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1 This article was downloaded by: [ ] On: 12 December 2011, At: 08:13 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: Registered office: Mortimer House, Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of China Tourism Research Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: An Exploratory Study of the Travel Motivation of Chinese Female Outbound Tourists Mimi Li a, Tong Wen b & Ariel Leung a a School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China b Department of Tourism Management, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China Available online: 07 Dec 2011 To cite this article: Mimi Li, Tong Wen & Ariel Leung (2011): An Exploratory Study of the Travel Motivation of Chinese Female Outbound Tourists, Journal of China Tourism Research, 7:4, To link to this article: PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

2 Journal of China Tourism Research, 7: , 2011 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: print / online DOI: / An Exploratory Study of the Travel Motivation of Chinese Female Outbound Tourists 中国女性游客出境旅游动机研究 MIMI LI TONG WEN ARIEL LEUNG Females have received increasing attention in the travel industry as a unique market segment. Yet there have only been limited empirical inquiries into their travel behaviors, particularly those of Chinese female tourists. This study aims to fill that gap by investigating the travel motivation and behavioral patterns of Chinese female travelers in the context of outbound travel to Hong Kong. Four push and five pull motivational factors are identified. They are knowledge and prestige, enhancement of social relationships, rest and relaxation, adventure and excitement, modern image, natural environment and attractions, safety and cleanliness, ease of tour arrangement, and shopping, respectively. The motivational factors are examined in relation to situational factors, with respondents marital status found to be the most influential. The findings are examined in the context of Chinese society as well as the rising significance and uniqueness of Chinese tourism; practical and theoretical implications are discussed. KEYWORDS. Kong Motivation, female travelers, China outbound tourism, Hong 作为旅游业的一个独特市场, 女性受到越来越多的关注 然而, 目前关于女性旅游行为的实证调查, 尤其是以中国女性游客为调查对象的研究则很有限 本研究以中国女性游客到香港旅游为背景, 旨在调查她们的旅游动机和行为模式 研究发现了四个推和五个拉的动机因素 推的因素包括知识和声望, 社会关系的提升, 休息和消遣, 冒险和刺激 拉的因素分别是现代的形象, 自然环境和景点, 安全和卫生, 旅游安排的弹性, 购物 本研究也探讨了动机因素跟环境因素的关系, 结果发现最有影响力的因素是受访者的婚姻状况 总的来说, 本文以中国社会的情况以及中国旅游的意义和独特性的提升来检查研究结果, 并对实践和理论的影响进行讨论 关键词 : 动机, 女性游客, 中国出境旅游, 香港 Introduction In the past few decades, there were notable changes in China s economy and living standards (World Tourism Organization [WTO], 2006). In 2009, China s gross domestic product (GDP) reached RMB33,535.3 billion, 8.7% higher than that in The Mimi Li is Assistant Professor of the School of Hotel and Tourism Management at The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China ( hmmli@polyu.edu.hk). Tong Wen is Assistant Professor of Department of Tourism Management at Jinan University, Guangzhou, China ( tourismlife@sina.com). Ariel Leung graduated from the School of Hotel & Tourism Management at The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China. 411

