Askeskin. Australia, xvi, 80 Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID), xvi, 255n, 256 autocracies, 28, 29, 31, 32, 43

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1 Reproduced from Employment, Living Standards and Property in Contemporary Indonesia edited by Chris Manning and Sudarno Sumarto (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2011). This version was obtained electronically direct from the publisher on condition that copyright is not infringed. No part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior permission of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Individual articles are available at < > Index A B accountability of leaders and institutions, 1, 17, , 285 Aceh reconstruction, 80 social unrest, 103 4, 273 see also provincial comparisons, 80 Africa, 259, 346, 347 age dependency ratio, 78, 86 ageing, agriculture, 1, 6, 6n, 7, 58, 59 60, 67, 70, 82 3, 91, 94, 95, 97, 113, 116, 117, 118, 130, 140, 143, 144, 150, 153, 154, 155 Algeria, 45, 163 Armenia, 32, 163 Asabri see health insurance ASEAN, 114 Asian Development Bank (ADB), 68n Asian financial crisis, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 10, 23, 24, 38, 53, 57, 68, 69, 77, 81, 84, 90, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121n, 128, 129, 138, 139, 144, 224, 233, 238, 258, 274, 277, 291, 313 severity in Indonesia, 26, 47, 275 7, 333 social safety net during, 12, 15, 292, 315, 331 Askes see health insurance Askeskin see health insurance Australia, xvi, 80 Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID), xvi, 255n, 256 autocracies, 28, 29, 31, 32, 43 Bangladesh, 3, 25, 46, 170, 175, 229, 259 Bank Rakyat Indonesia, 232 banking sector, 26, 216, 232, 276 Bappenas see National Development Planning Agency Benin, 34, 45 BKS see Special Assistance for Students BLT see unconditional cash transfer program Boediono, Vice President, 1, 283n, 287, 288 Bolivia, 34, 45 BOS see School Operational Assistance scheme Brazil, 34, 45, 173, 300 Brunei Darussalam, 69, 173 Bulgaria, 34, 45, 173 bureaucracy, 212, 213, , 219, 241n, 273, 279, 293 corruption, 13, 180, 280, 280n C Cambodia, 3, 4, 51, 80, 245n, 316n case studies rural urban migrants, social assistance programs and targeting, cash transfer schemes, 2, 85, 285, 300, 324 see also conditional cash transfer program (PKH); unconditional cash transfer program (BLT) Central African Republic,

2 354 Employment, Living Standards and Poverty in Contemporary Indonesia children, 14, 264 health, 71, 72, 72n, 239, 245, 246, 260, 264, 280, 301, 307 malnutrition, 2, 4 5, 206, 210, 276, 285, 301, 304, 316n, 346 mortality rates, 71, 72, 72n, 245, 301, 304, 316n see also education; schools Chile, 46, 318 China, 3, 4, 8, 28, 29, 43, 85, 113, 129, 130, 229 clothing sector, 123, 125, 126, 128, 128n, 129 CLTS see Community-led Total Sanitation commodity prices, 5, 58, 116, 118, 129, 130 communication by government, 17 18, 19, 51n, 241n, 259, 326 community development, 13 14, 78 9 community health centres see puskesmas community participation, process of community empowerment, 294 see also musrenbang; National Program for Community Empowerment (PNPM) Community-led Total Sanitation (CLTS), conditional cash transfer program (PKH), 14, 16, 85, 86, 280, 285, 291, 292, , 316, 328, 336, 337, 338, 343, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351 annual benefits per household, 306 conditions for receiving benefits, 14, 281, 305 evaluation, features, geographic coverage, 14, impact assessment, 308 purpose, 14, 16, restrictions on use of funds, 309 target group, 14, 16 see also social assistance programs construction sector, 7n, 116, 117, 138, 143, 335 consumer price index (CPI), 52, 60, 63 coordination of anti-poverty effort, 17, 287 8, 294 corruption, 13, 180, 280, 280n, 284 5, 286 credit, access to, 17, 77, 135, 149, 183, 190n, 231 2, 275, 276, 292, 298n, 344 Cyprus, 46, 173 D DAK see Special Allocation Fund data collection, 16 17, 50 1, 