Thematic Guidelines on South-South Cooperation

Transcription

1 Thematic Guidelines on South-South Cooperation January 2005 Japan International Cooperation Agency

2 Table of Contents Executive Summary Chapter 1 An Overview of South-South Cooperation Definition of South-South Cooperation Global Trend toward Supporting South-South-Cooperation Japan strend toward Supporting South-South-Cooperation 4 Chapter 2 JICA s Policy on Support for SSC Problems Thus Far Five Functions and their Respective Significance 10 Chapter 3 Activities for Supporting SSC Regional Activities and Priorities Future Challenges 32 Appendix 1 Examples of JICA s Support for SSC 35 Appendix 2 Major Donors Support Activities for SSC 46 Reference Glossary 55 Bibliography / Related Web Site 64

3 Member List of SSC Guidelines Formulation Team As of January 15, Issue Advisor Name Organization Title Remark Michiyuki Shimoda Institute for International Cooperation Senior Advisor Tatsuo Suzuki JICA Honduras Office Resident Representative 2. Taskforce Member Satoshi Murosawa South America Team, Regional Dept. III Team Director Taskforce leader Naoki Kamijo Administration Team, Regional Dept. III. Team Director Taskforce sub-leader Satoshi Kimura Kiyotaka Otsuki Suguru Nakane Kota Sakaguchi Administration Team, Regional Dept. III Central America/Caribbean Team, Regional Dept. III Central America/Caribbean Team, Regional Dept. III South America Team, Regional Dept. III Masayoshi Takehara Program Planning Team, Planning Group, Planning & Coordination Dept. Nobuyuki Konishi Southeast Asia Team IV, Regional Dept. I Kenzo Iwakami Administration Team, Regional Dept. II Team Director Hiroyuki Moronaga East Africa Team, Regional Dept. IV Chief Takashi Hibino Kozo Nagami Hajime Tsuboi Eiji Iwasaki Kazuhisa Hoshino Middle East Team I, Regional Dept. V JICA-Net Team, Group II, Social Development Dept. Health Administration Team, Group III, Human Development Dept. Environmental Management Team I, Group II, Global Environment Dept. Paddy Field Based Farming Area Team III, Group I, Rural Development Dept. Takayuki Hayashida Small to Medium Enterprises Team, Group I, Economic Development Dept. Rika Uemura Governance Team, Tokyo International Center, Program Team Director Team Director Associate Expert Chief Chiemi Kitada South America Team, Regional Dept. III Support Unit 3. Former Member (organization and title are at the time of serving as a member) Miyoko Tawa Takeshi Oikawa Peace Construction Support Team, Planning & Coordination Dept. Total Planning Team, Planning Group, Planning & Coordination Dept. Team Director Till Till Yukinari Hosokawa Administration Team, Latin America Dept. Till

4 Akiko Oda South America Team, Latin America Dept. Deputy Director Till Tomoyuki Odani South America Team, Latin America Dept. Till Osamu Tanaka Middle East Team I, Middle East/Europe Dept. Till Yoshifumi Tsukii Southern Africa Team, Africa Dept. Special Advisor Till Katsura Miyazaki Health Administration Team, Group III, Human Development Dept. Team Director Till Daisuke Yamamoto Administration Team, Rural Development Dept. Till

5 Executive Summary Chapter 1 An Overview of South-South Cooperation 1-1 Definition of South-South Cooperation Although there is no internationally standardized definition of South-South Cooperation, JICA s Taskforce on South-South Cooperation has defined the term as mutual cooperation aimed at fostering self-sustaining development, involving deepening relations among developing countries while conducting technical and economic cooperation. 1-2 Global Trend toward Supporting South-South-Cooperation The Buenos Aires Plan of Action adopted in 1978 represents a major milestone in the evolution of South-South Cooperation as it provides practical recommendations for promoting and implementing Technical Cooperation among Developing Countries (TCDC). United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has been playing a major role in the promotion of South-South Cooperation by organizing various international conferences and providing pertinent information. Developing countries themselves are also making joint efforts toward self-sustenance and established the Group of 77 to pursue their collective economic interests. 1-3 Japan s Trend toward Supporting South-South Cooperation At the time Japan participated in the Colombo Plan in 1954, Japan itself was a developing country supported by World Bank and other aid organizations, and therefore Japan s assistance then was a form of South-South Cooperation (SSC). Because of this historical background, Japan recognizes the importance of SSC and intends to be an active supporter as stated in the ODA Charter and mid-term policies related to ODA. Japan s current support activities for SSC include cooperation under the schemes of Third Country Training Programme, Third Country Expert Dispatch, and Partnership Programme, as well as hosting of international conferences on SSC. Chapter 2 JICA s Position in Supporting for SSC 2-1 Problems Thus Far With regard to JICA s past support activities for SSC, a number of problems have been pointed out, including complicated procedures, improper management of the outcomes of

