The Voyage of the MS Saint Louis: How the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee Took A Stand for Jewish Refugees During World War II

Transcription

1 The Voyage of the MS Saint Louis: How the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee Took A Stand for Jewish Refugees During World War II Cecelia Zielke Senior Paper Word Count: 2500

2 Life is not a fist. Life is an open hand waiting for some other hand to enter it. Elie Wiesel, Holocaust survivor We serve the needs of threatened Jews throughout the world, sponsoring programs of relief, rescue, and renewal, to address urgent social challenges. We are committed to the idea that all Jews are responsible for one another. 1 - JDC Mission Statement At a time in which politics stood against immigration, the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee took a stand for humanity. Originally founded in New York in 1914 to protect Ottoman Jews from persecution within the Armenian Genocide, the JDC s legacy is derived from their work during World War II. Recognizing the injudicious immigration procedures for German Jews threatened by Nazi persecution in the 1930s, the JDC did not consider the Jews immigrants, but rather refugees in need of assistance. From there, the JDC formulated a refugee aid network of resources, relief committees, and refugee camps which proved instrumental to the emigration and safety of nearly two hundred thousand German-Jewish 2 Refugees from 1933 to The work of the JDC is best illustrated through its achievement of European asylum for nine hundred and seven desperate German Jewish refugees after their Hamburg-American liner, the MS Saint Louis, was denied refuge at the port of Havana by the Cuban government. Employing its relief network to take a stand for Jewish refugees on the voyage of the MS Saint Louis, the compassion, yet systematization of the JDC served as a model for countless refugee organizations, including the United Nation s Refugee Agency, and itself 1 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and Refugee Aid. Rep. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print. 2 See e.g. 1

3 continues to serve Jews in need throughout the world. Refugee Aid : A Foreign Concept One fleeing home to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster - Definition applied to civilians heading West from Flanders to avoid conflicts of World 3 War I, used from 1914 through World War II In the first half of the twentieth century, when Anti-Semitism struck in a virulent rage, the conditions for finding a home were no different for a refugee than an immigrant. The UN s Refugee Agency was not established until 1951, and therefore no legal emergency regulations 4 had been established for refugee aid. Instead, the German-Jewish refugees were forced to follow customary immigration procedures, which were stringent and often biased as they had been put in place by Anti-Semitics. Therefore, desperation prevailed. The Emergence of Anti-Semitism in Immigration Procedures I believe that our particular ideas have demonstrated, by virtue of the progress we have made and the character of people that we are, that we have the highest ideals of any nation. If this Government shall fail, it shall fail by virtue of the terrible law of inherited tendency; the inertia of habit into a condition of political servitude. - US Senator Ellison Durant Smith on Jewish Immigration, 68th Congress, April 9th, Friedländer, Saul. Nazi Germany and the Jews. London: Phoenix, Print. 4 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Refugees in Austria yearn for loved ones left behind." UNHCR News. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Apr

4 In 1917, the U.S. had enacted its first restrictive immigration law. Entitled the Immigration Act of 1917, the law limited immigration quotas to three percent of the population of an immigrant s nationality residing in the United States at the time of the census. However, by the early 1920s, the surfacing of communism witnessed in the Bolshevik Revolution proved a threat to the capitalist liberties of the American people; engulfing the public 6 with xenophobia towards Eastern European Jews. In response, American politics favored the homogeneity of American-born citizens over Jewish immigrants, who, in the words of Senator Ellison Smith, jeopardized the interests of this 7 country by willingly becoming the slaves of those who employ them. Senator David Reed sought a more stringent standard for entrance. The Johnson-Reed Act, or Immigration Act of 1924, was implemented on May 24th, This Act declared that the annual quota of any nationality shall be two per centum of the number of foreign-born individuals of such nationality 8 resident in the Continental United States at the Census of The year 1890 was established as the basis for percentages in order to disinclude the Jewish diaspora in the last decade of the nineteenth century which had brought the Jewish population in the U.S. from approximately 9 400,000 in 1890 to 950,000 in Ultimately, this decreased the amount of Jewish immigrants allowed per year to 80,000 after 1924, a fifty-five percent decrease in immigration 5 The Immigration Act of Rep. United States Office of the Historian, n.d. Web. 20 Feb < 6 History.com Staff. "Russian Revolution." History.com. A&E Television Networks, Web. 05 Apr Smith, Ellison Durant. United States. Shut the Door : A Senator Speaks for Immigration Restriction. 64th Cong., 1st sess. Cong. Bill. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print. 8 United States. Cong. Immigration Act of By David A. Reed and Albert Johnson. 68th Cong., 1 sess. Cong 190. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print. 9 See e.g. 8