52, 53, 120 8, 307, 33, 350 dissemination, 17, 19, 51n see also Indonesia Family Life Survey; industrial censuses; National Family Income and Expenditure Survey; National Socio- Economic Survey (Susenas) DAU see General Allocation Fund decentralisation, 3, 4, 18 19, 78, 94, 129, 185, 217, 258, 273, 285 8, 289, 293, 317 education, 180 1, 186, 192, 192 3n, 286 health care, 207, 208, 218, 223, 224, 235 infrastructure, 286 poverty reduction, 18, 106, 109, 285, 289, 292, 299 see also local governments Democratic Republic of Congo, 34, 45 democratic transitions, 23 countries with large, 31 7, 45 6 and economic growth, poverty reduction following, democratisation, 3, 17, 23, 78, 212, 219, 289 effect on economic growth, demographic dividend, 75, 77 development funding, indicators and poverty variations, Development Assistance Committee (OECD), 80 development planning, 78 9, 213, 214, 273, 295 see also musrenbang; National Development Planning Agency (Bappenas) development programs, 14, 78 9, 291 teacher, 196 diarrhoea, 11, 245, 246, 249, 258 effectiveness of sanitation on, Direct Cash Assistance (BLT) see unconditional cash transfer program (BLT) disabled, 232, 242, 303, 336, 338

3 Index 355 district governments see local governments Dominican Republic, 34, 45, 173 DPR (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat), 282, 285, 288 DRPD (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah), 213 E economic growth, 3, 4, 6, 7, 23, 39, 40, 69, 76 7, 81, 82, 92 3, 96, 106, 114, 118, 138, 139, 145, 162, 275, 316n during democratic transitions, poverty incidence and, 5, 28, 57 64, 92 3 see also GDP economic pie, size of, 51, 57 8 Ecuador, 45, 46, 170 education, 5, 6, 8 10, 14, 69, 71, 78, 83, 96, 107, 130 affordability, 9, 83, 188, 276, 278n, , 343, 344, class sizes, decentralisation, 180 1, 186, 192, 192 3n, 286 effect of parental, 127, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 188 9, 191, 194 effect on occupational mobility of migrants, 152, 154, 155 enrolment rates, 68, 83, 183, 194, 197, 301 expenditure, 9, 281, 281n financial assistance, 276, 316 free schooling, 181, 343 funding, 9, 10, 185, 186, 187, 197 household head, 9, 71, 296 inequality, 183, 197 infrastructure, 83 Islamic system, 10, junior secondary, 5, 10, 83, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 105, 183, 184, 184n, , 190, 191, 194, 280, 343 literacy rates, 197, 275 mathematics skills, participation, 276, 301, 302, 303, 308 primary, 9, 69, 161, 170, 175, 177, 179, 183, 184n, 194, 296, 313n, 343 quality, 1 2, 9, , 188, 309 religion and, 186, 192n, 242 rural areas, 183, 199 scholarship schemes, 9, 337, 349, 350 secondary, 161, 164n senior secondary, 9, 83, 194, 343 4, 350 vocational, 10n women, 72 3, 74, 75 see also schools; teachers elderly, 78, 298, 319, 339, 351 elections, national, 26, 27, 29, 37, 273, 274, 279, 284, 307n presidential, 283 employment, 5 6, 6 8, 14, 82 3, 114, agriculture, 1, 6, 7, 58, 59, 82 3, 94, 95, 116, 117, 118, 130, 142, 143, 144, 150, 153, 154, 155 casual, 6, 6n, 8, 195, 296 construction, 7n, 116, 117, 118, 138 determinants of occupation, emergency job creation, 276 formal sector, 3, 6, 41, 115, 126, 129, 136, 221, 233, 236, 344 government, growth, human capital theory, 137, 153 indicators by gender, 74 informal sector, 6, 41, 113, 126, 136, 138, 221, 234, 237, 276 job creation, 6, 8, 14, 76, 276, 293, 298 manufacturing, 3, 6n, 7, 70, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119, 122, 129, 138, 143, 145, 145n migration study, mining sector, 94, 116, 117, 118, 143 rates, 74 self-employment, 136, 142, 150 services, 1, 3, 7n, 67, 82, 118, 130, 131, 136, 143, 145 temporary, 296 urban dualism, 136 utilities, 116, 117, 118 women, 73, 74 see also labour force; labour markets; rural urban migration exchange rate, 77, 114, 116, 117, 123, 129, 130, 283n exports, 60, 62, 70, 77, 114, 117, 127, 131, 145 export-oriented firms, 59, 77, 113, 114, 123, 129, 138, 139 F Family of Hope (PKH) see conditional cash transfer program (PKH) farmers/farming, 60, 62, 142, 144, 151, 292, 296, 335, 348 see also agriculture females, 72 3 agricultural employment, 153, 155