6 support projects, and invisibility of Japanese assistance. To examine Japan s past activities that were broadly recognized as South-South Cooperation, we divided them into two groups: one group consists of support for developing countries implementing SSC, and the other is related to the utilization of resources in developing countries as useful input for implementing Japan s assistance more effectively and efficiently. 2-2 Five Functions and their Respective Significance To closely analyze Japan s past activities that were recognized broadly as South-South Cooperation, we sorted them out into five categories according to their function: 1) utilization of human and material resources in developing countries, 2) dissemination of the outcomes of Japanese technical cooperation, 3) collaboration between Japan and donors, 4) support for TCDC (technical cooperation among developing countries), and 5) support for developing countries to become donors ( donorization ). JICA will emphasize categories 1) to 3) as the primary activities for supporting SSC, as they could produce a number of positive outcomes under Japan s strong leadership toward supporting the end-recipient country, such as cost reduction, optimum utilization of appropriate resources, and stronger partnerships among other developing countries. JICA will place a strong emphasis on the utilization of resources in developing countries and collaboration between Japan and donors in strengthening support for SSC, in addition to the dissemination of the outcomes of Japan s technical cooperation, which JICA has been promoting actively. Categories 4) and 5) are distinctly different in nature from categories 1) through 3), as they aim to assist the end-recipient country either indirectly or complementarily through the support for other developing countries that are SSC partners and on their way to becoming donors. With regard to 4) support for TCDC, the urgency and seriousness of each developmental problem commonly found in the region, as well as each country s degree of interest in cooperating with neighboring developing countries, should be examined. 5) support for donorization, should be reviewed by noting the fact that many of the countries are on their way to graduating from external assistance while finding the optimum input levels and methods under systematic overall assistance policies for each country (amount of assistance, priority sectors, modalities of cooperation, etc.) and taking account various factors that could affect the outcomes of SSC, such as the target country s level of commitment to SSC, the degree to which Japan can secure its presence, and political environment of the region.

7 Chapter 3 Activities for Supporting SSC 3-1 Regional Activities and Priorities SSC is carried out in different parts of the globe, taking diverse forms and characteristic, to which Japan extends support in a variety of approaches. This chapter introduces examples of these regional characteristics. In the ASEAN region, intra-regional cooperation is promoted to rectify developmental gaps among the countries. Latin America is packaging different SSC schemes, enhancing SSC implementing agencies, and utilizing Japanese immigrants and their descendents living in the region. Africa is promoting intra-regional and inter-regional Africa/Asia cooperation based on TICAD. In Middle East, support is extended toward restoring peace in conflict areas and fostering partnerships among Arab countries. 3-2 Future Challenges A number of issues remain to be reviewed by the Taskforce on SSC, including: 1) how to verify the efficacy and advantage of utilizing particular human/material resources from developing countries, 2) how to select countries to which to extend support toward donorization, 3) how to match the ownership of SSC implementing countries and the needs of recipient countries, and 4) till when and to what extent support for donorization should be extended.

8 Chapter 1 An Overview of South-South Cooperation 1-1 Definition of South-South Cooperation Although an internationally standardized definition of South-South Cooperation (SSC) has yet to be established, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) that is actively promoting SSC defines the term as a means of promoting effective development by learning and sharing best practices and technology among developing countries. 1 Based on this UNDP definition, the JICA s Task force on South-South Cooperation endeavored to clarify the concept even further and defined South-South Cooperation as: Mutual cooperation aimed at fostering self-sustaining development, involving deepening relations among developing countries while conducting technical and economic cooperation. To date, the concept of SSC has been broadly interpreted in Japan as a combination of ODA and other cooperation projects based on the resources of developing countries. However, in light of the new definition as set forth above, it becomes apparent that our past endeavors that were generally recognized as SSC included certain activities that are not strictly relevant to the original concept of SSC, such as streamlining of Japanese ODA implementation processes and the dissemination of the effects of cooperation. Detail of this analysis is described in Chapter 2 of this document. Taking the above into account, JICA s Taskforce on South-South Cooperation reviewed Japan s past activities that can be categorized as SSC, as well as related programs not categorized as SSC in its strict sense. The result of this review is described later in this document. 1-2 Global Trend toward Supporting South-South-Cooperation Buenos Aires Plan of Action on Technical Cooperation among Developing Countries 1978 Under the auspices of the United Nations, the International Conference on Technical 1 1