3 412 Mimi Li, Tong Wen, and Ariel Leung economy is expected to continue flourishing, as indicated by the Development Research Center of the State Council (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2010). The data suggest that the growth rate of China s GDP will range from 5.5 to 6.6% per annum from 2011 to 2020 (WTO, 2006). The strong support provided by such economic development, together with greater liberalization of tourism policy, creates an ideal environment for tourism development in China. In the WTO s Tourism 2020 Vision, the WTO sets out the growing role of China in both inbound and outbound tourism markets (WTO, 2001). The focus will shift in the future to east Asia and the Pacific, south Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. The number of Chinese outbound tourists is estimated to reach 100 million by 2020, and China s market share in the world market is predicted to rise from 0.9% in 1995 to 6.4% in 2020 (Xu, 2003). Among China s outbound tourists, the market share of female travelers has been continuously growing over the past 20 years (Li, 2007), echoing the global trend. Women have become independent operators in the marketplace (J. Smith & Clurman, 1997), and they have also become the primary target market for many travel businesses, as noted by Collins and Tisdell (2002). The increasing significance of female travelers can be attributed to three factors. Firstly, as more women receive better education and have improved access to employment opportunities, they have the time, finance, and social networks to undertake travel. Secondly, as Chang (2007) noted, female travelers have strong purchasing power and exhibit a greater intent to spend more money at the destination than do male travelers. Thirdly, previous studies show that women dominate the decision-making process, making the majority of choices on whether or not to travel and, if so, where to go. Female travelers now represent over 50% of the world s pleasure travel population, a fact that has aroused academic interest over the past decade. The majority of such research discusses the purpose of their travel and analyzes activity preferences based on gender. It is commonly held that travel is equally important to men and women. However, women hold dramatically different values than men regarding travel as a means of consumption. They have different expectations, play active roles in decision making, and have different attitudes toward travel (Baraban, 1986; DeLuca, 1986; Hawes, 1988). Despite the growing significance of this market, female travelers have received only limited empirical attention in the tourism literature. Hence, the study reported in this article was designed to fill this gap by exploring the characteristics of this market segment. More specifically, it aims to explore (a) the behavioral pattern of Chinese female tourists; (b) their travel motivation; and (c) the influences of other situational factors on these factors in the context of Chinese outbound travel to Hong Kong. Women and Tourism The word tourist for the guest role was coined in Europe in the mid-1700s to describe participants on tours or pleasurable educational journeys (Grabum & Jafar, 1991). Traditionally it has been characterized in masculine terms and infused with masculine ideas about adventure, pleasure and the exotic (Enloe, 1989, p. 20), whereas femininity has been defined in opposition to independent experience, revolving around the notions of domesticity. The term later came to include the bourgeoisie, large groups, and women. As a fundamental category in tourism research, gender is useful in human resource studies, economic development projects, marketing strategies, site and infrastructure planning, and policy development (Swain, 1995). In response to the growing

4 Journal of China Tourism Research 413 interest in the topic and the new work appearing within various disciplines, the Annals of Tourism Research published a special issue in 1995 entitled Gender in Tourism, implying a need to focus on women who travel. The guest editor of the issue, Margaret Swain, suggested that recent theoretical studies of tourism process and the social relations it embodies... have not dealt with gender issues in any substantial way (Swain, 1995, p. 250). Tourism studies that have addressed gender can be grouped into two research strands (Pritchard & Morgan, 2000). The first is the economic relationships that characterize female employment in the tourism industry (such as Cone, 1995; Creighton, 1995; Enloe, 1989; Garcia-Ramon, Canoves, & Valdovinos, 1995). The second focuses on the nature of host and guest relationships at a destination, ranging from the romantic and sexual relations between female guests and male hosts (such as Meisch, 1995; Pruitt & Lafont, 1995) to the impact of tourism on host societies and cultures (Moore, 1995). The majority of this work has, however, been devoted to sex tourism and the gender relationships that characterize this activity (see, for example, Enloe; Hall, 1997; Senftleben, 1986). Among the extant work on gender and tourism, very few studies have examined gender and pleasure travel behavior, and most of the studies on travel behavior have been focused on the general population. The importance of the female market was acknowledged as early as 1979 by V. Smith. In examining the travel behavior of one middle-class American community, Smith showed, using interviews and statistical analysis of secondary data, that women in America tended to dominate the decision-making process and that they preferred to vacation in popular destinations. Although the dominant role of women might not prevail in traditionally male-dominated societies, women were found to be the tastemakers of American tourism. Accounts of women s travel experiences differ dramatically from those of men. As Swain suggested, there is... rich diversity in tourism experience, and one dimension to acknowledge is gender in behaviors, perspectives, knowledge and tastes (Swain, 1995, p. 264). In his study of the travel-related lifestyle of older women, Hawes (1988) identified three distinct travel-related lifestyle profiles and also found clear differences between some of the age groups. In particular, women aged had a high interest in traveling overseas and were not primarily interested in rest and relaxation. Anderson and Littrell (1995) studied tourist souvenir purchases by a fairly homogenous middle-class population in Iowa. Two age cohorts, in early and middle adulthood, were interviewed to see whether they fit the liberal or cultural gender ideology and how they varied in souvenir purchases. Though the authors identified distinct patterns in shopping behavior by age, they also demonstrated little correlation with gender ideologies. Pennington-Gray and Kerstetter (2001) examined the benefits sought by university-educated women in the United States. A list of 27 benefit statements was presented to 485 females aged Statistical analysis revealed nine benefit dimensions, including rest/relax, culture, family, social, shopping, physical, solitude, action, and safety. Three benefit segments were identified: rest and relaxation seekers, family/ social seekers, and action seekers. Only employment status was a significant discriminant variable for the three clusters. In a similar study conducted a few years later by Chiang and Jogaratnam (2006), the motivations of female tourists traveling alone were investigated. Five motivational dimensions were identified: experience, escape, relaxation, social, and self-esteem. Trip characteristics and situational factors were found to be significantly related to travel motivations.