5 quotas from Furthermore, the act aggrandized the requirements for quota immigrants to include prison and military records, a certified birth certificate, and a copy of their public records kept by the government to which he owes alliance, making it difficult for Jewish hopefuls to obtain a quota number. Although the opportunity to expand quotas on a yearly basis 10 was offered, Congress never updated the act. Therefore, the Immigration Act of 1924 would dictate American Immigration Policy until the Immigration and Nationality Act was signed by Harry Truman in 1952; denying hundreds of thousands of immigrants who applied for asylum from 1933 to 1939, just years before the Holocaust. Many world powers mirrored the two percent nationality entrance rate of the United States, as shown in Appendix A. Nazi Persecution Leading to Immigration: How the Jews in Germany continue to exist and carry on is truly incomprehensible. Their only ray of hope is emigration. Morris G. Troper, European Chairmen of the Joint Distribution Committee on German Jews On January 30th of 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed chancellor of Germany. From there on, Hitler s National Socialist German Worker s (Nazi) Party began their plan to ensure the 11 purity of German Blood. The Nazi s encouraged mass migration of Germany s Jewish population by eliminating Jewish citizenship. The discriminatory laws which followed from 1933 until 1939 restricted Jewish human rights and also limited the opportunities for expansion in society. Legislature from 1933 to 1934 excluded Jews from civil service (1933), participation 10 The Immigration Act of Rep. United States Office of the Historian, n.d. Web. 20 Feb < 11 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Germany: Jewish Population in Rep. Washington DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, n.d. Print.

6 12 in the medical and legal profession (1933), and higher level education (1934). With the implementation of the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, social freedom was restricted as marriages between Aryans and Jews were banned. Furthermore, the Nazi s Aryanization procedure required Jewish businesses to document their assets for state view; resulting in the gradual expropriation of their wealth by the state, reducing the number of Jewish-Businesses to 13 two-thirds of the original. However, even in times of psychological suffering, many of the Jews were advised by the Central Association of German Citizens of the Jewish Faith to follow the 14 directive: wait calmly. Therefore, it wasn t until the summer of 1938, in which physical abuse was first advocated for by the German government that Jewish immigration from Germany doubled. Kristallnacht, a Nazi pogrom initiated by partisans throughout Germany and Austria on 15 November 9th, 1938, left pandemonium to prevail in every household. Approximately 200 synagogues were destroyed, along with 800 Jewish businesses. An estimated 100 Jews were killed in the terror. Over 60,000 Jewish men had been arrested and taken to concentration camps. 16 The one billion dollars in damage from Nazi sympathizers on Kristallnacht resulted in not only the loss of Jewish property, but also in physical security and the psychological belief of liberty. For the Jews, Kristallnacht determined that all hope of political reconstruction had vanished; 12 "Anti-Jewish Legislation in Prewar Germany." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, n.d. Web. 05 Apr See e.g Friedländer, Saul. Nazi Germany and the Jews. London: Phoenix, Print. The Central Organization brought together German Jews until 1938, when their property was confiscated by the Gestapo. 15 Troper, Morris G. "Letter of Morris Troper to JDC New York." Letter to JDC New York. 30 Nov JDC Archives. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. JDC Archives. Web. 17 Jan United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Kristallnacht. Rep. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, n.d. Web. 21 Jan