9 Cooperation among Developing Countries (TCDC) was held in Buenos Aires, Argentina in 1978, and, as a result, Buenos Aires Plan of Action (hereinafter referred to as BAPA ) was adopted. BAPA presents 38 practical recommendations for promoting TCDC, including specific instructions for supporting SSC, such as international organizations and developed countries should provide financial and other assistance for developing countries (institutions) that can contribute to TCDC and review existing policies and procedures in order to improve the environment for TCDC and facilitate its widespread use. 2 To this effect, BAPA represents a major milestone in the evolution of SSC and its support activities SSC-Related Conferences and Initiatives at the UN In efforts to promote SSC and facilitate support for SSC, the UN has adopted various resolutions at its General Assembly sessions, etc. Recent ones include the State of South-South Cooperation, 3 a report made to the UN Secretary General at the UN General Assembly 56th Session in October 2001 and the Measures to Promote and Facilitate South-South Cooperation, 4 another report to the Secretary General at the 57th session in July The UNDP organizes High-Level Committee on the Review of TCDC (HLC) biannually to review the progress of SSC and its support programs and discuss measures to further enhance SSC (See UNDP ) UNDP Endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly, UNDP s Special Unit for TCDC (SU/TCDC) was established in 1974, and the guidelines called New Dimension were adopted by the Governance Committee in 1975 to provide guidelines for various governments involvement in SSC and implementation of technical cooperation programs, which positioned UNDP as the central organization within the UN for promoting SSC, especially TCDC 5. Backed by the adoption of BAPA as mentioned under Section According to the changes in the global political/economic environment, New Dimension was revised into New Directions for TCDC which was released in

10 above, the SU/TCDC has been playing an increasingly important role in promoting TCDC programs. Specific activities of UNDP includes the hosting of High-Level Committee on the Review of TCDC 6, coordination of various international conferences related to SSC, liaison between TCDC implementing countries and relevant UN agencies, provision of TCDC-related information, reinforcement of organizational capacities for implementing TCDC, and various other support and coordination related to TCDC. Japan has been the largest financial contributor to UNDP s various SSC support activities by establishing the Japanese Human Resources Development Fund in 1986 and appropriating a substantial portion of it for SSC 7. The Japanese government provided as much as 45 million dollars and 35 million dollars in FY 2001 and FY 2002 respectively. These contributions were endorsed by the resolution adopted at the 50th session of the UN General Assembly in 1995 that pledged to establish a trust fund for promoting SSC under the strong initiative of the Japanese government. SU/TCDC was renamed Special Unit for South-South Cooperation (SU/SSC) by resolution at the UN General Assembly session on December 19, To commemorate this event, December 19 was designated as South-South Cooperation Day G-77 / NAM At the first session of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development in 1964, seventy-seven developing countries established the Group of 77 (G-77) to jointly pursue their common economic interests. Since then, G-77 has been actively promoting SSC (ECDC and TCDC) to collectively enhance self-reliance by producing a number of joint declarations and action programmes on SSC-related topics, such as Caracas Programme of Action on ECDC in 1981 and San Jose Declaration and Plan of Action in 1997 (a revised version of the Caracas Programme) to be incorporated in the UN resolutions. In addition, G-77 sponsors SSC projects in developing countries through funding from the Pere-Guerrero Trust Fund. More recently, in the Havana Programme of Action adopted at the South Summit held in 6 Organized once in every two years with the most recent one being held in New York, USA in May 2003, to which JICA sent its US office staff and the Director of the Horizontal Programme of the Republic of Chile, a partner country of Japan-Chile Partnership Programme (JCPP). 3

11 Havana, Cuba in April 2000, G-77 emphasized the increasing need for SSC as one of the most effective means to cope with the challenges of globalization. To report the progress of the Havana Programme of Action and make an mid-term evaluation to discuss measures to further promote SSC, G-77 organized the High-Level Conference on South-South Cooperation in Marrakech, Kingdom of Morocco on December The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) established in 1961 shares G-77 s view on the importance of SSC and has adopted resolutions in line with this standpoint at its 10th Conference in 1992 and other NAM Summits The South Commission The South Commission is an independent international organization established in 1987 with 27 members comprised of politicians, scholars, diplomats, and other distinguished individuals from developing countries. In its final conference in 1990, the South Commission issued a report titled The Challenge to the South, in which the Commission urged the countries of the South to act in solidarity, rather than individually on a bilateral basis, in the multitude of North-South negotiations to gain strength and bargaining power in the international economy that is dominated by the North (the North selling industrial products to the South in exchange for their primary products) and emphasized the importance of SSC. The Commission was reorganized into the South Center, which is currently providing a wide range of information about international economy, society, and politics, as well as analysis and consultation services. 1-3 Japan s Trend toward Supporting South-South Cooperation Japan s Policy on SSC Japan began providing technical assistance as a donor when it joined the Colombo Plan in At the time, Japan was still receiving large amounts of assistance, and much of the work on rebuilding the nation in the wake of World War II was conducted using assistance from overseas, including loans from the World Bank. Japan joined the ranks of donor nations while still receiving assistance for its development efforts, financial and 4