5 414 Mimi Li, Tong Wen, and Ariel Leung Most of the extant studies on women travelers have been confined to Western society, with the only exception of Cai and Combrink s (2000) study of Japanese female outbound tourists. Travel attitudes, motivation, and trip-related attributes were compared between male and female travelers. Significant differences were identified between the two segments. Japanese female travelers were attracted more by lifelong learning, escape and relaxation, natural environment and safety, cultural uniqueness, and history and art than were male tourists. The study concluded that Japanese female travelers constitute a unique outbound market. Though the world is looking at Chinese outbound tourism as a lucrative market, the study of Chinese female tourists has yet to receive attention from academics. Despite the global financial crisis that has struck almost all parts of the world, Chinese women, who traditionally control the pockets of their families, are buying the latest fashions, investing in stocks, and traveling (Z. Wang, 2009). Because they often dominate spending decisions in their family, investigation of their behavior will certainly have implications for both academia and industry. Methodology The study reported herein used data from a consumer survey. The survey instrument consisted of two parts. In the first part, a total of 30 motivational factors (13 push and 17 pull factors) were generated from previous literature (such as Klenosky, 2002; Zhang & Lam, 1999) with slight adjustments. A 7-point Likert scale was used to measure interviewees motivations, ranging from 1 ¼ very unimportant to 7 ¼ very important. The second part examined respondents travel behavior patterns and collected sociodemographic information. Questions covered topics such as length of stay, travel companions, expenses, and so on. The questionnaire was originally developed in English and was then translated into Chinese using a combination of the parallel blind and modified direct translation methods, as described by Guthery and Lowe (1992). Convenience sampling was used to collect data in February and March 2009 at the major tourist attractions in Hong Kong. Female travelers from Mainland China were intercepted and asked to fill out the questionnaire. A total of 204 usable surveys were collected as a result, giving a response rate of 81.6%. Progressive statistical analyses were then carried out. Firstly, frequency analysis was applied to examine the profile of the respondents. Descriptive analysis was then performed to examine the relative importance of each of the 30 motivational factors. Principal components analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation was employed to identify the underlying motivational dimensions, based on respondents self-evaluations. To control for the number of factors extracted, a minimum eigenvalue of one was used. Items that exhibited low factor loadings (<.40), high cross-loadings (>.40), or low communalities (<.50) were candidates for deletion (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 2006). To verify the validity and reliability of the variables generated by PCA, a Cronbach s alpha reliability test was also carried out. The factors resulting from the PCA were examined in one-way analysis of variance tests to identify their relationships with the other situational characteristics (age, income, education level, marital status, and length of stay). These factor values were used as dependent variables.

