Refugee Law and Policy

Transcription

1 Refugee Law and Policy A Comparative and International Approach Fourth Edition Karen Musalo CLINICAL PROFESSOR OF LAW AND DIRECTOR, CENTER FOR GENDER AND REFUGEE STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, HASTINGS COLLEGE OF THE LAW Jennifer Moore PROFESSOR OF LAW, UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO SCHOOL OF LAW Richard A. Boswell PROFESSOR OF LAW, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, HASTINGS COLLEGE OF THE LAW CAROLINA ACADEMIC PRESS Durham, North Carolina

2 Contents Table of Cases Acknowledgments (K. Musalo) Acknowledgments (J. Moore) Acknowledgments (R. Boswell) xxvii xxxv xxxvii xxxix Chapter 1 The International Origins of Refugee Law 3 A. Overview 3 B. The Ancient Roots of Refugee Protection 4 1. Protection of the Stranger in the Arab World: The Ancient Concepts of "ijara" and "aman" 5 Ghassan Maarouf Arnaout, Asylum in the Arab-Islamic Tradition 5 Notes 7 2. Refugee Protection in the Judeo-Christian Tradition: Sanctuary in Ancient Greece, Rome and the Early Christian Church 8 Ignatius Bau, This Ground Is Holy: Church Sanctuary and Central American Refugees 8 Notes 11 C. Twentieth Century Ultra-Nationalism and the Creation of the "New Refugees" 12 Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism 12 Notes 17 D. The Crystallization of an International Refugee Protection Regime ( ) Early Efforts to Establish Formal Mechanisms for the Protection of Refugees ( ) 19 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, An Introduction to the International Protection of Refugees 19 Notes The International Refugee Organization (1946) 21 Constitution of the International Refugee Organization 21 Preamble 21 Notes The Birth of UNHCR (1951) 23 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, An Introduction to the International Protection of Refugees 23 Notes 24 E. The Evolution of the Modern International Law Definition of the Refugee ( ) 24

3 1. Early Twentieth Century Concepts of the Refugee 24 James C. Hathaway, The Development of the Refugee Definition in International Law, The Law of Refugee Status 24 Notes The IRO Refugee Definition (1946) 27 Constitution of the International Refugee Organization 27 Notes The Refugee Definition Found in the UNHCR Statute (1950) 32 The Statute of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 32 Notes The Convention Refugee Definition (1951) Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees 33 Notes 33 James C. Hathaway, The Development of the Refugee Definition in International Law, The Law of Refugee Status 34 Notes 36 F. The UN. Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA) The 1951 Convention and Palestinian Refugees Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, Art. 1(D) 37 Note UNHCR and Palestinian Refugees 38 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, The State of the World's Refugees 1997: A Humanitarian Agenda 38 The Problem of Palestinian Nationality 38 Notes Responding to the "Protection Gap" for Palestinian Refugees 41 No Man's Land: Government Mistreatment of Palestinian Asylum Seekers 41 Note Closing the Gaps Between Protection and Durable Solutions: Inter-Agency and NGO Efforts to Make the International Refugee Regime Relevant for Palestinian Refugees 43 A Memorandum Prepared by BADIL Resource Center for the UNHCR Pre-Excom NGO 43 Notes 46 G. The Fundamental Challenges of Refugee Protection The Non-Entitlement to Asylum and the Norm of Non-Refoulement 48 Guy S. Goodwin-Gill, The Refugee in International Law 48 Notes Full Membership in a Political Community: The Search for Durable Solutions 50 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, The State of the World's Refugees 1993: The Challenge of Protection 50 Notes 53 H. Contemporary and Expanded Notions of the Refugee Regional Organizations, Armed Conflict and Human Rights Abuses: New Definitions of the Refugee 54 a. Refugees in the Region of Africa 54

4 ix OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa 54 b. The Central American Region and Refugees 55 Cartagena Declaration on Refugees 55 Notes International Humanitarian Law and the Refugee 56 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, The State of the World's Refugees 1993: The Challenge of Protection 56 The Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War 57 Notes 57 James C. Hathaway, The Development of the Refugee Definition in International Law, The Law of Refugee Status 58 Notes 59 Jennifer Moore, Simple Justice: Humanitarian Law as a Defense Against Deportation 59 Notes Refugees from within: UNHCR and the Protection of Internally Displaced Persons 61 UNHCR, Organizational Responsibility for Internally Displaced People, The State of the World's Refugees 1997: A Humanitarian Agenda 62 Note 63 Chapter 2 International Norms and State Practice 65 A. Introduction 65 B. U.S. Law and International Norms International Law as the "Law of the Land" 67 Restatement (Third) of the Foreign Relations Law The Period Preceding the 1980 Refugee Act: Was the Protocol the "Law of the Land"? 69 a. The Protocol's Definition of Refugee and the Obligation of Non-Refoulement 69 b. The Historical Context 70 Center for Civil and Human Rights, Admission of Refugees and Asylees Under the Law: Reports on Current United States Procedures and Policies, and Their Origins, with Recommendations for Change 71 Notes 72 Cong. Research Serv., Library of Congress, 96th Cong., 1st Sess., Review of U.S. Refugee Resettlement Programs and Policies 15 (Comm. Print 1979) Prepared at the Request of Senator Kennedy, Chairman, Comm. on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate 73 Notes The 1980 Refugee Act 74 a. The U.S. Definition of Refugee 74 b. Overseas Refugee Program/Resettlement Program 75 Notes 80