12 otherwise, from other donors. Japan's activity then fit the pattern of what was later to be called "South-South Cooperation. Based on this experience, Japan came to recognize the efficacy of SSC, and its importance was emphasized in the ODA Charter adopted by the Japanese Cabinet in June Subsequently, the new ODA Charter adopted by the Cabinet in August 2003 states, Japan will actively promote South-South Cooperation in partnership with more advanced developing countries in Asia and other regions. Japan will also strengthen collaboration with regional cooperation frameworks, and will support region-wide cooperation that encompasses several countries. 9 Additionally, Japan's Medium-Term Policy on ODA, released in August 1999 states, Japan will actively support South-South Cooperation, as this is a form of international cooperation in which the developing countries are taking the initiative. 10 In the light of the policy of the government of Japan, JICA's Mid-term Plan (covering the period from October 2003 to March 2007) states, "JICA shall enhance its support for South-South Cooperation, which promotes Capacity Development in developing countries effectively and also leads to an increase in aid resources as well as promotion of intraregional cooperation Outline of Japan s Support for SSC Based on the above policies, Japan is actively supporting South-South Cooperation. The use of Third-Country Training Programs and Third-Country Experts are scheme features of JICA's cooperation. Cooperation is also being implemented based on Partnership Programs that serve as a comprehensive framework through which the Japanese government and the governments of developing countries jointly support the efforts of other developing countries and regions. In addition, JICA provides support for South-South Cooperation by making use of the UNDP's Human Resources Development Fund and holding international conferences relating to South-South Cooperation. The details of these programs are as follows

13 (1) Third Country Training Programme (TCTP) This program began in With assistance from donor countries and aid organizations, a developing country accepts trainees from other developing countries with shared characteristics in order to transfer development expertise and skills. JICA generally implements this scheme through an organization in a developing country to which it provided assistance in the past, thus transferring Japanese skills and expertise to trainees in other developing countries in a manner that has been adapted to meet local conditions. Third country training is given to either groups or individuals. Third country group training is conducted by bringing together personnel engaged in the subject field from neighboring developing countries, whereas individual training is given primarily to the counterparts of JICA s technical cooperation projects or expert dispatch implemented in other developing countries. In FY 2003, 151 third-country group training courses were conducted in 38 countries. (2) Third Country Expert Dispatch This program began in With support from donor nations and aid organizations, experts from developing countries are dispatched to other developing countries in order to transfer their expertise and skills. There are two types of Third Country Expert dispatch. One is called the complementary/support type which dispatches experts from developing countries to other developing countries as support staff for Japanese experts when the knowledge and skills of the third-country experts are deemed valuable for the effective implementation of technical cooperation by the Japanese experts. The other is known as the dissemination type which dispatches the counterpart experts of Japanese technical cooperation when their knowledge and skills are deemed especially useful for the effective dissemination of the output of Japanese technical cooperation. In FY 2003, 113 experts from developing nations were dispatched to other developing nations, and half of them were from Latin America. (3) Partnership Programme (PP) This is a comprehensive framework through which the Japanese government and the governments of developing countries (hereinafter referred to as "partner countries") agree to jointly support the efforts of other developing countries and regions. Under this framework, JICA works jointly with its counterpart organizations in partner countries to implement 6

14 cooperation activities, such as the dispatch of experts, the acceptance of participants, and the hosting of seminars, in a comprehensive and methodical manner. There are also occasions when JICA transfers its knowledge and experience to its counterpart organizations in partner countries. As of December 2004, Japan has concluded Partnership Programs with 12 countries: Thailand, Singapore, Egypt, Tunisia, Chile, Brazil, Argentina, the Philippines, Morocco, Mexico, Indonesia, and Jordan. (4) Hosting of International Conference on Support for SSC 1) Conference on Support for SSC On May 20 and 21, 1998, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs and JICA jointly held a conference in Nago-City, Okinawa, Japan to share SSC support experiences and know-how, clarify common issues in implementing support programmes, and examine new systems and procedures related to SSC implementation. Representatives from 15 countries actively promoting SSC in Asia, Latin America, and Africa, namely Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines, South Korea, China, Turkey, Egypt, Kenya, Tunisia, Brazil, Mexico, Chile, and Argentina, participated in the conference, where their experiences and know-how were generously shared, and constructive views were exchanged as to how to establish more effective cooperation structures and build stronger relationships with the recipient countries of SSC. 2) JICA/UNDP Joint Symposium Developing Cooperation in the 21 st Century - Supporting for South-South Cooperation This symposium, consisted of a working-level workshop and an open forum, was held jointly by JICA and UNDP on October 4 and 5, 2001 in Tokyo, Japan and attended by the representatives of SSC implementing agencies and liaison offices of developing countries and other donors. At the working-level workshop, examples of actual cases were introduced, based on which candid opinions with regard to SSC and its support activities were exchanged to confirm the importance of promoting support for SSC in line with its original concept under the support of developed countries. At the open form, examples of actual results of SSC were presented by JICA and UNDP to more than 130 participants from diverse fields, including experts, NGOs staff, students, and representatives from foreign embassies in Tokyo. 7