6 Journal of China Tourism Research 415 Major Findings Visitor Profile Table 1 reports the respondents demographic characteristics. Most of them were aged (38.2%) or (37.3%), followed by (24.5%). In terms of education, 53% held a bachelor s degree or above. Over 35% had a monthly income of RMB2,001 4,000, and 27.2% earned RMB4,001 6,000. More than half (53.7%) of the respondents were single. The profile of the women identified in this study is consistent with the general profile of Chinese outbound tourists to Hong Kong, with well-educated travelers aged forming the mainstream (Hong Kong Tourism Board, 2008). As shown in Table 2, the majority of respondents (85.9%) chose an independent tour as their mode of travel and nearly half stayed in Hong Kong for 4 6 days. The purposes of their visit were mainly sightseeing (47.3%) and shopping (29.3%). Almost 80% of the respondents had allocated a budget for shopping, which was evenly distributed between RMB1,001 and RMB5,000. Over 30% were traveling with relatives (35%) or friends (31.5%). Nearly 40% were visiting Hong Kong for the first time, and nearly 30% traveled to Hong Kong once a year. The percentage of respondents for whom Hong Kong was their primary destination (49.8%) was slightly lower than those for whom it was not (50.2%). Table 1. Profile of Respondents (N ¼ 204). Demographic Variable % Age or above 0.0 Marital Status Single 53.7 Married 44.3 Other 2.0 Education Level Secondary or below 18.0 Technical/vocational school 28.8 Bachelor s degree 41.0 Master s degree or above 12.2 Monthly Income Level (RMB) 2,000 or less ,001 4, ,001 6, ,001 8, ,001 10, ,001 or above 8.4

7 416 Mimi Li, Tong Wen, and Ariel Leung Table 2. Travel Behavior Patterns (N ¼ 204). Variable % Mode of Travel Package tour 14.1 Independent tour 85.9 Travel Purpose Sightseeing 47.3 Shopping 29.3 Visiting friends and relatives 8.8 Business 7.8 Others 6.8 Spending Accommodation 7.4 Transportation 3.4 Catering 13.7 Entertainment 11.8 Shopping 76.0 Frequency of Travel to Hong Kong Once a month 1.0 Four times a year 6.3 Twice a year 10.2 Once a year 28.3 Once every 2 years 15.6 First-time visit 38.5 Hong Kong as Primary Destination Yes 50.2 No 49.8 Party Type Alone 3.0 Relatives 35.0 Friends 31.5 Colleagues 13.3 Spouse 14.8 Outbound Travel Experience Once a month 1.0 Four times a year 5.9 Twice a year 33.2 Once a year 35.1 Once every 2 years 12.7 Never 12.2 Trip Budget (RMB) Less than 1, ,001 2, ,001 3, (Continued )