4 356 Employment, Living Standards and Poverty in Contemporary Indonesia community participation, 298, education, 74, 167, 175, 183 household heads, 73, 142 mathematics score in TIMSS, 167 labour force participation rate, 73, 74 migrants, 150, 151, 153, 155, 156 religiosity, 191, 198 fertility rates, 10, 78 Fiji, 46, 173 financial markets, 129, 232 food (in)security, 12, 275, 276, 335, prices, 49, 52, 60 3, 64, 84, 277, 278 shortages, 25 see also nutrition; rice food and beverages industry, 126, 128 footwear industry, 8, 114, 123, 126, 128n, 139 foreign investment, 114, 129 direct (FDI), 76, 77 France, 172, 173 fuel prices, 9, 12, 12n, 277, 278, 283n, 284, 291, , 316 subsidies, 9, 12, 12n, 13, 84, 185, 197, 277 8, 282, 291, 292, , 337 furniture industry, 8, 114, 133 G garment industry, 8, 114, 131, 139 GDP, 4, 12n, 47, 59, 63, 80, 245, 245n annual real growth rates, 48 growth per capita, 23, 25 7, 40, 57, 316 growth and poverty rate, 82 regional, per capita, 94, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104 see also economic growth gender-related development index (GDI), 72, 73 General Allocation Fund (DAU), 186 7n Germany, 80, 135 global financial crisis, 62, 80, 115, 116, 130, 139 globalisation, 5, 75, 76 7, 86, 129, 162, 313 Golkar, 284 5, 288 governance, 8, 11, 29, 38, 79, 93 health, 11, 207, , 243 Greece, 34, 45 Guatemala, 46, 173 Guided Democracy, 274 H Habibie administration, 276 HDI see human development index health and health care, 1, 4, 5, 6, 10 11, 69, 83 4, 96, , 305 accountability, Activities of Daily Living (ADL), 231 2, 232n affordability, 207, 227, bureaucracy, , 219 cardiovascular disease, 211, 218 catastrophic payments, , 243 child malnutrition, 2, 4 5, 206, 210, 276, 285, 301, 304, 316n, 346 children, 71, 72, 72n, 239, 245, 246, 264, 280, 301, 307 chronic diseases, 218 civil society participation, communicable diseases, 210, 211 constraints to reform, decentralisation, 207, 208, , 215, 223, 224 doctors and specialists, 223 expenditure, extended family, free, 2, 10, 218, 233, 235, 315, 320, 321, 322, 337, 341, 342, 343 funding, 206, 234, 238, 315 governance, 11, 207, , 243 guidelines and regulations, , 219 health shocks, 221, 222, 231 2, 232n, 240 horizontal equity, 223, 223n hospitalisation, 218, 231, 231n hospitals, 10, 84, 209, 210, 223, 225, 230, 233, 234, 238, 240, 241n, 315, 337, 341, 341n inequality, 224 7, 241 malnutrition, 83, 285, 286, 300, 301, 316n maternal, 2, 5, 14, 83 4, 280, 301, 304, 307, 310 medicine, 84, 234, 239, 242, 309, 341, 342, 343, 351 minimum service standards (MSS), out-of-pocket health spending, , 240 planning and budgeting, , 215n private sector, 207, 215, , 218n, 223 5, 226, 230, 233, 236, 237

5 Index 357 and relationship with sanitation, utilisation, 224 7, 236, , 301, 303 vulnerable community, 340 1, see also puskesmas health insurance, 11, 16, 233 5, Armed Forces Social Insurance Plan (Asabri), 233 financing and management, 241, 241n health card program, 10, 227, 233 4, , 241, 242, 278n, 314, 315, 320, 321 2, 343 Health Insurance for the Poor (Askesin), 5, 218, 234 5, 240, 278, 291, 291n, 315 Health Security for the Poor (Jamkesmas), 218, 234, 240, 291n, 315, 320, 321 2, 323 4, 329, 337, 338, 340, 341, 342, 343, 346, 348, 349 Health Insurance (for the civil service) (Askes), 233, 236, 237 private, 221, 233, 242 PT Askes, 233, 234, 241n universal system, 11, 219, 221, 222, 232, 235, 236, and utilisation of health care, 236 7, 239 Workers Social Security Program (Jamsostek), 233, hospitals see health care household domestic work, 74, 75 household expenditure, 13, 37, 43, 49, 50, 51, 52, 63, 73 household income and expenditure surveys, 52 3 housing, 138, 138 9n, 235, 261, 316n, 339, 340, 345, 347, 348, 348n, 350 human capital, 5, 12, 77, 78, 93, 94, 95, 96, 99, 103, 104, 105, 107, 