15 3) Organizing a Workshop at WSSD At the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in South Africa in September 2002, JICA held a workshop on Japan s support for SSC to introduce Japan s involvement in supporting SSC, as well as case examples presented by the representatives of Thai, Tunisia, Chile, and Kenya (counterparts of JICA s activities related to support for SSC) where Japan s SSC support projects were being implemented. More than 140 people, including those from the governments of developing countries and NGOs, participated in the workshop and avidly exchanged questions and answers with regard to effective approaches to neighboring countries in implementing SSC, application of successful SSC experiences in Asia to African countries, and other topics. 8

16 Chapter 2 JICA s Policy on Support for SSC 2-1 Problems Thus Far Chapter 1 touched upon the importance of SSC among developing countries, as well as the rationale and significance of Japan s support for SSC in the overall promotion of international cooperation. Japan has been extending a variety of support for numbers of SSC programmes that are filled with potentials, if cultivated properly, to support Southern countries for becoming donors and significantly enhance the quality of JICA s cooperation activities and thereby increase the impact of Japan s international cooperation. However, as the scope of activities to support for SSC expanded and diversified, it became more and more complex to choose proper modalities to achieve varying objectives, resulting in confusion and frustration among the organizations and personnel concerned in some cases. This has caused concern that the potentials possessed by the activities to support for SSC may not be fully realized and brought forth criticisms such as: 1) While no visibility of Japanese aid is often pointed out in Japan, advanced developing countries sometimes perceive Japan s activities to support for SSC as self-serving rather than truly assisting them in becoming donors. 2) The procedures are too complicated and time consuming. 3) Relation to the request survey is not clearly defined. 4) Methods to manage the outputs of cooperation are not fully established. (For instance, whether a certain activity should be counted as cooperation for the recipient country or support for emerging donor countries is not clear.) 5) Only the institutions to which Japan s technology has been transferred are allowed to conduct Third-Country Training although there are other institutions in emerging donor countries that are fully qualified to implement SSC. 6) Similarly, Third-Country Experts can be dispatched only when a Japanese expert works in the recipient country or if the Third-Country Experts are from the SSC executing agency of the pivotal country to which Japan s technology has been transferred in the past 12. Consequently, both Third-Country Training and Third-Country Expert dispatch are conducted only in extremely limited fields and 12 The former is called the complementary type, and the latter is referred to as the dissemination type. 9

17 projects, leading to the criticism that Japan s assistance is self serving as mentioned under paragraph 1). As we analyzed Japan s past activities that had been classified as support for SSC in light of these criticisms, it became clear that these activities were carried out to achieve either one of the following two objectives: A. Support for advanced developing countries in becoming donors. B. To streamline and increase the impact of Japan s assistance for the recipient country through partnerships with advanced developing countries or utilization of their recourses. Although both A and B are important objectives of Japan s support for SSC, they are fundamentally different, and many of the problems, such as 1) through 6) above, have arisen from the confounding of the two. 2-2 Five Functions and their Significance Classification into Five Functions (1) Five Functions Based on the above analysis, we will re-classify the various activities that have been broadly categorized as support for SSC according to the following five functions to formulate new policies. The description and purpose of each function are outlined in Tables 2-1 and 2-2 in the following pages. 1) Effective use of the resources of developing countries 2) Dissemination of the outcomes of Japan s technical cooperation 3) Collaboration between Japan and donors 4) Support for technical cooperation among developing countries (TCDC) 5) Support for developing countries to become donors (= Support for donorization) Of the above five functions, 1), 2) and 3) are to streamline and increase the impact of Japan s assistance (Objective B under Section 2-1 above), whereas 4) and 5) fall under the 10

18 category of activities to support for SSC in its strict sense 13. The above classification into 1) through 5) provides a framework for identifying the objectives and characteristics of the past activities to support for SSC but does not necessarily mean that all individual activities will fall under only one of the five functions. Third-country training, for instance, serves the dissemination of the outcomes of Japan s technical cooperation, support for developing countries to become donors, and possibly other functions as well. Table 2-1: Five Functions of Activities to Support SSC 1) Effective use of the resources of developing countries 2) Dissemination of the outcomes of Japanese technical cooperation Option in the case where it is judged to be difficult for Japan to input the necessary human resources to achieve the required results from activities it is carrying out to resolve the development issues of a developing country or region, or it is more appropriate to meet the need with human resources from other developing countries. Japanese cooperation is targeted at end recipient countries, and a prerequisite is that this cooperation must conform to Japan s country assistance program (or country-specific project implementation plans). While the complement/support of dispatching third-country experts falls within this scope, essentially, this function should not be regarded as support for South-South cooperation. Activities that disseminate the effect of Japanese technical assistance in one country to other countries or regions. Aspects of third-country training and dispatch of third-country experts currently being implemented fall within the scope of this. Emerging donor countries resources (human resources, facilities, etc.) are used as incubators for the development of the overall region through the active implementation of cooperation activities that have the potential to extend into other countries in the region. There is also the potential for this to be introduced as a region-specific approach in which resources adapted in 13 We can organize these five function by defining 1) through 3) as support for SSC focused on the assistance for the end recipient country and 4) and 5) as support for SSC focused on assisting donor countries (SSC support in a narrower sense). See JICA s Approach to Support for South-South Cooperation prepared by the Planning & Coordination Department s Taskforce on South-South Cooperation published on September 16,