7 their culture could not be saved, but rather they must save themselves. However, German decrees following Kristallnacht made legal immigration nearly impossible. On behalf of the Jewish Distribution Committee, Morris G. Troper, European Chairman, had traveled to Berlin in an urgent rescue mission on Kristallnacht and remained there through January of For Morris Troper of the JDC, the witness of suffering encouraged the 17 readiness for assistance and devotion for the Jewish. This view allowed for the compassionate recognition of German-Jews as refugees, in flee of persecution, rather than immigrants; a concept which lead to a great devotion of the JDC to earn safety for Jews; differentiating the JDC from other relief networks. Desperate Measures in Search for Refuge Much of the trouble today in Germany exists because there is no definite policy. 18 Morris G. Troper, JDC European Chairman in Berlin, December 28th, 1938 On November 21st, 1938, the Decree of November 21st was passed by Germany in an attempt to obtain additional wealth from the Jews. The Decree required the Jewish to pay one billion Reichstag to cover the damage made to their own property, and that all Jews with five thousand Reichstag or more in assets pay twenty percent of those to the government. Only once this was done would the German government make passports available. However, without 17 See e.g Troper, Morris G. "Letter of Morris Troper to JDC New York." Letter to JDC New York. 30 Nov JDC Archives. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. JDC Archives. Web. 17 Jan

8 19 passports, the German Jews could not place visas, and therefore could not emigrate. In the spring of 1939, officials were beginning to release some of the people in the concentration camps that were taken on the night of Kristallnacht. The reason for letting Jews out was the fact that they had the potential to emigrate, and these documents had to be presented within fourteen days of the April 20th release. What a wild scramble for securing such 20 evidence! Every consulate in Berlin was besieged!. Too Good to Be Legal: A Solution in Cuba Cuba had passed Decree 55, which stated that refugees entering Cuba needed a visa and were required to pay a five hundred dollar bond to ensure that they would not become a public cost. The clause referenced tourists as not needing of visas; they were welcome to come as they pleased. However, the clause did not differentiate a refugee from a tourist. Therefore, the Cuban Director of Immigration, Manuel Benitez, began selling landing certificates, shown in Appendix B, for one hundred and fifty dollars each. The Hamburg American Line, unaware of the illegality, bought package deals of certificates and grouped them together with a boarding pass to the MS Saint Louis. The Jews, desperate to leave Germany, but withheld by the limited quotas of many nations, were eager to grasp this opportunity. Cuban Anti Semitism in 1939 Jews are different and should be restricted. 19 Feldman, Gerald D. Allianz and the German insurance business: Cambridge: Cambridge U Press, Print. 20 See e.g. 18

9 - Pollsters survey featured in Time Magazine in 1935, 53% of people surveyed agreed with this 21 statement During the early and mid-1930s, the world was struggling to recover from its worst 22 economic depression. Many nations which Jews looked upon for refuge, including the United States and Cuba, were plagued by anti-semitism; the public feared an influx of Jewish immigrants would result in competition for few available jobs, an additional burden on social 23 services, and support of Communism resulting from Jews of poor status. In early May of 1939, Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi minister of propaganda, sent fourteen Nazi agents to Cuba to reiterate 24 these concerns. Throughout the first week of May, former Cuban President Grau San Martin and associate Primitivo Rodriguez urged forty thousand demonstrators in the streets of Havana to 25 fight the Jews until the last one is driven out. In order to maintain respect in office over his competitor Fulgencio Batista, Cuban President Laredo Bru responded to the antisemitic protests. 26 Decree 937: Repercussions for Benitez On May 5th, Cuban President Federico Laredo Bru issued Decree 937, invalidating 21 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Germany: Jewish Population in Rep. Washington DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, n.d. Print. 22 Beir, Robert L., and Brian Josepher. Roosevelt and the Holocaust: how FDR saved the Jews and brought hope to a nation. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing, Print. 23 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Emigration and the Evian Conference. Rep. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, n.d. Web. 5 Feb Engle, Margarita. Tropical Secrets: Holocaust Refugees in Cuba. S.l.: FABER AND FABER, Print. 25 Beir, Robert L., and Brian Josepher. Roosevelt and the Holocaust: how FDR saved the Jews and brought hope to a nation. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing, Print. 26 See e.g. 18 In 1938, Fulgencio Batista served as a sergeant in the Cuban Army, and was viewed as a stabilizing force between Cuba and their allies. Within a year of the voyage of the Saint Louis, he was elected to serve as the Cuban President from 1940 through 1944.