136, 146, 151, 156, 161, 187, 231, 316 association with poverty rate, 96 definition, 96 theory, 137, 146, 153 human development index (HDI), 72, 186n, 301 Hungary, 46, 173 I income, 138, 340, 341 inequality, 183, 184, 197 payments in-kind, 348, 350 per capita, 5, 72, 72n, 95, 99, 103, 108 real, 5, 50, 55, 63 India, 3, 4, 170, 179, 229 Indonesia Family Life Survey, 184, 189, 190, 192, 202 5, 232, 236, 237, 238 industrial censuses, , industrialisation, industry, 7, 58, 59 60, 70, 82, 105 capital-intensive, 118, 124, 125, 126, 127, 162 labour-intensive, 3, 7, 83, 86, 105, 113, 114, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128n, 129, 130, 276 resource-intensive, 124, 125, 126, 127 see also manufacturing inequality, 19, 51, 58, 134, 183, 286, 317 between men and women, 72 3 health care utilisation, 224, 227 infant mortality, 10, 68, 163, 206, 293n, 301, 304, 316n inflation, 4, 6, 25, 26, 274, 278 infrastructure, 3, 5, 5n, 11, 12n, 14, 18, 77, 83, 86, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96 7, 103, 105, 107, 108, 129, 197, 223, 241, 246, 253, 258, 264, 265, 274, 275, 280, 281, 286, 287, 291, 293, 295, 296, 297, 315n rural, 12, 14, 278, 286, 292, 293, 296, 298 spending on, 3, 18, 286 international aid, 80, 255n, 256, 276, 276n, 286, 287 international comparisons catastrophic payments for health care, 229 countries with large democratic transitions, 45 6 economic growth and democratisation, educational achievement and quality, 9, education expenditure, 9 polity ratings, poverty rates, 3 4, student/teacher ratio, 173 see also regional comparisons Iran, 9, 34, 46, 164 Islamic schools (madrasah), 10, curriculum content, 191 3, 198 facilities, 188, 195, 197 finances, 184 7, 188, 189, 197 improving, national statistics, 194 parental expectations, 188 parental participation, 193, principals, 193

6 358 Employment, Living Standards and Poverty in Contemporary Indonesia quality, 188, , 192 student sorting, teacher characteristics, 196 teachers, 187, 193, teacher/student ratio, 195 see also education J Jamkesmas see health insurance Jamsostek see health insurance Japan, 28, 113, 172, 173 jobless growth, 7n, 49, jobs see employment Jordan, 9, 164 JPS see Social Safety Net K Kalla, Jusuf, Kecamatan Development Program, , 279n, 291, 292, 295 Korea see South Korea Kuznets effect, 66 L labour force, 7, 234 demographic dividend, 75, 77, 78 education level, 69, 83 growth, 131 participation rates, 74 weak capabilities, 83 4 women, 73, 74, 75 see also employment labour markets, 114, 136 flexibility, 3, 77, 83, 113, 120, 128, 130 regulation, 77, 114, 115, 124, 129, 130 responsiveness to output changes, responsiveness to wage changes, Laos, 51, 316n Latin America, 93, 135, 259, 300, 317, 318 legislation Law 2/1989 on the National Education System, 192 Law 13/2003 on Labour, 83, 128 Law 17/2003 on District Finance, 213 Law 25/2004 on National Development Planning, 78 9, 213 Law 33/2004 on Fiscal Balance between the Central Government and Regions, 186n Law 40/2004 on National Social Security, 234 Law 14/2005 on Teachers and Lecturers, 170 Liberia, 46 life expectancy, 68, 206 Local Governance Support Program, 79 local governments, 14, 17, 18, 79, 87, 186, 192, 198, 212, 213, 214, 256, 259, 285 6, 299, 300, 305, 310, 311 see also provincial comparisons M Madagascar, 32, 45, 173 madrasah see Islamic schools Makassar, case study, Malaysia, 3, 9, 28, 51, 69, 113, 114, 164, 316n annual real GDP growth rates, 48 data collection, 52, 53 education quality, 164 6, 168 9, 171 industrialisation, 118, poverty incidence, 55, 56, 57, 58 9, 63, 67 Mali, 46, 173 manufacturing, 3, 6n, 7, 70, 77, 114, 116, 117, 118, , 138, 139, 145n employment by firm size, 122 output elasticities for large and medium-sized firms, output elasticities for small firms, 127 output and employment growth, 119, 120, 129 wage elasticities, maternal health, 2, 5, 14, 83 4, 280, 301, 304, 307, 310 Medan, case study, Medium Term Development Plan , 15, 316 Mexico, 173, 176, 300, 304, 316n, 318 Middle East, 8, 93, 259 migrants case study, four Indonesian cities, discrimination against, 135, 136, 138, 138 9n migration international, 8, 139 interprovincial, 107 rural urban, 8, 55, 57, 59,