19 these countries to suit the region, e.g. Central and South America or Southeast Asia, are spread strategically to the various countries in the region. This is not at the initiative of the close-to-graduating countries, so it is not regarded as support for South-South cooperation. Japanese cooperation is targeted at end recipient countries, and a prerequisite is that this cooperation must conform to Japan s country assistance program (or country-specific project implementation plans). 3) Collaboration between Japan and donors 4) Support for technical cooperation among developing countries (TCDC) Japan and other donors (countries or organizations) combine their respective personnel, technological and financial resources to mutually complement and cooperate with each other to resolve the development issues of a developing country or region. In relation to South-South cooperation, other donors are the developing countries. Japanese cooperation is targeted at end recipient countries, and a prerequisite is that this cooperation must conform to Japan s priority areas for assistance to end recipient countries. Provision of various forms of support (financial activities, necessary arrangements as required, etc.) when a developing country carries out cooperation activities for another developing country or region, or when developing countries cooperate to carry out activities aimed at growth and development through the sharing of mutually complementary technologies and knowledge. It is different from (1) Support for developing countries to become donors in that it does not include the element of Provision of direct support for capacity development for a developing country to become a donor. Japanese cooperation is targeted at both the emerging donor country and end recipient country. 5) Support developing countries become donors for to Provision of support for capacity development as a developing country donor. Japan s cooperation is targeted at emerging donor countries. 12

20 Table 2-2: Image, Objective, etc. of Each Function Function Relation between the strategic Image support for the J stands for Japan and end recipient S for Southern countries country in engaged in SSC or conformity with cooperation among the strategy for developing countries the end recipient Arrows indicate the flow of Objective / country (country personnel, material and Evaluation Criteria assistance other input. programme or Areas enclosed with country-specific dotted lines indicate the project scope and extent of implementation Japan s cooperation plan) and the activities. strategy of the emerging donor country of SSC Technical cooperation to the end recipient 1) Effective use of the resources of developing countries J S1 resource S1 resource S1 S2 resource country. Recruitment of Third-Country Experts or implementation of Third-Country Training to make Greater emphasis is placed on the strategic support for the end recipient country. necessary input (dispatch of experts or acceptance of 13

21 trainees) for realizing a country assistance programme when such resources are not available in Japan or more appropriately procured from other countries. Technical cooperation to the end recipient Greater emphasis country. is placed on the 2) Dissemination of the output of Japan s cooperation J S1 S 2 Dissemination and further refinement of localized techniques. Intention to redress intraregional strategic support for the end recipient country or region. (maybe integrated into a wide-area economic gaps is cooperation project more pronounced in certain cases). than the other functions. Technical cooperation to the 3) Collaboration S2 end country. recipient Greater emphasis is placed on the between J Streamlining of strategic support Japan and donors S1 cooperation activities and enhancement of for the end recipient country. publicity through collaboration with 14

22 other donors. Provision of opportunities for 4) Support for TCDC S1 J S2 becoming donors (a type of support toward donozination in a broad sense). Technical cooperation to the end recipient country. Rectification of Equal emphases are placed on the end recipient and donor countries (to be adjusted flexibly according to the scale of each project). economic gaps within the region. 5) Support for developing countries in becoming donors S1 J S2 S3 S4 Support for the capacity development of the emerging country (S1 in the left column) as a donor. Greater emphasis is placed on securing consistency with Japan s strategies for supporting SSC. (2) Definitions of the Forms of Cooperation Connected with the Existing Activities to Support for SSC and the Relationship with Roles and Functions We defined the forms of cooperation connected with support for South-South cooperation currently being implemented by JICA, and listed how they correspond to each of the roles and functions at (1) (5) above (see Table 0-3). The forms of cooperation covered in the table are third-country training, dispatch of third-country experts, partnership programs, triangular cooperation, and wide-area cooperation. From this we can clearly see that a single form of cooperation may have several functions. For example, third-country training can have the functions of not just support for TCDC within the scope of support for South-South cooperation, but also dissemination of Japan s 15