10 Manuel Benitez s landing certificates which had been issued in European Cuban consuls. It reinforced Decree 55 which required all immigrants to deposit a five hundred dollar bond against becoming a public charge. Furthermore, a Cuban visa authenticated by a Cuban Secretary of 27 State, Labor, and Treasury would be required to enter Cuba as a refugee. Unfortunately, news of this action had not reached the MS Saint Louis before they left Hamburg at eight o clock on the night of May 13th. The Voyage The joy of the 937 passengers aboard the MS Saint Louis as their captain Gustav Schroeder drifted them away from Nazi Germany was indescribable. A picture of the passengers pulling away from Hamburg Harbor is present in Appendix C, and expressed in the journal of German Jew and Saint Louis passenger Moritz Schoenberger: Physically and spiritually recovered and invigorated. Most confident about reaching 28 Havana Saturday,. The MS Saint Louis docked in Havana harbor on May 27th. The passengers were still invigorated with the arrival of freedom. Aaron Pozner recalls docking and feeling 29 anticipation, of release from Nazi horror. However, at that moment, many dreams were shattered. Only 28 passengers were admitted to Cuba with valid visas. The remaining passengers, possessing landing certificates, would not be allowed to exit the ship. Panic 27 Beir, Robert L., and Brian Josepher. Roosevelt and the Holocaust: how FDR saved the Jews and brought hope to a nation. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing, Print. 28 Engle, Margarita. Tropical Secrets: Holocaust Refugees in Cuba. S.l.: FABER AND FABER, Print. 29 Thomas, Gordon, and Max Morton Witts. Voyage of the Damned. N.p.: n.p., Print. 30 See e.g. 21

11 erupted. Taking a Stand for Refuge in Cuba Due to the fact that seven hundred and forty three of the refugees possessed quota numbers to the US, Cecilia Rasovsky, the Executive Director of the National Coordinating Committee, and Lawrence Berenson, Chairman of the Cuban American Chamber of Commerce 31 took flights to Havana. Since the Cuban Government continued to refuse entrance, the Joint Distribution Committee agreed to take a stand for the refugees. On June 1st, the JDC called a meeting in New York. A sub committee was appointed, to be in communication with Berenson and Rasovsky, along with the Joint Relief Committee in Havana, the US State Department, and the Hamburg American Line, which consisted of Alfred 32 Jaretaki Jr, David M. Hressler, I. Edwin Goldwasser, and Joseph C. Hyman. Meanwhile, Berenson continued discussion with President Federico Laredo Bru of Cuba. The Cubans argued that the Hamburg American line was in violation of Decree 937 by bringing the refugees to Cuba, while the Hamburg American Line stated that the boat had sailed under assurances from Commissioner of Immigration Benitez that its passengers would be admitted to land. Since the Cuban government refused to discuss the case while the ship was docked in 33 Havana Harbor, the MS Saint Louis sailed toward to Florida coast. 31 American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. JDC Sub Committee. The Voyage of the Saint Louis. JDC Archives. American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, n.d. Web. 25 Mar American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. JDC Sub Committee. The Voyage of the Saint Louis. JDC Archives. American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, n.d. Web. 25 Mar Responsibility for carrying out immigration procedures of the United States, including the Immigration Act of 1924 in 1939, was vested in the US State Department. 33 Horwich, Bernard. "Letter from Bernard Horwich to J. Rosenberg." Letter to J. Rosenberg. 7 June MS. N.p.