8 Journal of China Tourism Research 417 Table 2. Continued. Variable % 3,001 4, ,001 5, ,000 or above 34.1 Length of Stay 1 3 Days Days Days Days or above 4.9 Motivational Constructs Table 3 presents a descriptive analysis of these visitors travel motivations. The top five factors were shopping (mean ¼ 6.18), quality of goods (mean ¼ 5.79), beautiful scenery (mean ¼ 5.72), seeing something different (mean ¼ 5.67), and feeling the international metropolitan city (mean ¼ 5.46). The least important motivations were family links (mean ¼ 3.26), being daring and adventurous (mean ¼ 3.69), meeting new people (mean ¼ 3.74), visiting friends or relatives (3.90), and going to places my friends want to go (mean ¼ 4.00). Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted to examine the underlying dimensions of push and pull motivations separately (Table 4). Two rounds of EFA were conducted for the former. The motivational item of fulfilling my dream of visiting a place was deleted due to the low loading on either factor. This process resulted in a four-factor solution, explaining % of the total variance. The component factors were, in descending order of importance, knowledge and prestige, enhancement of social relationship, rest and relaxation, and adventure and excitement. All of the factors had a reliability score greater than 0.5 as suggested by Nunnally (1967). Similarly, two rounds of EFA were conducted to derive five pull motivational factors. Two of the 17 motivational items were deleted due to either low loading on either factor (quality of accommodation facilities) or cross-loading on more than one factor (similar cultural background). The five factors explained % of the total variance; in descending order, they were modern image, natural environment and attractions, safety and cleanliness, ease of tour arrangement, and shopping. All of the factors had a reliability score of over 0.6. Respondents motivations were examined in relation to the situational factors of age, income, educational level, marital status, and length of stay in Hong Kong (Table 5). It was found that the travel motivations of these Chinese female outbound tourists were consistent across all age and income groups. Respondents educational levels were found to be significantly related only to the motivational factor of enjoying the natural environment and attractions of Hong Kong. The lower the respondents educational levels, the more likely they were to be attracted by this element. Marital status exerted the strongest influence over travel motivation, with five out of nine factors differing significantly between single and married respondents. Married women considered knowledge and prestige important, whereas single women placed

9 418 Mimi Li, Tong Wen, and Ariel Leung Table 3. Descriptive Analysis of Travel Motivations (N ¼ 204). Motivation Mean SD Shopping: many world-famous branded goods Quality of goods Beautiful scenery; for example, Victoria Harbor, The Peak Seeing something different Hygiene and cleanliness Physically resting/relaxing International cosmopolitan city Being with my family Experiencing a different lifestyle Similar cultural background; for example, language Safety and security Implementation of individual travel scheme ,52 Fulfilling my dream of visiting a place Convenience of transport Geographic proximity Visiting a destination that most people value and/or appreciate Capital of modern technology Positive attitude of Hong Kong residents and service staff Festival/special events/exhibition Quality of accommodation facilities Increasing knowledge about a foreign destination Historical/cultural attractions Uniqueness of local people s lifestyle Escaping from daily routine Finding thrills or excitement Going to places my friends want to go Visiting friends or relatives Meeting new people Being daring and adventuresome Family links in Hong Kong high importance on motivations of modern image, natural environment and attractions, safety and cleanliness, and ease of tour arrangement. Significant differences were also identified among visitors whose lengths of stay in Hong Kong were different. Visitors staying for 4 6 days considered rest and relaxation as an important motivation. They were also attracted by the natural environment and attractions and modern image. Visitors staying for 7 10 days placed more importance on the safety and cleanliness of Hong Kong than did other groups. Discussion and Conclusion In 2009, the Huakun Women s Consumption Center conducted a survey of the consumption patterns of 1,200 women aged 20 to 60 from 10 cities. Spurred on by the

10 Journal of China Tourism Research 419 Table 4. Motivation Constructs. Factor Factor Loadings Eigenvalue Variance Explained Reliability Mean Knowledge and prestige Seeing something different Increasing knowledge about a foreign destination Experience a different lifestyle Visiting a destination that most people value and/or appreciate Enhancement of social relationships Going to places my friends want to go Meeting new people Visiting friends or relatives Being with my family Rest and relaxation Escaping from daily routine Physically resting/relaxing Adventure and excitement Finding thrills or excitement Being daring and adventuresome Modern image International cosmopolitan city Capital of modern technology Uniqueness of local people s lifestyle Convenience of transport Geographic proximity Natural environment and attractions Festival/special events/ exhibition Historical/cultural attractions Beautiful scenery; for example, harbor view, The Peak Safety and cleanliness Safety and security Hygiene and cleanliness Ease of tour arrangement Individual travel scheme Positive attitude of Hong Kong residents and service staff (Continued )

