR IRL CAN Per inhabitants BEL NLD ITA GBR AUS DNK SWE USA JPN FRA FIN HUN PRT CHE AUS NLD BEL ITA IRL JPN NOR GBR NLD HUN Per 100 foreigners 5 FIN DNK DEU LUX SWE CHE BEL PRT FRA CAN USA AUS IRL HUN LUX PRT Note: Data for the United Kingdom are from the International Passenger Survey. For Australia, Canada, France, the United States and South European countries, data are issued from residence permits. For all other countries, data are based on Population Registers. 1. The host countries have been split into 4 groups according to the volume of inflows in Belgium, Denmark, Germany, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. 3. Excluding immigrants legalised in the United States under IRCA regularisation programme. 4. Excluding Finland and Iceland. 5. For Australia, Canada and the United States, inflows in 1999 are related to the stocks of foreign-born residents (1996 Census for Australia and Canada) CPS for the United States. Sources: National Statistical Offices (for more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Statistical Annex). 18 AUS Australia BEL Belgium CAN Canada CHE Switzerland DEU Germany DNK Denmark FIN Finland FRA France GBR United Kingdom GRC Greece HUN Hungary IRL Ireland ITA JPN LUX NLD Italy Japan Luxembourg Netherlands NOR Norway PRT Portugal SWE Sweden USA United States

19 Main Trends in International Migration decreasing order of the volume of their 1999 inflows. The right-hand side of this chart shows the volume of 1999 inflows in absolute terms, and as a proportion of the total population and the stock of foreigners in each country. The trend reversal mentioned in previous editions of Trends in International Migration continued in more marked fashion in In the European Union and Japan total inflows rose by over 6% between 1998 and 1999, whereas in North America the rise was more modest, around 0.3%. There are a number of exceptions, however, such as the United States or a few countries in Europe where immigration flows remained steady, or fell back slightly. Other countries report a very marked increase, well above the average trend. OECD countries can be placed in three groups on the basis of their recent migration trends. First is a group of countries where inflows held steady or showed a modest fall between 1998 and 1999, notably the Netherlands, Finland and Sweden, all countries where immigration is relatively stable. France showed a marked decline in inflows, of around 24%, though this is accounted for by a technical adjustment following the documentation process in In the United States permanent immigration fell for the third consecutive year, though at a much more modest rate. The decline can be partly attributed to the increase in the backlog of persons waiting to change their status from temporary nonimmigrant (or illegal) to permanent (1998: ; 1999: ). The decline in permanent inflows is accompanied, however, by a marked increase in the number of temporary visas issued, in particular to skilled workers (see below). The second group is made up of countries where immigration flows are moving upwards, in contrast to the trend over the preceding period. Australia, Canada, Germany and Japan come into this category. For the Asian countries, the change marks a return to the trends which had prevailed prior to the financial crisis of In Korea the increase has gone hand in hand with the resumption of growth and improving conditions in the labour market, while in Japan the trend seems largely attributable to entries of foreign students. In the cases of Canada and Germany, the trend reversal follows a steady fall in immigration since the beginning of the 1990s. Switzerland s situation is a similar one. The last group of countries display a spectacular and sustained rise in immigration. That is particularly so in the United Kingdom, where following a Box I.1. Migration statistics: definitions and comparability* International migration statistics are scattered, of varying degrees of reliability, and subject to problems of comparability. These difficulties largely stem from the diversity of migration systems and legislation on nationality and naturalisation, which reflect the individual history and circumstances of each country. For example, in settlement countries (Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States) immigrants are classified by their place of birth ( foreign-born ), while in the other OECD Member countries the criterion of nationality is applied ( foreigners ). Some international organisations, in particular the UN, have recommended adopting a common definition of the concept of international migrant, but implementing these recommendations is fraught with numerous difficulties. The main sources of information on migration vary across countries, which poses difficulties for the comparability of available data. Some countries have population registers (notably northern European countries), while others base their statistics on records covering residents and work permits issued to foreign nationals. There are also data from censuses and from surveys on the various characteristics of the population. In some cases, other sources may be used, for example specific surveys on migrants, border-crossing records, disembarkation cards, studies on staff mobility in multinational enterprises, etc. Despite these difficulties, this report and more generally all OECD activities in the field of international migration are aimed precisely at improving the availability, comparability and reliability of data. These activities are based largely on a network of national correspondents in thirty countries (see the list of correspondents in the annex) and seek to enhance analysis and understanding of migration issues in the light of the socio-economic challenges facing OECD Member countries. * For further details on migration statistics, see the Statistical Annex. 19