5 Tahl Tyson, The Refugee Act of 1980: Suggested Reforms in the Overseas Refugee Program to Safeguard Humanitarian Concerns from Competing Interests 81 Notes 83 c. Asylum and Restriction on Removal: Applications for Protection at the Border and Within the U.S. 85 Political Asylum Procedure 85 Restriction on Removal 86 C. Selected Issues: Bias in the Adjudicatory Process & Access to the Territory Bias in the Adjudicatory Process 87 James Silk, U.S. Committee for Refugees, Despite a Generous Spirit: Denying Asylum in the United States 87 Note 88 American Baptist Churches v. Richard Thornburgh 89 Notes Access to the Territory and Process 92 Cheryl Little, United States Haitian Policy: A History of Discrimination 93 Notes 96 Harold Hongju Koh, Reflections on Refoulement 99 Sale v. Haitian Centers Council 104 Note 123 Louis Henkin, Notes from the President, American Society of International Law Newsletter 123 Harry A. Blackmun, The Supreme Court and the Law of Nations 125 Notes 128 a. Interdiction in the Wake of the Sale Decision 131 b. Expedited Removal as a Means of Limiting Access 134 Karen Musalo, Lauren Gibson, Stephen Knight & J. Edward Taylor, The Expedited Removal Study, Report on the First Three Years of Implementation of Expedited Removal 135 Note 136 Testimony of Eleanor Acer, Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, Hearing on Asylum Policy, U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary, Immigration Subcommittee 136 Notes 139 U.S. Comm'n on Int'l Religious Freedom, Report on Asylum Seekers in Expedited Removal 139 Volume I: Findings and Recommendations, 6-9 (February 2005) 139 Notes 141 Notes 146 D. Asylum Policy in the European Union 146 Johannes van der Klaauw, Towards a Common Asylum Procedure, in Implementing Amsterdam: Immigration and Asylum Rights in EC Law 148 Jane McAdam, Regionalising International Refugee Law in the European Union: Democratic Revision or Revisionist Democracy? 151 E. An Overview of Select Issues in State Practice within the E.U Accelerated Procedures 154

6 xi 2. Safe Country of Origin Safe Third-Country Right of Appeal/Suspensive Effect Visa Requirements Carrier Sanctions 159 Director-General for External Policies of the Union, Analysis of the External Dimensions of the E.U.'s Asylum and Immigration Policies Summary and Recommendations for the European Parliament 160 Notes 160 F. South Africa's Emerging Refugee Protection System Background The South Africa Refugee Act and Regulations 162 Jacob van Garderen & Vinodh Jaichand, Preface in Jeff Handmaker, Lee Anne de la Hunt, Jonathan Klaaren, Perspectives on Refugee Protection in South Africa 162 Notes 165 Chapter 3 Degrees of Risk: The Standard of Proof in Claims for Protection 169 A. Introduction Definitions in UN. Refugee Convention/Protocol U.S. Statutory Provisions 170 B. Standards Defined by the United States Supreme Court The Standard of Proof for Withholding (Non-Refoulement) 171 I.N.S. v. Predrag Stevic 171 Notes The Standard of Proof for Refugee Status 183 I.N.S. v. Luz Marina Cardoza-Fonseca 183 Notes 199 C. A Critique of U.S. Standards from an International Perspective 200 Joan Fitzpatrick, The International Dimension of U.S. Refugee Law 200 Notes 203 D. The Interpretation of the Well-Founded Fear Standard UNHCR and State Practice 204 Notes The Board Applies the Well-Founded Fear Standard 206 Matter of Mogharrabi 206 Notes U.S. Courts Distinguish the Asylum and Withholding/Restriction Standards 213 Jose Garcia-Ramos v. I.N.S. 213 Notes 216 E. Issues Related to Well-Founded Fear and Clear Probability Standards of Proof The Standard in Expedited Removal A "Credible Fear of Persecution" 217 Notes The Relationship between the Standard of Proof for Likelihood of Harm and the Burden of Proof/Burden of Persuasion 219 Notes 220