23 cooperation outcomes and effective use of human resources and other resources of developing countries, depending on the project and activity. As stated in 2-2-1, a single project or activity can contain several functions at the same time. (3) What Can be Achieved through Support for SSC? 1) Effective Use of Resources in Developing Countries and Collaboration between Japan and Other Donors Practical Methods to Actualize Country-Specific Approach It has been long since the need for a shift from a project approach to a programme approach was called for, and JICA began promoting cooperation according to the country-specific approach or country-specific programme implementation plan. However, even though requests were made for dispatch of experts from Japan or acceptance of trainees into Japan according to the strategically formulated programmes for specific countries or regions, only a fraction of such requests was actualized because of the remoteness of the recipient countries (especially those in Latin America and Africa) and other obstacles, such as a lack of institutions to accept trainees due to technical difficulties and/or language barriers. These are examples of limitations on the input side that hinder the formulation of objectives-oriented programmes. To truly realize the programme approach, we urgently need to explore ways to remove these obstacles that lie in the current system for mobilizing available resources in Japan. The first thing needed is to fundamentally strengthen the mobilization system of Japanese resources, which, if hard to obtain, need to be complemented by the resources of other countries to achieve the objectives. Two of the five functions effective use of resources in developing countries and collaboration between Japan and other donors provide practical solutions to this challenge. The former is a method to draw upon external resources to implement cooperation by Japan as the sole donor, whereas the latter intends to establish an equal partnership with another qualified donor to complement each other to achieve common objectives. The former is simple and convenient, as all the needed resources can be procured under the self-contained framework of Japanese assistance. The latter, on the other hand, requires painstakingly careful preparation, as coordination between the two donors could be quite challenging, although it has the advantage to mobilize much larger, more comprehensive resources. 16

24 Table 2-3: Analysis of Current Activities Related to Support for SSC Definition Support for developing countries to become donors Support for TCDC activities Collaboration between Japan and donors Dissemination of the outcomes of Japanese technical cooperation Effective use of the resources of developing countries Third-Country Training Programme Training in which a developing country (including countries that have graduated from being aid recipients) accepts personnel from one or more other developing countries to transfer and extend outstanding development experiences, knowledge and technologies with the support of donor countries and organizations. * This is being implemented in many developing countries as JICA programs; in fiscal 2003, JICA implemented 151 courses in 38 countries, attended by a total of 2,335 training participants. The implementing organization can accumulate experience in international cooperation activities through the implementation of training. Implementation support for third-country training by assigning organizations with no past record of support from Japan Third-Country Training by implementing organizations in developing countries with a past record of support from JICA/Japan Third-Country Training as necessary input for resolving development issues of cooperating target countries or regions based on Japan s country-specific cooperation plans (or country-specific project implementation plans) Individually specialized training for professionals in technology Form of Support Activities Related Framework Dispatch of Third-Country Experts Partnership Program (PP) Triangular Cooperation Dispatch of personnel from a developing country (including countries that have graduated from being aid recipients) to another developing country (normally one developing country) with the support of donor countries and organizations in order to transfer and extend outstanding development experiences, knowledge and technologies. * This is being implemented in many developing countries as JICA programs; in fiscal 2003, JICA dispatched 113 experts from developing countries (including countries that have graduated from being aid recipients) to other developing countries. More than 70% of the experts dispatched are from the Central and South American region. Dispatched Third-Country Experts accumulate experience in international cooperation activities in other developing countries or regions. Dispatch of experts from organizations in developing countries with no past record of support from Japan to organizations in developing countries with no past record of support from JICA Third-Country Experts from implemented organizations in developing countries with a past record of support from JICA/Japan The procedure consists of the following: upon a request to Japan from a recipient country, appropriate personnel (basically personnel from developing countries or countries that previously received cooperation) are sought, leading to a contract and dispatch Dispatch of individual professional experts in technology Comprehensive framework agreed between the Japanese government and the government of a developing country (including countries that have graduated from being aid recipients; referred to here as PP partners) to jointly support the development efforts of other developing countries or regions. Under this framework, JICA, together with related organizations in the PP partner country, comprehensively and systematically implement cooperation projects such as dispatching experts and accepting training participants, and holding seminars. At times JICA may transfer knowledge and expertise in providing assistance to related organizations in the PP partner country. * As of December 2004, Japan had concluded PPs with 12 countries (Thailand, Singapore, Egypt, Tunisia, Chile, Brazil, Argentina, Philippines, Morocco, Mexico, Indonesia and Jordan). Through a PP, promotes and accelerates the country s launch as a donor. In cases where the PP cooperation continues with a country that has already gained the know-how to implement assistance through the PP, the aim shifts to collaboration between Japan and donors (cooperation in providing assistance). Cooperation in which a donor country or organization implements cooperation projects jointly with other donor countries or organizations to resolve the development issues of a developing country. Donor countries can be developing countries, countries that have graduated from being aid recipients, or developed countries. * E.g., Cambodia rural development plan. Triangular cooperation is considered to be a form of collaboration between Japan and donors (cooperation in providing assistance). JICA staff, especially those of overseas offices, are urged to promote the latter method 17