7 Index 359 Millennium Development Goals, 2, 3, 5, 15, 75, 80, 86, 245, 293n, 300, 304 mining, 93, 94, 116, 117, 118, 140, 143 Ministry of Finance, 214 Ministry of Health, 209, 211, 215, 219 Ministry of Home Affairs, 79, 186, 213, 214, 281 Ministry of National Education, 177, 178, 179, 181, 184 5, 186, 198 Ministry of Religious Affairs, 10, 184, 186, 188, 196, 197, 198 Mongolia, 34, 45, 163 mortality rates, 78 children, 71, 72, 72n, 245, 301, 304, 316n infant, 10, 68, 163, 206, 293n, 301, 304, 316n maternal, 2, 69 Mozambique, 46, 173 musrenbang (development planning meetings), 78 9, 213, 214 N National Development Planning Agency (Bappenas), 7, 79, 213, 273, 275, 287, 288, 295, National Family Income and Expenditure Survey, 52 3 National Program for Community Empowerment (PNPM), 14, 79, 85, , 284, 287, 291 2, beneficiaries, 296, 297 block grants, 14, 279, 292, 295, 296 evaluation, Healthy and Clever Generation program, 281 infrastructure projects, 295 6, 297 international support for projects, 295 objectives, potential, 298 programs, road map, 299 role of women, 298 targeting, 296 National Socio-Economic Survey (Susenas), 52, 53, 64, 73, 74, 84, 106, 224, 240, 246, 252, 260, 283, 329 National Strategy for Community-based Total Sanitation, 258 National Team for the Acceleration of Poverty Reduction (TNP2K), 17, 287 8, 295, 317, 336 priorities, natural disasters, 2n, 274n, 296, 339 natural resources, 93, 94, 95, 118, 129, 130, 293n resource rich provinces, 94, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106 7, 109 Neglected Villages Program, 256 7, 275 Nepal, 25, 46, 46 New Order see Suharto era newly industrialising economies (NIEs), 113, 114 Nicaragua, 45, 46, 173 Nigeria, 34, 45 non-democracies, 31, 31n, 43 nutrition, 2, 52, 83, 209, 275, 304 see also children, malnutrition O occupational mobility, official development assistance (ODA), 80 oil, 77, 94, 96, 107, 114, 278 prices, 114, 278, n openness, political environment, 13, 93, 273, 283, 289 P Pakistan, 34, 45 palm oil, 140 Paraguay, 34, 45 paved roads, 97, 99, 101, 286, 286n Peru, 170, 173 Philippines, 3, 4, 28, 45, 51, 245n, 316n annual real GDP growth rates, 48 data collection, 52, 53 industrialisation, 118, poverty incidence, 54, 56, 57, 58 9, 63, 67 PKH see conditional cash transfer program PKS see Prosperous Justice Party PNPM see National Program for Community Empowerment politics of poverty, 13, 17 18, 50 1, polity ratings, East Asia, population census, 100 2, 329, 331 densely populated provinces, 94 5, 99, 100, 101, 102 growth, 60, 67 Makassar, 140

8 360 Employment, Living Standards and Poverty in Contemporary Indonesia Medan, 140 Samarinda, 140 sparsely populated provinces, 94, 95 Tangerang, 139 working age, 78 Portugal, 34, 45 poverty absolute, 51, 52, 53, 57, 58, 93, 275, 275n definition, 2, 50, 57 elasticity, 38, 41, 41n, 42, 82, 92, 106, 108 government policies, 11 14, lack of productive opportunities, 81 3 measurement, 50 3 monetary, 1, 51, 69, 70 3 rates, 3 4, 13n, 18, 24, 26, 37 9, 40, 41, 52, 68, 69 70, 81 2, 90, 92, 94, 97, 98, 99, 103 6, 283, 288, 316, 316n relative, 51 short-term, 51, 231, 350 transition matrix, 76 see also provincial comparisons poverty incidence, 49, 50 7, 70, 81 2 economic growth and, 57 60, 63, 81 3 factors influencing, 58 provincial trends, regional comparisons, 53 7, 67 poverty line definition/setting, 2, 50, 51, 52, 57, 283n, 316n, 336 deflator, 52, 63 international, 69 population below, 3, 3n, 4, 15, 47, 47n, 68, 69, 90, 276 regional comparisons (Southeast Asia), 55 rural urban comparison, 71 poverty reduction, 56 7, after a democratic transition, constraints, 80 5, 86 coordination, 287 8, 293 diagnostic framework, 81 factors influencing, 75 85, 86 government record, 2 