7 xii CONTENTS 3. Regulations Addressing the Standard of Proof 220 a. Regulations on Prospective Risk 221 Notes 221 b. Past Harm and Its Relevance to Claims for Protection 222 The Past Persecution Presumption of 8 C.F.R and Notes The Relationship between Countrywide Persecution and a Well-Founded Fear 226 Canada 227 Interpretation of the Convention Refugee Definition in the Case Law 227 Switzerland 228 Klaus Hullman, Switzerland, in Jean-Yves Carlier, et. al. Who Is a Refugee?: A Comparative Case Law Study 228 European Union 229 E.U. Qualifications Directive 229 Notes 229 F. The Role of Discretion in the Refugee Determination Process Considering the "Totality of Circumstances" in the Exercise of Discretion 232 Matter ofpula 232 Notes 238 Appendix 239 8C.F.R (b) 239 Withholding of removal under section 241(b)(3)(B) of the Act and withholding of removal under the Convention Against Torture 239 Chapter 4 The Definition of Persecution Its Forms and Sources 241 A. Introduction 241 B. The Relationship between Human Rights Norms and Persecution 241 UNHCR Handbook 242 Guy Goodwin-Gill, The Refugee in International Law 242 Refugee Status Appeals Authority (1999) Notes 245 C. The Forms of Persecution Economic Harms as Persecution 246 Djordje Kovac v. I.N.S. 246 Notes Physical and Mental Violations and the Issue of Punitive Intent 252 Alia Konstantinova Pitcherskaia, Petitioner, The International Human Rights Law Group, Intervenor v. INS 252 Notes Severe & Atrocious Persecution The Requirement for a Humanitarian Grant 258 Matter of Chen 258 Notes Discrimination as a Form of Persecution 264

8 xiii Brian Brosnahan & Robert Borton of Heller, Ehrman, White & McAuliffe and Mark Silverman of the Immigrant Legal Resource Center Applicant's Brief in Support of a Request for Political Asylum & Withholding of Deportation 266 Notes 271 David Stephen & Phillip Wearne, Central America's Indians 271 Notes 276 Vera Korablina v. INS 277 Notes Distinguishing Prosecution from Persecution 287 Ebrahim Sadeghi v. I.N.S. 288 Notes 293 D. The Source of Persecution: State and Non-State Agents Protection and Accountability/Complicity Views, and State Practice 294 a. UNHCR The "Protection" View 294 Tatiana Pavlova v. Immigration and Naturalization Service 295 Notes 297 b. The Accountability or Complicity Approach 298 c. Evolving Practice The Qualifications Directive: State and Non-State Agents of Persecution and the Question of Effective Protection 299 Notes 300 Chapter 5 The Nexus Requirement 301 A. Introduction 301 B. United States Jurisprudence : The Period Preceding Zacarias 302 Sofia Campos-Guardado v. I.N.S. 303 Notes 306 Olimpia Lazo-Majano v. I.N.S. 308 Notes 316 a. Proving "On Account Of" The Use of a Rebuttable Presumption 317 Adela Hernandez-Ortiz v. I.N.S. 317 Notes 321 Jairo Jonathan Elias Zacarias v. I.N.S. 322 Note The U.S. Supreme Court's Imposition of an Intent Requirement 325 I.N.S. v. Jairo Jonathan Elias Zacarias 325 a. A Critique of the Zacarias Decision 331 b. Statutory Interpretation: Plain Meaning and Deference 332 Karen Musalo, Irreconcilable Differences? Divorcing Refugee Protections from Human Rights Norms 333 Note Mixed Motives and the "Central Reason" Requirement of the REAL ID Act of a. Mixed Motives 339 In re S-P- 339 Notes 342 b. The "Central Reason" Requirement of the REAL ID Act of