20 Trends in International Migration 20 rise of nearly 19% between 1997 and 1998 immigration flows rose by around 14% in It is also the case of Norway which, for the second consecutive year, showed a rise in inflows of over 20%. Yet the rise in immigration was most sustained in Portugal, and above all in Italy. The latter country stands out, with inflows growing by some 140% between 1998 and Although the figure needs to be treated with caution, given that it includes recently documented persons who in fact had been in the country for some time, it does reflect a spectacular rise in immigration there. It should be noted that Belgium and Luxembourg also report a substantial increase in entries of immigrants for the second consecutive year. Recent migration trends have brought little change to the ranking of the main immigration countries, though some differences have widened slightly (see the right-hand part of Chart I.1). For example, in 1999 the United Kingdom received some persons more than Japan, and more than Canada (1998: and more, respectively). However, Germany ( ) and the United States ( ) continued to be the two main immigration countries. For France, the Netherlands, Australia and Switzerland, the number of entries ranged between and Italy is the only new entrant in this ranking, coming between Canada and Japan with new entries in If these legal entry flows are compared to the total foreign or foreign-born population at the beginning of the year, the ranking changes somewhat. Italy ranks first, ahead of Ireland, Japan and Norway with ratios of between 21 and 18%, followed by the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Hungary (around 12%), and Germany (9%). It is particularly hard to predict whether these trends will continue, given that since the beginning of 2001 economic activity has experienced cyclical shocks of varying scales. The data available for 2000, however, confirm the rise reported in In Southern Europe it can be expected that Italy, Spain and Portugal, on the basis of demographic trends and labour requirements, will experience steady migration pressure over coming years. In the medium term, settlement by recent waves of migrants may generate further inflows of immigrants for family reasons in all three countries, and probably in Greece too, thereby making them more significant immigration countries. At the same time the main immigration countries, such as Australia, Canada and Germany, are increasingly openly adopting policies aimed at attracting new migrants in order to meet labour market needs and/or offset the effects of the ageing of their populations. Nevertheless, controlling migration flows remains a priority common to all OECD countries. Special emphasis is placed on curbing illegal immigration and the growing number of asylum seekers. On the whole, the trends of migration flows, classified by the main categories, have been marked over the last two years by the continuing preponderance of family-linked immigration, greater numbers of asylum seekers and an increase in employmentrelated migration. b) The continuing predominance of family-linked migration... Previous editions of Trends in International Migration have pointed out that since the beginning of the 1990s the changes in the volumes of immigration have been accompanied by changes in their breakdown by categoriesin particular, family-linked immigration (accompanying families and family reunion) has increased in Australia, France, Sweden and the United States, while employment-related immigration has risen in Canada and the United Kingdom. Recently, however, the salient features have been the rise in worker migration, temporary workers in particular, and to a lesser extent the upturn in asylum requests. Although it varied considerably across countries, the family component predominated in many OECD countries in 1999, especially in Canada, France and the United States (see Chart I.2). The proportion taken by this category is continuing to rise in some countries where the other official channels of immigration still remain limited. In France, family-linked immigration represented 75% of inflows in 1999, the highest level ever and an increase of nearly 23% over In the Nordic countries this component of migration is also increasingly significant, partly due to the fall in refugee inflows. During the same year, amongst the selected countries, work-related migration accounted for the highest percentage of total entries in the Slovak Republic, Switzerland, Australia and Portugal. This component is likely to have assumed greater importance in 2000, according to the initial data to hand. In addition, it should be said that family members who obtain permanent resident status are often granted the right to work.