6, government strategy, 292 provincial comparisons, 18, , 106, 285 provincial determinants, strategy for accelerating, 5, 75 80, 86, 280, see also social assistance programs; social protection programs Prabowo, retired general, 283, 283n Presidential Instruction on Drinking Water and Family Toilets (Inpres program), 255 6, 257 private sector, 5, 85, 86, 150, 154, 155, 299 health, 207, 215, , 218n, 223, 224, 225, 226, 230, 233, 236, 237 productive opportunities, 81 3 Prosperous Justice Party (PKS), 274n provincial comparisons, 18, 69, densely populated provinces, 94 5, 98, 104, 107, 108 determinants of poverty, development indicators, 95 7, 100 2, 107, headcount poverty rates, 92, 97, 98 incomes, 96, 97, 108 interprovincial migration, 107 isolated provinces, 94, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 107, 109 poverty rates, 18, 91 2, 97 9 poverty trends, , 109, 285 provincial groupings, 94 5 regional GDP per capita, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105 resource-rich provinces, 94, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106 7, 109 sanitation, 246, 247, 249, 257, settled Outer Island provinces, 94, 95, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108 sparsely populated provinces, 94, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 107 see also regional comparisons (Southeast Asia) puskesmas (community health centre), 84, 307, 308, 337, 341, 342, 343, 351, 352 R Raskin (subsidised rice program), 16, 278, 278n, 316, 317, 320, 320n, 322 3, 337, 338, 345, 346, 351 accuracy of targeting, 322 3, 324 recessions, 48, 57, 59 regional autonomy see local governments regional comparisons (Southeast Asia) education and health indicators, 69 hours of education per week, 168 industrialisation, mathematics scores in TIMSS, mathematics topics taught, 169 poverty incidence, 3 4, 53 7, 67

9 Index 361 teacher qualifications, 171 see also international comparisons; provincial comparisons regional growth (East and Southeast Asia), 113 religion, 184 5, 186, 189, 191, 193n, rice, 12 grower protection, 60 import quota, 60, 62, 64 prices, 26, 49, 60 3, 64, 84, 275, 277, 278 real price, 60, 61 world prices, 60, 61, 62 3 see also Raskin (subsidised rice program) Romania, 9, 34, 45, 164, 173 rural areas, 4, 8, 49, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 62, 66, 67, 70, 71, 83 4, 90, 138, 275, 293, 339 case study, education, 183, 199 employment, health, 240 infrastructure, 12, 14, 178, 286, 292, 293, 296, 298 poverty incidence, 138, 274n rural urban poverty gap, 70 1 sanitation, 246, 247, 248, 263 teachers, 174 rural urban migration, 8, 55, 56 7, 59, 70 1, 345 occupational mobility, Makassar, 140, 141 Medan, 140, 141 Samarinda, 139, 140, 141 Tangerang, , 140, 141 Rural Urban Migration in China and Indonesia (RUMiCI) project, 135, S safety nets, 6, 15, 16, 18, 85, 227, 233, , 296 see also social protection programs; Social Safety Net (JPS) Samarinda, case study, sanitation, 2, 4, 11, 71, 84, access to, clean (safe) water, 2, 71, 84, 245 Community-led Total Sanitation (CLTS), 258 drinking water, 5 National Strategy for Communitybased Total Sanitation, 258 open defecation free (ODF), 259 place of excreta disposal, 248, 267, Presidential Instruction on Drinking Water and Family Toilets, 255 6, 257 provincial comparisons, 247, 257 relationship with health, rural, 11, 71 sewage network, 84 toilet quality, 252, 253 Total Sanitation and Sanitation Marketing (TSSM), , Water and Sanitation for Low Income Communities (WSLIC), 256 8, 259, 265 women and toilet safety, School Operational Assistance scheme (BOS), 9, 10, 185 6, 203, 278, 278n, 291, 315 schools, 9, 14, 83 building, 12n, 313n choice, class sizes, committees, 176, 177 8, community participation, 175 6, 177 8, 180, 193, enrolment rates, 68, 83, 183, 194, 197, 316n facilities, 174 5, 188, 195 funding, 10, 184 7, 197 improving quality, junior secondary, 5, 10, 83, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 105, 