9 xiv CONTENTS The REAL ID Act of Notes 343 C. International and Comparative Practice on the Requirement of Nexus UNHCR 345 Written Submission on Behalf of the U.N. High Comm'r for Refugees in the [U.K.] Court of Appeal in Yasin Sepet and Erdem Bulbul v. Secretary of State for the Home Department 345 Notes Australia 349 a. The High Court's Approach 349 Chen Shi Hai (an infant) by his next best friend Chen Ren Bing v. The Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 349 Notes 354 b. The Legislature's Approach A Bifurcated Analysis in International Jurisprudence 355 D. Protection under the Torture Convention Background CAT Implementation in U.S. Law 358 a. The Court Compares Asylum to CAT Relief 363 Navaratwam Kamalthas v. INS 363 Note An International Perspective Decisions of the U.N. Committee against Torture in Cases of Asylum Seekers Who Have Been Tortured 367 Decision of the Committee Against Torture In the Matter of Pauline Muzonzo Paku Kisoki against Sweden 368 Notes 373 Chapter 6 Persecution on Account of Political Opinion 375 A. Introduction 375 B. Persecution on Account of Political Opinion: When Are Activities & Opinions Political? Anti-Communism as a Political Opinion 376 Fidele Sanon v. I.N.S. 377 Notes Trade Union Activity as an Expression of Political Opinion 381 Vicente Osorio v. I.N.S. 381 Notes Neutrality as Political Opinion 391 Espectacion Bolanos-Hernandez v. I.N.S. 392 Notes Imputed Political Opinion 397 Jose Doney Argueta v. I.N.S. 397 Notes 400 a. Canadian Perspective on Neutrality and Imputed Political Opinion 402 Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada Guidelines on Civilian Non-Combatants Fearing Persecution in Civil War Situations 402 Notes Opposition to Corruption as a Political Opinion/Refugee Status for "Whistle-Blowers" 403

10 xv Alexander Klinko, Lyudmyla Klinko, and Andriy Klinko v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) 403 Notes 406 C. Selected Issues Prosecution vs. Persecution, Refusal to Serve in the Military and Coercive Population Control When Is Prosecution Persecution? 409 a. Prosecution for a Convention Reason 410 Li Wu Lin v. Immigration and Naturalization Service 410 Notes 414 b. Prosecution for a Convention Reason/Pretextual Prosecution 415 Efrain Carranza-Hernandez v. I.N.S. 415 Notes 418 c. Prosecution vs. Persecution; Is There a Legitimate Governmental Investigation and Prosecution? 419 Hugo Ivan Bellido, Miriam Puna-Villaneuva v. John Ashcroft, Attorney General 419 Notes 423 d. Punishment for a Crime Committed: Resistance to Repressive Regimes 427 Nana Asante Dwomoh v. Sava 427 Notes Refusal to Serve in the Military 436 a. UNHCR Guidance 436 Notes 439 b. Evolving U.S. Jurisprudence 439 Jose Antonio Barraza-Rivera v. I.N.S. 444 Notes 446 Slavko Ciric and Slavica Ciric v. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) 447 Notes Coercive Population Control (CPC) 452 a. Background Nexus Barriers in CPC Cases 452 Guo Chun Di v. Carroll 453 Note 460 b. Congress "Legislates" Nexus in c. Canada A Different Approach to Nexus 461 d. UNHCR Guidelines 463 e. Selected Issues in Population Control Cases under the 1996 Legislation 464 Chapter 7 Persecution on Account of Religion 467 A. Introduction 467 B. Freedom of Religion in International Practice and Its Relationship to Refugee Norms 468 Karen Musalo, Irreconcilable Differences? Divorcing Refugee Protections from Human Rights Norms 468 Notes 470 C. Different Degrees of Consistency with International Norms: United States, United Kingdom and Australia 471

11 xvi CONTENTS 1. United States 472 Matter ofliadakis 472 Notes United Kingdom 475 Ahmad and Others v. Sect'y of State for the Home Department 475 Notes 477 Amnesty International, Report on Religious Intolerance 479 Notes Australia 480 Commonwealth of Australia 480 RRT Reference: N93/01843 Refugee Review Tribunal (7 July 1994) 480 Notes 485 Amnesty International, Conscientious Objection to Military Service 486 Notes 487 D. U.S. Constitutional Law Principles: First Amendment Free Exercise of Religion 488 Jason W. Rockwell, When Congress Answers Religion's Prayer: The Religious Liberty Protection Act of Notes 492 Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act of E. Select Issues in U.S. Jurisprudence Credibility and Knowledge of Religious Doctrine 494 Yong Ting Yan v. Alberto R. Gonzales, Attorney General 494 Notes Overlapping Grounds of Persecution 501 a. Religion and Its Overlap with Political Opinion Claims 502 Masood Shirazi-Parsa, et al. v. I.N.S. 502 Notes 505 b. Religion and Its Overlap with Gender/Social Group Claims 506 In re S-A- 506 Notes 511 Susan Musarrat Akram, Orientalism Revisited in Asylum and Refugee Claims 512 Note 515 Appendix 515 Guidelines on International Protection 515 Religion-Based Refugee Claims under Article 1 A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees 515 Chapter 8 Persecution Based on Race or Nationality 527 A. Introduction 527 B. Basic Concepts Race 529 Cheikh Anta Diop, Civilization or Barbarism, An Authentic Anthropology 529 The 1950 UNESCO Statement on Race 530 Ashley Montagu, Race, Science, and Humanity 530 The 1967 UNESCO Statement on Race and Racial Prejudice 530