11 420 Mimi Li, Tong Wen, and Ariel Leung Factor Table 4. Continued. Factor Loadings Eigenvalue Variance Explained Reliability Mean Family links in Hong Kong Shopping Quality of goods Shopping: many world-famous branded goods Table 5. Outbound Travel Motivation by Situational Factors (F-Value). Age Education Income Marital Stage Length of Stay Knowledge and prestige * Enhancement of social relationship Rest and relaxation * Adventure and excitement Modern image * 2.511** Natural environment and * * 3.979* attractions Safety and cleanliness * 5.136* Ease of tour arrangement * Shopping Note. *p < **p < continuous growth of the Chinese economy, Chinese women are happy to spend their money on clothes, digital products, travel, and cosmetics (cf. Z. Wang, 2009). Despite the increasing growth in the amount that such women spend on tourism, there is a dearth of investigations into the travel behavior of this potentially lucrative market. The current study was intended to fill this research gap in the context of outbound travel to Hong Kong. As noted above, 204 women were approached and interviewed regarding their travel motivations and behavior patterns; sociodemographic information was also collected. The typical Chinese female tourists were single and well educated with a reasonable monthly income. The majority were aged The study also showed that most of these female tourists preferred to travel independently rather than joining a package tour. Half of them tended to visit Hong Kong as a stopover or secondary destination. Over two thirds were repeat visitors to Hong Kong and were also experienced outbound travelers. Four push (knowledge and prestige, enhancement of social relationship, rest and relaxation, adventure and excitement) and five pull (modern image, natural environment and attractions, safety and cleanliness, ease of tour arrangement, shopping) motivational factors were identified using EFA.

12 Journal of China Tourism Research 421 Unsurprisingly, shopping and the quality of goods were found to be the top two motivations for Chinese female outbound tourists to visit Hong Kong. This is consistent with the findings of Huang and Hsu (2005) that shopping is usually seen as the sole purpose for such women and as one that also generates repeat visits. Although some theorists have proposed that shopping is of interest to, and performed equally by, both men and women, many studies in consumer behavior have employed all-female samples. This reflects a widely held view that gender is fundamental to understanding and predicting shopping behavior. Previous studies have suggested that women hold opposing values about shopping compared with men (Falk & Campbell, 1997). Women enjoy the shopping process and are happy to spend considerable time and energy researching and browsing choices. As one of the major leisure and functional activities (D. Wang, 2004), shopping is an especially significant factor in considering women s travel needs. Some researchers have stated that women are the major group to enjoy shopping when visiting a destination (McGehee, Loker-Murphy, & Uysal, 1996). Known as a shopping paradise, with stores offering various well-known brands, Hong Kong has long been attractive to the Chinese female market for its favorable prices and the high quality of its products. To consolidate its image as a shopping paradise, Hong Kong should do its best to provide unique and exclusive shopping experiences. Consistent with previous studies (such as Cai & Combrink, 2000; Cha, McCleary, & Uysal, 1995; Yuan & McDonald, 1990; Zhang & Lam, 1999), knowledge and prestige was found to be a critical push factor influencing Chinese women to take outbound pleasure trips. For Chinese female outbound tourists, visiting Hong Kong can provide them with the experience of seeing something different, increasing their knowledge of a foreign destination, and experiencing a different lifestyle. At the same time, for many such women, visiting Hong Kong is something they can talk about with their friends and relatives. In order to fulfill their desire to experience a different lifestyle and to increase their knowledge of the destination, Hong Kong should put more effort into promoting other types of attractions in the territory, rather than focusing solely on shopping facilities. Interpretation systems should also be further developed to facilitate tourists understanding of the destination. Among the five pull factors, the motivation of enjoying the modern image of Hong Kong explained the most variance. This is consistent with Zhang and Lam s (1999) study indicating that a high-tech image was the main attribute encouraging Chinese tourists to visit Hong Kong. Capitalizing on its unique geographic and historical characteristics, Hong Kong has been attractive to the newly liberalized Chinese outbound market as a showcase of Western culture and lifestyle, which has long been conceptualized as modern. However, Hong Kong may lose its attractiveness as a metropolitan destination to a growing number of competitors, as indicated by the percentage of tourists in this study who saw it as a secondary destination. In order to retain its competiveness, while still promoting itself as a gateway to other destinations, Hong Kong should develop more modern-themed attractions and activities to retain its novelty in tourists minds. Chinese female outbound travelers motivations were relatively consistent across different ages, education levels, and income groups. Respondent s marital status was found to be significantly related to five out of nine motivational factors. The results showed that married women were attracted more by push factors (knowledge and prestige), whereas single women placed higher importance on elements of pull motivation. This indicated that the latter group was attracted more by the attributes of Hong Kong as a destination that offers a modern image, a natural environment and