12 On June 3rd, the JDC sub-committee in New York informed Berenson that the JDC would post the bond required by Cuban Law in behalf of the Saint Louis passengers. The JDC further claimed that, in order to ensure the refugees would not become public charges, they would assume maintenance costs for the refugees, who would inhabit the Isle of the Pines, North 34 of populous Havana. On June 4th, President Bru announced that June 5th at noon would be the deadline for 35 concluding the negotiations by American Jewish Organizations. Therefore, Berenson scheduled an appointment for June 5th at ten in the morning to inform Bru that the JDC would be paying 36 the necessary bond for Jewish refugees. Berenson arrived at the Presidential palace for the meeting at promptly ten, and waited in the anteroom for three hours. All the while, at the stroke of twelve, Joaquin Ochoterena, Cuban Secretary of the Treasury, announced to the press that the deadline for accepting the 37 government s offer had passed, and failed to be taken by the American Jewish Organizations. He informed the public that it was still possible to pay the bonds, however, the full amount would need to be paid in cash. Forthwith, the JDC sub-committee in New York communicated with the Chase National Bank who agreed to pay the bonds in cash. Alfred W. Barth, of the JDC, sent the following excerpt to the Chase National Bank: 34 American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. JDC Sub Committee. The Voyage of the Saint Louis. JDC Archives. American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, n.d. Web. 25 Mar United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Germany: Jewish Population in Rep. Washington DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, n.d. Print. An eight hour journey from Havana, the Isle of the Pines lies off of the Southeastern Coast of mainland Cuba in the Gulf of Batabano. Prior to the arrival of the Saint Louis in Havana, over six hundred European Jews had been residing at the Isle of the Pines, with ninety percent self-sufficient from JDC supplements. 36 See e.g See e.g. 31

13 The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee requests you as our agent to notify 38 the Cuban government that you are authorized to submit the bonds. On June 6th, five hundred and fifty thousand dollars was accessible to the Cuban Government at the Cuban National Bank in Havana. However, on the night of June 6th, James N. Rosenberg of the National Council of the JDC, called President Bru to plead one last time for asylum and inform him of the payment. However, President Bru responded that the Saint Louis 39 case was completely closed by the government. With no other options, Gustav Schroeder turned back toward Hamburg, while officials 40 from the JDC turned to European nations as refuge for the helpless 907. A Solution Our office became the pivot of broad relief action Morris Troper, 1939 The New York Sub Committee informed Morris G. Troper, now situated in Paris, of the situation, and to proceed with urgency. From there on, no solution was overlooked. Troper communicated with embassy officials in every country, desperately seeking a solution. Paul Baerwald and Harold Linder, Chairmen of the JDC in Paris, approached British government officials, the Intergovernmental Refugee committee, and the council for German Jewry. 38 Barth, Alfred W. "Letter of Alfred W. Barth to the Chase National Bank." Letter to Chase National Bank. 7 June JDC Archives. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. Web. 39 See e.g Schroeder, G., Captain. "Letter of Captain G. Schroeder to Morris Troper." Letter to Morris Troper. 18 June MS. Aboard the MS Saint Louis, n.p. 41 Troper, Morris G. "Letter of Morris Troper to JDC New York." Letter to JDC New York. 30 Nov JDC Archives. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. JDC Archives. Web. 17 Jan

14 Furthermore, Troper got in touch with Max Gottschalk of the Brussels Refugee Committee and Gertrude Can Tijn, of the Amsterdam Refugee Committee who communicated with their government. All ensured their government that the JDC would pay bonds to cover all public 42 charges and maintenance costs. In the end, Great Britain accepted 288 passengers, the Netherlands took in 181, Belgium agreed to accept 214, and 224 passengers found temporary refuge in France. The ship was destined to land in Antwerp Belgium, a destination in the center of all refugee destinations, as stated in the arrangements made by the JDC: Special tenders provided by the Belgian Red Cross will take off the refugees now on board the 43 Saint Louis when it arrives in Antwerp Belgium. This was further confirmed in witness reports: The JDC has organized the food and medical supplies, along with obtaining $2000 a day from 44 the Polish Red Cross and local Jewish Organizations Once in Belgium, refugees were distributed to their countries by train and ferry, never once 45 crossing the German border. The many connections of the JDC with consuls, relief organizations throughout Europe, and medical resources allowed for a swift location of refuge and medical assistance for the refugees in need. The response of passengers illustrates the JDC s systematic, yet compassionate, approach to refugee relief which was unprecedented: 42 See e.g. 21 The JDC funded the refugees asylum to assure governments that the refugees would not become public charges. 43 American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. Joint Distribution Committee Makes Arrangements for Landing Refugees in Antwerp. New York, New York: JDC, June 15, Print. 44 See e.g See e.g. 43