12 xvii Notes Nationality 531 Elizabeth Kiss, Is Nationalism Compatible with Human Rights? Reflections on East Central Europe, Identities, Politics and Rights 532 Notes 533 Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania 533 Notes 534 C. Historical Perspectives on Nationalism and Persecution 534 Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism 535 Notes 538 Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania 538 Notes 540 D. An Analysis of Asylum Claims Based upon Race or Nationality from the Perspective of the UNHCR Handbook Persecution on Account of Race 543 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Handbook on Procedures & Criteria for Determining Refugee Status 543 Notes Persecution on Account of Nationality 544 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Handbook on Procedures & Criteria for Determining Refugee Status 544 Notes 544 E. Treatment of Race and Nationality Claims by U.S., U.K. and Australian Courts Ethnicity, Politics and Social Status 545 a. Elite Oromo Opposition Member from Ethiopia: The Case of Makonnen 545 Elizabeth Makonnen v. I.N.S. 545 Notes 549 b. Roma Family from the Czech Republic: The Case of ZL and VL 552 ZL and VL and [United Kingdom] Secretary of State for the Home Department and Lord Chancellor's Department 552 Notes 557 c. Uyghur Activist in Kazakhstan: The Case of Aliyev 558 Arkin Aliyev and Paridam Arziyeva v. Mukasey 558 Notes Ethnicity and Gender in the Case of Shoafera, an Amhara Woman from Ethiopia 564 Nigist Shoafera v. I.N.S. 564 Notes Ethnicity and Religion 570 a. Russian Jews from the Ukraine: The Case of O-Z- and I-Z- 570 In re O-Z- & I-Z- 570 Notes 573 b. Moslem Arab from Israel: The Case of Baballah 575 Abrahim Baballah, Ula Baballah, Ahmad Baballah v. Ashcroft 575 Notes 582

13 xviii CONTENTS c. Ethnic Hazara Shi'a from Afghanistan: The Case of Wahk 583 Wahk v. Minister for [Australian] Immigration and Multicultural & Indigenous Affairs 583 Notes 589 F. International Treaties Relating to Crimes against Humanity The Genocide Convention and Ethnic Persecution 591 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 591 Notes The International Criminal Court 593 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court 593 Note 593 G. Contemporary Case Studies of Ethnic Persecution and the Establishment of International Criminal Tribunals The Former Yugoslavia and the ICTY 595 Steve Coll, War Crimes and Punishment: Bosnia in the Shadow of the Holocaust 595 Notes Rwanda, the ICTR and Gacaca Courts Darfur, Sudan and the International Criminal Court 605 Jennifer Moore, Stop Genocide and Protect Civilians in Darfur, Sudan 605 Notes 606 H. Humanism in the Face of "Organized Ethnic Hatred:" A Further Commentary 607 Marieme Helie-Lucas, The Face of Women Refugees from Muslim Communities: Algeria to Ex-Yugoslavia, The Suitcase: Refugee Voices from Bosnia and Croatia 607 Notes 611 Majana Burazovic, Don't Call Me That Way, The Suitcase: Refugee Voices from Bosnia and Croatia 612 Chapter 9 Persecution Based on Membership in a Particular Social Group 615 A. Introduction 615 B. Conceptual Background Social Group Membership under International Refugee Law 618 Guy S. Goodwin-Gill & Jane McAdam, The Refugee in International Law 618 Notes Social Group Membership from the Perspective of the UNHCR Handbook 619 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status 619 Notes 620 C. Defining Particular Social Group Claims Immutable and Fundamental Characteristics Matter ofacosta; Defining Social Groups by Immutable or Fundamental Characteristics 621 Matter of Acosta 621 Notes 625

14 xix 2. Sexual Orientation as Immutable or Fundamental 627 a. United States 627 Matter of Toboso-Alfonso 627 Notes 630 Nasser Mustapha Karouni v. Alberto Gonzales, Atty. Gen. 630 Notes 637 b. New Zealand 640 Refugee Appeal No / Notes UNHCR Guidance on Sexual Orientation Claims 651 Notes 653 D. Immutable and Fundamental as a "Threshold"; the Evolving Requirements of Social Visibility and Particularity The BIA's Imposition of Social Visibility and Particularity 655 In Re C-A- 655 Notes UNHCR's Position in its Guidelines and Brief Amicus Curiae 663 a. UNHCR Guidelines 663 UNHCR Guidelines on Social Group Claims United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Guidelines on International Protection 663 Notes 667 b. UNHCR Brief Amicus Curiae 669 Mauricio Edgardo Valdiviezo-Galdamez v. Eric Holder, Atty. Gen. 670 Notes Circuit Courts begin to Question the Social Visibility Requirement 682 Francis Gatimi et al. v. Eric H. Holder, Atty. Gen. 682 Notes 685 E. Conclusion 687 Chapter 10 Gender-Related Claims to Refugee Status 689 A. Introduction 689 B. Conceptual Background: The Women's Human Rights Movement and the Challenge of International Protection for Refugee Women 690 Karen Musalo & Stephen Knight, Unequal Protection Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 690 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women 691 Notes 693 C. Earliest Developments: UNHCR Guidance and State Response UNHCR's Executive Committee and Refugee Women (1985) 694 Notes UNHCR's First Guidelines on Refugee Women (1991) 696 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Guidelines on the Protection of Refugee Women 696 Notes UNHCR's Executive Committee's 1993 Conclusion 698 Executive Committee Conclusion No. 73 (XLIV) on Refugee Protection and Sexual Violence 698 Notes Canadian Gender Guidelines 701