183, 184, 184n, , 190, 191, 194, 343 madrasah, 10, primary, 9, 69, 161, 170, 175, 177, 179, 183, 184n, 194, 296, 313n, 343 principals, 176, 185, 191, 193 senior secondary, 9, 83, 194, 343, 344, 350 see also education; teachers services sector, 1, 3, 7n, 58, 59 60, 67, 70, 82, 118, 130, 131, 136, 143, 145 shocks, 69, 121, 139, 338, 339, 346, 351 health, 221, 222, 231 2, 232n, 240 protecting households, 16 17, 221, 276 Singapore, 9, 28, 69, 131 education quality, 164, 164n, 165, 166, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173 slums, 138, 138 9n social assistance programs, case study analysing coverage and vulnerability, cash-for-work program, 337, 351

10 362 Employment, Living Standards and Poverty in Contemporary Indonesia definition, 333n main programs, 337 political acceptance, recertification, 331, 348, 348n, 350 scholarship programs, 9, 337, 349, 350 see also cash transfer schemes; health insurance; Raskin; social protection programs; targeting of social programs social health insurance, universal, 11, 219, 221, 222, 232, 235, 236, social protection programs, 12, 15 19, 68, 77, 281 2, emergency measures, Asian financial crisis, 276, 331 fragmentation, 85 government expenditure, monitoring and evaluation, 85 non-poor beneficiaries, 12, 16, 85, 238, 280n, 291, 298, 318, 323, 324, 329, 330 number of beneficiaries, 321 private sector, rate of inclusion or exclusion error, 15, 16, 85, 321, 323, 324, 329, 330, 347, 349, 350 targeting, 15 16, 42, 84, 85, 86 7, 275, 278, 280, 296, , transparency, 16, 18 see also social assistance programs; targeting of social programs Social Safety Net (JPS), 12, 68, 276 7, 278 social unrest, 80, 103 4, 139 South Korea, 26, 34, 45, 118, , 173 Special Allocation Fund (DAK), 186, 186n Special Assistance for Students (BKS), 203, 205 street vendors, 138, 138n subsidies, government, 17, 197, 234, 258, 260, 281, 282, 284, 291 fuel, 9, 12, 12n, 13, 84, 185, 197, 277 8, 282, 284, 291, 297, 314, 337 rice, 16, 292, 314, 315, 316, 317, 320, 337, 338, 349 see also health insurance; social assistance programs Suharto era, 1, 3, 12, 25 6, 29, 33, 78, 109, 138, 195, , 219, 273 6, 282 Sukarno era, 29, 274, 277 Sukarnoputri, Megawati, 285n, 287 Susenas see National Socio-Economic Survey T Taiwan, 32, 34, 45 Tangerang, case study, targeting of social programs, , accuracy, 16, 85, 323 4, 327, 338 categorical targeting, 319 community targeting, , 327, 328, 330 effectiveness in Indonesia, evaluation of methods, gaps in coverage and vulnerability, 338, geographical, 275, 280, 293, 317, 319, 327, 328n, 329 improving, , 337, 350 methods, national targeting system, 326, , 331 perceptions and experiences of targeting, procedural problems, 325 proxy means tests, 13n, 318, 327, 328, 329, 330, 348, 350 registry of potential beneficiaries, 326, 329 self-targeting, 319, 328 teachers, 9 10, 83, 162, absenteeism, 170, 177 performance pay, 179 qualifications, 170 2, 178, 195, 196, 309 remote area allowances, 178 9, 180 teacher/student ratio, 172 4, 178 9, 195, 308 training programs, , 180 welfare of, 193, see also education; schools technology acquisition/transfers, 76, 83, 113 changes, 58, 76n, 116, , 118, 125, 126, 130, 262 telecommunications, 117, 118 textile industry, 114, 123, 126, 128n, 139 Thailand, 3, 4, 9, 26, 34, 45, 51, 52, 69, 114, 130, 164, 316n annual real GDP growth rates, 48 data collection, 52, 53 education quality, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 171, 173 poverty incidence, 54, 56, 57, 58 9, 63, 67 timber industry, 131, 140