15 The 907 passengers of the Saint Louis dangling for the last thirteen days between hope and despair received today your liberating message of the 13th of June that final arrangements for all passengers have at last been reached. Our gratitude is as great as the Ocean on which we are now 46 floating. Conclusion The Joint has earned with its services in those sinister days an eternal name in history. - Sommerstein and Rosmarin, at a AJJDC meeting in Warsaw, Poland At a time in which many countries refused to accept refugees for political reasons, the Jewish Distribution Committee took a dedicated stand to achieve asylum for Jews facing persecution. The JDC s relief efforts did not go unnoticed. At the United Nations Commission of Human Rights in 1951, members of the JDC were present to form the basis for the United Nations Refugee Agency, which legally established international relief committees for emergency assistance and eventual repatriation, local integration, and resettlement of refugees, 47 which modeled those of the JDC during the 1930s. The regulations are still employed today. Besides relocating over 200,000 Jews in the 1930s alone, the JDC s service continues through 48 today in Syrian refugee relief. The JDC not only precedents a resource network at its highest standard, but stands for humanity, a factor which may be considered of greater importance. 46 Schroeder, G., Captain. "Letter of Captain G. Schroeder to Morris Troper." Letter to Morris Troper. 18 June MS. Aboard the MS Saint Louis, n.p. 47 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Refugees in Austria yearn for loved ones left behind." UNHCR News. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Apr Day, Nicholas. No Turning Back. Rep. N.p.: n.p., Print.

16 Appendix A This chart shows the immigration of Jews from Nazi-occupied Europe from 1933 until Source: Birmingham Holocaust Education Center

17 Appendix B A landing certificate for Dr. Walter Weissler for the Saint Louis. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

18 Appendix C The Saint Louis pulling away from Hamburg, on May 13th, Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

19 Appendix D A map of the voyage of the MS Saint Louis, from leaving Hamburg on May 13th to reaching the final destination, Antwerp, on June 17 of Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

20 Works Cited Primary Sources Barth, Alfred W. "Letter of Alfred W. Barth to the Chase National Bank." Letter to Chase National Bank. 7 June JDC Archives. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. Web. This primary source letter from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee Archives described the process taken by the JDC to find a plan for the German-Jewish Refugees of the MS Saint Louis. This source exemplified the dedication which the JDC demonstrated in their work for the rescue and relief of Jews. Horwich, Bernard. "Letter from Bernard Horwich to J. Rosenberg." Letter to J. Rosenberg. 7 June MS. N.p. This primary source letter from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee Archives described the process taken by the JDC to find a plan for the German-Jewish Refugees of the MS Saint Louis. This source exemplified the dedication which the JDC demonstrated in their work for the rescue and relief of Jews, most specifically in the grasping of medical assistance, food, and clean water for the refugees as their ship waited in the Caribbean outside of Florida for news of developments.

21 American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. Joint Distribution Committee Makes Arrangements for Landing Refugees in Antwerp. New York, New York: JDC, June 15, Print. This primary source press release illustrated the strategic planning which was made in order to distribute the refugees among the countries who had agreed to accept them. Furthermore, the organization for the Red Cross in attendance for medical assistance was organized. This source illustrated the unbinding compassion which was illustrated by the JDC, juxtaposing the actions of many political opponents. Reading for the Anniversary of Kristallnacht. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Gratz Collection Compilation: Jewish Life in Prewar Germany. Web. 18 Jan This primary source documentation of stories from various German-Jewish citizens on the night of Kristallnacht provided examples of both the psychological and physical suffering which encompassed the Jews. This source allowed me to recognize the reason for an increase in German-Jewish immigration following the terror of Nazi persecution. United States. Cong. Immigration Act of By David A. Reed and Albert Johnson. 68th Cong., 1 sess. Cong 190. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print. This primary source Congressional Bill, entitled the Immigration Act of 1924, formed the basis for U.S.-Jewish immigration from 1924 until Through the description of the aggrandized application procedures