15 Women Refugee Claimants Fearing Gender-Related Persecution: Guidelines Issued by the Chairperson Pursuant to Section 65(3) of the Immigration Act 701 Notes U.S. Gender Guidelines 710 Considerations for Asylum Officers Adjudicating Asylum Claims from Women 710 Notes 711 D. The Development of U.S. Precedent on Gender-Based Claims In re Kasinga 712 Karen Musalo, In re Kasinga: A Big Step Forward for Gender-Based Asylum Claims 712 Notes 715 In re Fauziya Kasinga 716 Notes Matter ofr-a-: The Case of Rody Alvarado 727 Karen Musalo, Matter ofr-a-: An Analysis of the Decision and Its Implications 727 Notes 730 In re R-A- 730 Notes 747 E. UNHCR and Comparative Jurisprudence on Gender Claims 750 Karen Musalo, Revisiting Social Group and Nexus in Gender Asylum Claims: A Unifying Rationale for Evolving Jurisprudence 750 Notes 758 F. Selective Issues in Gender-Based Cases Repressive Social Norms 759 Saideh Fisher v. I.N.S. 760 Notes 768 New Zealand Refugee Status Appeals Authority 770 Notes Rape as a Basis for Refugee Protection 776 In re D-V- 777 Notes The Legacy of Matter of Kasinga; Claims based on Past FGC, and Claims of Parents Whose Daughters Fear FGC 781 Khadija Mohamed v. Alberto Gonzales 782 Notes 790 Salimatou Bah v. Mukasey 791 Notes Mothers and Daughters Persecution to Others as Persecution to Self 806 Yayeshwork Abay & Burhan Amare v. John Ashcroft 806 Notes 812 G. Alternative U.S. Forms of Relief from Gender-Related Violence: VAWAandTVPA 814 H. Conclusion The Personal Is Universal 815 Appendix 816

16 xxi UNHCR's 2002 Gender Guidelines, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Guidelines on International Protection: Gender-Related Persecution within the context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or Its 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees 816 Chapter 11 Qualifications upon Protection 821 A. Introduction 821 B. Overview of the Statutory Bars in U.S. Law 821 C. Persons Excluded for Being Unworthy of Protection or for Posing a Danger to the Host Country within the Context of the 1951 Refugee Convention and U.S. Law Refugee Convention 823 Note International Commentary on Art. l.f and Art Volker Turk, Forced Migration and Security 823 Notes 826 The European Council on Refugees and Exiles, Position on Exclusion from Refugee Status 827 Notes Caselaw on the Application of Article l.f 834 (Australia) 834 RRT Reference N 93/ Notes 841 (Canada) 842 Moreno v. Canada (Minister of Employment & Immigration) 842 Notes U.S. Law 850 a. Persecutor of Others 850 Matter of Rodriguez-Majano 850 Notes Serious Non-Political Crimes International and U.S. Perspectives 855 a. International Framework 855 b. Serious Non-Political Crimes in U.S. Law 857 Juan Anibal Aguirre-Aguirre v. INS 858 I.N.S. v. Juan Anibal Aguirre-Aguirre 860 Notes 865 Brief for Amicus Curiae in Support of the Respondent Submitted by Iris Gomez, Esq., Counsel of Record, Massachusetts Law Reform Institute, James F. Smith, Esq., Amagda Perez, Esq., Immigration Law Clinic, University of California School of Law, Davis 866 Notes 870 D. Particularly Serious Crimes and Security Risk to the Host Country Introduction International Guidance 871 Rene Bruin & Kees Wouters, Terrorism and the Non-Derogability of Non-Refoulement 871 Notes 872