11 Index 363 TIMSS see Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study TNP2K see National Team for the Acceleration of Poverty Reduction Total Sanitation and Sanitation Marketing (TSSM), , tourism, 105, 131, 293 trade liberalisation, 76 7 transport, 9, 95, 96 7, 104, 105, 264, 286, 301, 303, 316n costs, 84, 95, 97, 188, 309, 341, 342, 343, 351, 352 paved roads, 97, sector, 116, 117, 118, 124r, 127, 142, 143 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), TSSM see Total Sanitation and Sanitation Marketing tsunami, 2n Aceh, 80 Tunisia, 9, 164 U Uganda, 170, 173 unconditional cash transfer program (BLT), 12 13, 14, 16, 17, 278 9, 285, 291, , 320, 320n, 323, 324, 325, 338, 347, 348, 350, 351 unemployment, 1, 6, 7, 10, 73, 107, 131, 295, 296 rate, 74 United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 64, 79 United States of America, 80, 134, 135, 136, 172, 173, 185 urban areas, 4, 8, 49, 53, 54, 55, 56, 62, 66, 67, 70 2, 84, 90, 293, 298 labour market, 136, 139, 153, 340 poverty incidence, 274n rural urban migration, 8, 55, 56 7, 59, sanitation, 246, 247, 248 teachers, 174 Urban Poverty Program, 291, 292 Uruguay, 34, 45 utilities sector, 116, 117, 118 V Vietnam, 3, 4, 8, 28, 29, 43, 51, 69, 80, 129, 173, 245n, 316n W wages and wage employment, 5, 8, 9, 41, 83, 90, 113, 118, 119, 123, 136, 138, 232, 351 below-market, 298, 319 employment response to changes in, 126 8, 129 index of regular, 6, 7 minimum, 83, 128, 195 real, 6, 7 see also incomes Water and Sanitation for Low Income Communities (WSLIC) program, 256 8, 259, 265 effect of, 258 wholesale trade, 117 Wiranto, retired general, 283 wood products, 124, 125, 126, 127, 131, 133 workforce see labour force World Bank, 64, 177, 206, 256, 295, 306, 327 review of social assistance targeting, 334, Social Safety Net Adjustment Loan, 276n Water and Sanitation Project, 245n, 263n Worldwide Governance Indicators Project, 208 see also Kecamatan Development Program World Development Indicators, 41, 42 WSLIC see Water and Sanitation for Low Income Communities Y Yudhoyono, President Susilo Bambang, 279, 283, 288, effect on polity rating, 29 election, 1, 29, 279 fuel price policy, 12, 12n, 277, 283n, 284, 292 Independence Day speech, 283 popularity, 279, 285 statement on poverty, 2, 283, 317 Z Zambia, 46, 173

12 INDONESIA UPDATE SERIES Indonesia Assessment 1988 (Regional Development) edited by Hal Hill and Jamie Mackie Indonesia Assessment 1990 (Ownership) edited by Hal Hill and Terry Hull Indonesia Assessment 1991 (Education) edited by Hal Hill Indonesia Assessment 1992 (Political Perspectives) edited by Harold Crouch Indonesia Assessment 1993 (Labour) edited by Chris Manning and Joan Hardjono Finance as a Key Sector in Indonesia s Development (1994) edited by Ross McLeod Development in Eastern Indonesia (1995) edited by Colin Barlow and Joan Hardjono Population and Human Resources (1996) edited by Gavin W. Jones and Terence H. Hull Indonesia s Technological Challenge (1997) edited by Hal Hill and Thee Kian Wie Post-Soeharto Indonesia: Renewal or Chaos? (1998) edited by Geoff Forrester Indonesia in Transition: Social Aspects of Reformasi and Crisis (1999) edited by Chris Manning and Peter van Diermen Indonesia Today: Challenges of History (2000) edited by Grayson J. Lloyd and Shannon L. Smith Women in Indonesia: Gender, Equity and Development (2001) edited by Kathryn Robinson and Sharon Bessell Local Power and Politics in Indonesia: Decentralisation and Democratisation (2002) edited by Edward Aspinall and Greg Fealy Business in Indonesia: New Challenges, Old Problems (2003) edited by M. Chatib Basri and Pierre van der Eng The Politics and Economics of Indonesia s Natural Resources (2004) edited by Budy P. Resosudarmo Different Societies, Shared Futures: Australia, Indonesia and the Region (2005) edited by John Monfries Indonesia: Democracy and the Promise of Good Governance (2006) edited by Ross H. McLeod and Andrew MacIntyre Expressing Islam: Religious Life and Politics in Indonesia (2007) edited by Greg Fealy and Sally White Indonesia beyond the Water s Edge: Managing an Archipelagic State (2008) edited by Robert Cribb and Michele Ford Problems of Democratisation in Indonesia: Elections, Institutions and Society (2009) edited by Edward Aspinall and Marcus Mietzner Employment, Living Standards and Poverty in Contemporary Indonesia (2010) edited by Chris Manning and Sudarno Sumarto