25 more actively. More specifically, it would be effective to pursue the formulation and implementation of objectives-oriented cooperation projects in a programme approach by securing sufficient external resources to complement inadequate domestic resources, such as Third-Country Experts and Third-Country Training, that can be reciprocated within a region by taking advantage of common or similar lingual, cultural, geographical, social, and other conditions. 2) Dissemination of Outcomes of Japanese Cooperation From Country-Specific Approach to Strategic Regional Approach A. Utilization of the Assets of Japanese Cooperation Produced Worldwide Japan has been extending bilateral cooperation for half a century since Results of such upright efforts took root in various forms in many parts of the world, some of which have been fostered in a unique environment of each region to develop localized technology. The assets produced as a result of Japanese cooperation should be utilized more strategically. The underlying power of Japanese cooperation needs to be estimated by counting both the resources within Japan and the assets of cooperation that have been accumulated worldwide. In the pivotal countries in Asia, Latin America, and Middle East, for instance, there are many technologies that were initially transferred from Japan and have been assimilated to and localized in the countries. Even less developed countries have some technologies and know-how in certain fields that can be disseminated to neighboring countries. These localized technologies and know-how could be more appropriate than those of present Japan in terms of higher adaptability and immediate effects, as they are disseminated by local personnel and executing organizations that share the same or similar language, culture, environment, and other background. B. Concept of Incubator Strategic Localization and Utilization of Japanese Technology To actualize a vision for regional strategies, JICA should actively establish a Center of Excellence (COE) in each region that speaks the common language, such as English, French, and Swahili, as technology can be disseminated more efficiently within the same language sphere. In cultivating and formulating bilateral cooperation projects, it is also important to 18

26 introduce the concept of fostering an incubator. When there is a relatively advanced executing agency or country within a region having common challenges, then Japanese technology is transferred preferentially and intensively to such county or agency to foster it as a CEO or an incubator for localizing the technology. Then, as the second step, the localized technology and know-how, which are the outputs of Japanese cooperation are disseminated to other countries in the region. JICA should actively explore these 2-step strategic approaches from the cultivation and formulation stage of bilateral cooperation project. This calls for a clear long-term regional strategic perspective under which projects are cultivated and formulated not only to benefit the recipient country but also to elevate the whole region, rather than a short-sighted approach that tries to disseminate the assets of Japanese cooperation only after they were produced. We can call this approach bilateral cooperation in a broad sense as it integrates conventional bilateral cooperation (bilateral cooperation in a narrow sense) into a regional strategic perspective. It can also be defined as a regional strategic approach that has evolved from country-specific approach. C. Pivotal Countries Reviewing the Relations with Near ODA Graduates This approach gives useful ideas in reviewing Japan s diplomatic relations with ODA graduates and near graduates. Many of the donor countries of SSC are pivotal countries that are about to graduate from external assistance. Therefore, the scale of Japanese assistance to these countries will inevitably shrink progressively. This, however, presents a dilemma and a significant risk for Japan, as untimely withdrawal 14 of assistance from these countries could undermine the amicable relations that have been fostered through technical cooperation over many years 15, which could be a significant damage to Japan that uses ODA as one of its most effective diplomatic tools. To avoid these unwanted consequences, Japan should explore new ways to positively maintain the relations with these countries that have graduated or are about to graduate from ODA. In addition to the Partnership Programme, implementation of bilateral cooperation that aims to foster regional COE s as partners of diffusion type regional strategic programmes would be quite effective, as it could establish positive, constructive 14 For instance, to unilaterally cut down the scale of assistance at a fixed annual rate. 15 This includes misunderstanding by the recipient countries that Japan is no longer interested in maintaining cooperative relations with them. 19

27 relations with near ODA graduate countries. It would also be possible to implement bilateral cooperation in ODA graduate countries for the purpose of fostering COE s when certain technology can be transferred more effectively and efficiently by first extending concentrated assistance to such countries to establish a base from which the technology is disseminated to the surrounding counties within a region with common developmental challenges than by dealing with each country one by one. 3) Support for TCDC and Support for Donorization of Developing Countries As the Torchbearer of SSC The environment surrounding world development and international cooperation is becoming more complex and filled with more difficulties each year. While the supply of resources from the donor side is limited as the advanced countries lost momentum and political motive for extending development assistance after the end of Cold War, the demand for assistance by the recipient side is increasing along with the introduction of market economy to the Former Soviet East European socialist countries, which drove them to needing external assistance, and worsening poverty in Africa. To rectify this imbalance, the international cooperation arena awaits the entry of new players and looks to the developing countries implementing SSC as promising rookies. Support for SSC and fostering of these new players are among the tasks of future international cooperation that need to be tackled with earnest. Japan began technical cooperation to another developing country in 1954 when it was still recovering from the damages of World War II. Japan joined the Colombo Plan and learned about the know-how and the structure of technical cooperation, building up its expertise as it received support for SSC from other donors under the framework of the Colombo Plan. Japan, which worked its way up from the position of a recipient to the status of the leading donor of SSC, acknowledges itself as the strongest supporter of advanced developing countries that are endeavoring to become donors by following the same footsteps as Japan 16, and is widely recognized as the most committed promoter of SSC in the international community. In further promoting SSC, Japan, with its solid historical background and clear motive, needs to be able to properly respond the needs and challenges by accurately assessing 16 Statement to this effect is stipulated in the ODA Charter and other government policies. 20