17 xxii CONTENTS 3. Application of the Particularly Serious Crime Bar in the United States 873 a. Rejecting the International Approach: All Particularly Serious Crime Offenders Constitute a Danger to the Community 873 Matter of Carballe 873 Notes 875 b. The "Per Se" Approach to Defining "Particularly Serious Crimes" 877 Note Danger to Security of the Host Country 878 a. Application of Security Bar in the United States 878 Georgetown University Law Center, Human Rights Institute, Unintended Consequences: Refugee Victims of the War on Terror 879 Notes 886 E. Applying the Exclusion Clauses 887 Notes 888 E Not in Need of Protection The Cessation Clauses of Art. l.c. International Standards 889 Notes 890 Guy S. Goodwin-Gill, The Refugee in International Law 891 Notes "Termination" of Asylum Status under U.S. Law 893 Note Preclusion Safe Third Country The U.S. Canadian Agreement The Exclusion Clause of Art. l.e and Firm Resettlement under U.S. Law Effective Protection in a Third State 896 Matter of Soleimani 897 Notes 900 G. Filing Deadline as a Basis for Exclusion under U.S. Law 901 Leena Khandwala, Karen Musalo, Stephen Knight and Maria Anna K. Hreshchyshyn, The One Year Bar: Denying Protection to Bona Fide Refugees Contrary to Congressional Intent and Violative of International Law 902 Notes 905 Appendix 908 The Qualifications on Protection Governing Domestic Statutory Provisions The Refugee Definition Persecutor of Others Exclusion 908 Asylum Procedure and Statutory Bars 909 Restriction on Removal & Statutory Bars 912 Aggravated Felonies as a Bar 913 The "Terrorism Bars" 915 INA 237(a)(4)(B), 8 U.S.C. 1227(a)(4)(B) 917 Nazi Persecution or Genocide 917 Chapter 12 The Process and Rights of Asylum Seekers 921 A. Introduction 921 B. An International Perspective on Procedures 921 Guy S. Goodwin-Gill, The Refugee in International Law 921 Note 923

18 Kxiii C. Overview of the Refugee Status Determination System in the United States The Adjudicatory Structure 924 a. The Asylum Office Adjudicating "Affirmative" Applications for Asylum 924 b. The Immigration Court "Defensive" Applications 926 INA 240, 8 U.S.C. 1229a 926 c. The Board of Immigration Appeals Administrative Appeals 927 d. The Circuit Courts of Appeals and the U.S. Supreme Court Federal Court Review 928 Tarek Ghebllawi v. I.N.S. 929 Notes Realpolitik Constraints Refugee Adjudicatory Systems in the U.S. and Beyond 933 Stephen H. Legomsky, An Asylum Seeker's Bill of Rights in a Non-Utopian World 933 Notes Limits on Constitutional Protections for Asylum Seekers in the United States 939 Kendall Coffey, The Due Process Right to Seek Asylum in the United States: The Immigration Dilemma and Constitutional Controversy 940 Notes 945 D. Selected Issues in State Practice Conditions and Components of a Fair Refugee Determination Procedure 946 a. Legal Representation 946 Note 947 Margaret H. Taylor, Promoting Legal Representation for Detained Aliens: Litigation and Administrative Reform 947 Notes 950 b. Language Interpretation as a Guarantor of Related Rights 952 EIRescatev. Exec. Office for Imm. Rev. 953 Notes 955 Martin Perez-Lastor v. I.N.S. 957 Notes 963 c. Detention of Asylum Seekers 963 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Guidelines on Applicable Criteria and Standards Relating to the Detention of Asylum-Seekers 964 Notes 971 Wendy Young, U.S. Detention of Women and Children Asylum Seekers: A Violation of Human Rights 972 Notes 975 i. Child Asylum Seekers 977 Wendy Young & Megan McKenna, The Measure of a Society: The Treatment of Unaccompanied Refugee and Immigrant Children in the United States 977 Notes 981 d. An Independent and Unbiased Adjudicator 983

19 xxiv CONTENTS i. A Journalist's Expose of The Immigration Courts 983 Fredric N. Tulsky, Judges Who Grant Asylum Show Extreme Differences in Rulings 983 Notes 988 ii. A Litany of Criticism from the Federal Courts 990 Lorraine Fiadjoe v. Attorney General of the U.S. 991 Notes 1008 iii. Explanations for Adjudicatory Failings and Proposals for Reform 1008 e. Right to Work/Social Benefits 1010 Ryszard Cholewinski, Economic and Social Rights of Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Europe 1011 Note 1014 Chapter 13 Proving the Claim 1015 A. Introduction 1015 B. International Perspectives 1016 Atle Grahl-Madsen, The Status of Refugees in International Law 1016 U.N. High Comm'r for Refugees, Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status 1016 Notes 1018 C. The Burden of Proof 1019 D. Establishing Credibility 1020 REAL ID Act of Demeanor 1020 Jeremy A. Blumenthal, A Wipe of the Hands, A Lick of the Lips: The Validity of Demeanor Evidence in Assessing Witness Credibility 1022 Note 1024 Pensaquitos Village, Inc. v. NLRB 1024 Notes 1025 In re Berta Lidia Iraheta 1026 Notes The Impact of Psychological Factors on Credibility Demeanor, Consistency and Detail 1032 Physicians for Human Rights, Medical Testimony on Victims of Torture: A Physician's Guide to Political Asylum Cases 1032 Notes 1033 Psychological Evaluation of R-C- by Adrianne Aron, Licensed Clinical Psychologist 1033 Notes Cross-Cultural Issues and their Relationship to the Determinants of Credibility 1039 Juan Francisco Cordero-Trejo v. I.N.S Notes 1047 Walter Kalin, Troubled Communication: Cross-Cultural Misunderstandings in the Asylum-Hearing 1048 Notes 1055 Veronika Kot, The Impact of Cultural Factors on Credibility in the Asylum Context 1055 Notes 1056