22 and reduced percentage of the quota, this bill allowed me to recognize the Anti-Semitism present in the United States government throughout the 1920s and 1930s. "Retracing the SS St. Louis History: A Survivor s Story." Interview. Courier. USHMM, n.d. Web. 23 Mar This interview of Herbert Karliner described his feelings of desperation when the German-Jewish refugees aboard the Saint Louis were first turned away from Cuba. This source helped me recognize the necessary humanitarian values which the JDC displayed in their rescue efforts, overpowering even the efforts of major world powers. Schroeder, G., Captain. "Letter of Captain G. Schroeder to Morris Troper." Letter to Morris Troper. 18 June MS. Aboard the MS Saint Louis, n.p. This primary source letter from Captain G. Schroeder encompassed a passage of thanks which was meant to be shared with Morris Troper from the German-Jewish refugees aboard the MS Saint Louis. This letter helped me recognize the great humanitarian effect the JDC had on many refugees who were in need of desperate help throughout the 1930s. Smith, Ellison Durant. United States. Shut the Door : A Senator Speaks for Immigration Restriction. 64th Cong., 1st sess. Cong. Bill. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print. This primary source speech described the reasoning behind the Immigration Act of 1924; to ensure the

23 capitalist economy of the United States continued to prosper by limiting the amount of Jewish Immigration, and potential Communism. American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. JDC Sub Committee. The Voyage of the Saint Louis. JDC Archives. American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, n.d. Web. 25 Mar This primary source article from a member of the JDC sub committee, Joseph Hyman, described the communications with Cuban officials after the Saint Louis was first turned away from asylum at Havana Harbor. This report helped me recognize the extent to which the JDC worked to achieve refuge for the German-Jewish passengers of the Saint Louis, who they knew were in dire need of assistance. Thomas, Gordon, and Max Morton Witts. Voyage of the Damned. N.p.: n.p., Print. This book described familial occurrences of the voyage of the Saint Louis and the events leading up to the purchasing of tickets. The most valuable source from this book was a description of Aaron Pozner's release from Dachau and his last encounter with his family prior to their perishing in the Holocaust. The personal description, rather than general facts, allowed me to see the length to the persecution of the Nazis, not only physically, but spiritually. Troper, Morris G. "Letter of Morris Troper to JDC New York." Letter to JDC New York. 30 Nov JDC Archives. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. JDC Archives. Web. 17 Jan

24 This primary source letter from Morris Troper to the JDC New York described his experiences in Berlin, Germany on November 9th, 1938, the night following Kristallnacht. The contents of this letter helped me recognize the JDC's devotion to those being persecuted in Nazi Germany; that their witnessing of horrid events allowed them to foresee tragedy before other major world powers stepped in. Secondary Sources United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and Refugee Aid. Rep. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print. This secondary source report entitled 'The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and Refugee Aid', which was published by the USHMM Archives provided me with information about the initial purpose for beginning the AJJDC; to assist with beleaguered populations of Jews in the Ottoman Empire in 1914, around the events of the Armenian Genocide. The knowledge I gained of the organization's compassionate stand for the Jewish populations, including relief camps and an eventual spread of refugee organizations throughout Europe and New York, inspired me to write about the organization's positive nature within a world which, throughout the 1930s, was full of darkness.

25 "Anti-Jewish Legislation in Prewar Germany." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, n.d. Web. 05 Apr This article on Anti-Jewish Legislation in Prewar Germany, provided by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, described the German legislation prior to the Holocaust which encouraged max exodus of the Jews of Germany through social discrimination. This article helped me recognize the extent to Nazi persecution of Jews, and why the JDC found it entirely necessary to provide refugee relief camps and resettlement procedures in the 1930s. Beir, Robert L., and Brian Josepher. Roosevelt and the Holocaust: how FDR saved the Jews and brought hope to a nation. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing, Print. This secondary source book provided me insight about the economic depression, and therefore general anti-semitism, which infected the public of Cuba and the United States throughout the 1930s. Furthermore, this guided me to information about the Cuban protests in May of 1939, lead by Primitive Rodriguez. These concepts greatly supported the idea that the JDC took a compassionate stand which was not offered by other politicians. Day, Nicholas. No Turning Back. Rep. N.p.: n.p., Print. This report described the process of Sarah Ogilvie in the process of locating and documenting the fates of all the refugees