20 xxv Everth Ceballos-Castillo v. I.N.S Commonwealth of Australia 1059 Notes Medical Testimony Relating to Persecution 1065 Physicians for Human Rights Medical Testimony on Victims of Torture: A Physician's Guide to Political Asylum Cases 1065 Notes The Use of Experts 1067 Rachael Keast, Using Experts for Asylum Cases in Immigration Court 1067 Notes The Corroboration Requirement: From Mogharrabi to the REAL ID Act of REAL ID Act of Note 1076 Abdelhadi Hor v. Alberto R. Gonzales 1076 Notes The Requirement of Corroboration within the European Union Qualifications Directive 1081 Note Special Guidance for Child and Women Applicants 1083 a. Child Applicants 1083 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Refugee Children: Guidelines on Protection and Care 1083 Notes 1084 b. Women Applicants 1085 Australian Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, Guidelines on Gender Issues for Decision Makers 1086 UNHCR, Guidelines on International Protection: Gender-Related Persecution within the context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or Its 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees 1086 Notes 1087 E. Credibility Determinations from the Perspective of the Examiner 1088 Audrey Macklin, Truth or Consequences: Credibility Determinations in the Refugee Context 1088 Notes 1094 Appendix 1095 American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 1095 Chapter 14 Current and Future Challenges in Refugee Protection 1101 A. Introduction 1101 B. UNHCR: The United Nations Refugee Agency Renews Its Commitment to Refugee Protection in the Twenty-First Century 1103 Erika Feller, Statement by the Director, UNHCR Department of International Protection, to the 18th Meeting of the UNHCR Standing Committee (Jul. 5, 2000) 1104 Notes 1106 C. Temporary Protection and Complementary Protection: A Retreat from Asylum or an Overture to Protection? 1107

21 xxvi CONTENTS 1. UNHCR and Temporary Protection 1108 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, The State of the World's Refugees 1993: The Challenge of Protection 1108 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, The State of the World's Refugees 1995: The Search for Solutions 1109 Notes 1111 UNHCR, Complementary Forms of Protection: Their Nature and Relationship to the International Refugee Protection Regime 1113 Notes The European Union and Complementary Protection 1119 [EU] Council Directive 2004/83/EC of 29 April Notes 1121 D. Non-Refoulement to Human Rights Emergencies: Harbinger of a Customary Norm? 1122 Jennifer Moore, Simple Justice: Humanitarian Law as a Defense against Deportation 1123 Notes 1126 E. Responding to the Internally Displaced: The Problem of Failed States and the Concept of Effective Protection The London Declaration on IDP's 1127 Luke T. Lee, The London Declaration of International Law Principles on Internally Displaced Persons 1127 Notes Action by the United Nations Secretary General and the African Union on Behalf of the Internally Displaced 1133 F. Resolving the Problem of Exile: The Seamless Web of Prevention, Protection and Solutions Voluntary Repatriation: Return in Safety and Dignity, or Return to Exile? 1135 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, The State of the World's Refugees 1993: The Challenge of Protection 1135 Notes Nation-Building: Principled Pragmatism as a Response to Global Interdependence 1139 Jonathan Moore, The U.N.'s New Mission: Nation-Building 1139 Notes Tolerance vs. Fear: The Global War on Terror and the Need for a Renewed Commitment to Refugee Protection 1142 Marisa Silenzi Cianciarulo, Terrorism and Asylum Seekers: Why the REAL ID Act Is a False Promise 1142 Notes 1144 G. Refugees as Survivors of Conflicts and Healers of Communities 1144 Steve Coll, The Other War 1144 Notes 1159 Judith Mayotte, Beyond the Balkans, The Suitcase: Refugee Voices from Bosnia and Croatia 1160 H. Conclusion 1165 Index 1167