26 whom had traveled on the Saint Louis prior to the Holocaust. Sarah worked for the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. The knowledge I gained of the organization's compassionate stand for the Jewish populations, including relief camps and an eventual spread of refugee organizations throughout Europe and New York, inspired me to write about the organization's positive nature within a world which, throughout the 1930s, was full of darkness. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Emigration and the Evian Conference. Rep. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, n.d. Web. 5 Feb This secondary source report entitled 'Emigration and the Evian Conference', originally published by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, illuminated, for me, the economic reasoning behind many major world powers, throughout the 1930s, turning away German-Jewish Immigrants. This insight allowed me to develop a counter argument about the JDC showing compassion, rather than failing to construct compromise for the immigrants for political reasons. Friedländer, Saul. Nazi Germany and the Jews. London: Phoenix, Print. This book described the Anti-semitic procedures issued by the National Socialist German Worker's Party in Germany prior to implementing the Final Solution. This source provided me

27 with information about how many Jewish organizations did not at first encourage immigration, but called for people to stay. Engle, Margarita. Tropical Secrets: Holocaust Refugees in Cuba. S.l.: FABER AND FABER, Print. This secondary source book provided much information about Cuban immigration policies prior and throughout the voyage, which affected the passengers landing. Furthermore, the book supplied evidence about the voided 'landing passes' issued by Benitez, allowing me to construct the basis for the JDC to step in to find the St. Louis passengers, which no longer had refuge in Cuba, asylum in other countries. "Everyday Anti-semitism in PreWar Nazi Germany: The Popular..." N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Apr This article on Anti-Jewish Legislation in Germany prior to World War II and the Holocaust, provided by the Yad Vashem organization, described the German legislation prior to the Holocaust which encouraged max exodus of the Jews of Germany through social discrimination. This article helped me recognize the extent to Nazi persecution of Jews, and why the JDC found it entirely necessary to provide relief camps and resettlement procedures in from 1933 until Feldman, Gerald D. Allianz and the German insurance business: Cambridge: Cambridge U Press, Print. This secondary source book provided information on the Decree of November 21st, 1938, requiring Jews to pay the government for all

28 damage to Jewish property made during Kristallnacht. Following this policy, many Jews sought immigration as the only option to maintain economic freedom. Therefore, this source became the basis which concluded for me the influx of immigration following Kristallnacht. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Germany: Jewish Population in Rep. Washington DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, n.d. Print. This secondary source report provided me with information about the initiation of the Nazi's discrimination of Jews, including the Nuremberg Race Laws. Therefore, this report allowed me to contrast the economic, social, and political restrictions for Jews at the time of the voyage of the Saint Louis versus in Furthermore, through this data, one can see the rising immigration rate as the years increase along with Nazi discrimination from 1933 to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Refugees in Austria yearn for loved ones left behind." UNHCR News. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Apr This article on the United Nations Refugee Convention in 1951 described the legal procedures required by the state to protect refugees and redefined the term refugee, as one who flees home due to persecution, war m or natural disaster. This website helped me determine the connection

29 between the JDC's procedures and the procedures currently used by the United Nation's Refugee Committee. History.com Staff. "Russian Revolution." History.com. A&E Television Networks, Web. 05 Apr This website described the effects of the Bolshevik Revolution on the values of Eastern European, specifically of the Jewish race. This report helped me recognize the reasoning behind the American disclusion of Jewish immigration through the Immigration Act of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Kristallnacht. Rep. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, n.d. Web. 21 Jan < This secondary source report entitled 'Kristallnacht', published by the USHMM, illuminated, with thorough incorporation of primary sources, the violent discrimination which caused both physical and mental collapse of the Jewish state on November 9th and 10th of Through this information, along with that of a journal of Morris G. Troper, European Chairman of the JDC, I was able to conclude that immigration rates nearly doubled in 1939 due to the first use of physical violence, including many Jews, some of which had been released from Concentration Camps, who had voyaged with the Saint Louis.

30 The Immigration Act of Rep. United States Office of the Historian, n.d. Web. 20 Feb < This report on the Immigration Act of 1924 described the procedures which the act implemented to decrease Jewish immigration to the United States, including how those implemented in 1924 differentiated from those made legal in the Immigration Act of This report allowed me to conclude the regulations for the United States during the voyage of the SS St. Louis, which mirrored that of much of the rest of the world.