13 422 Mimi Li, Tong Wen, and Ariel Leung attractions, a safe and clean travel environment, and easy arrangements. Married women consider Hong Kong more as an opportunity to fulfill their demands for increasing knowledge through travel. Tailor-made packages and marketing strategies should be developed to appeal to different market segments. Unlike their counterparts in other traditionally male-dominated societies, Chinese women have experienced a dramatic ideological shift, from being celebrated as iron girls (or tie niang zi, referring to robust women capable of performing jobs more commonly done by men) to being extolled as Eastern beauties. During the three decades that followed the foundation of the country, one goal that was consistently promoted in the official discourse was that of erasing gender differences and promoting sameness. As advocated by Chairman Mao Zedong, Chinese women were encouraged to dress in military uniforms rather than feminine clothes, to show violence rather than gentleness, and to have short hair, all to minimize symbolic gender differences. This, however, began to change in the 1980s when society started to appreciate feminized women. Influenced by these rather contradictory social ideologies, Chinese women are independent. They work hard while raising their children and they support their parents financially. They control the finances of their families and dominate most of the decisions. On the other hand, now liberalized from the genderless era, Chinese women more than ever before seek to spend their cash to make themselves more feminine and to pamper and spoil themselves. They have become a major driving force behind China s economic growth as well as its tourism development. Yet, they remain little understood by the travel trade as a market segment and as an influence on household travel budgeting. This study has provided only an exploratory analysis of the travel motivations and behavior patterns of Chinese women in the context of outbound travel to Hong Kong. More deliberative scrutiny of other behavioral constructs in this promising market is warranted because, as Chairman Mao famously said, women hold up half of the sky. An assumption presented in much marketing strategy literature is that men and women differ in aspects of their travel behavior, ranging from the products they tend to buy to their responses to advertising. Such assumptions have led practitioners to target different advertisements at women rather than men and academics to study travel behavior with a view to documenting sex-related differences. However, the majority of such research is associated with comparisons based on sex and refer to the physical and biological differences between men and women. Other sociological, attitudinal, and trait-based explanations are seldom seen in the tourism literature and, indeed, this is also the major limitation of the current study. Research on consumer behavior suggests that there are essential differences between its sociological, physical, attitudinal, and trait-based aspects (Fischer & Arnold, 1994). Future studies should, therefore, adopt more sophisticated constructs such as gender identity or gender role attitudes to investigate the potential basis for differences among and between men and women to enhance the exploratory power of tourist behavior research. References Anderson, L., & Littrell, M. (1995). Souvenir-purchase behavior of women tourists. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(2), Baraban, R. (1986). Women-traveler market spurs changes in hotel design. Hotel & Motel Management, 20(11),

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15 424 Mimi Li, Tong Wen, and Ariel Leung Pritchard, A., & Morgan, N. (2000). Constructing tourism landscapes Gender, sexuality and space. Tourism Geographies, 2(2), Pruitt, D., & Lafont, S. (1995). For love and money: Romance tourism in Jamaica. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(2), Senftleben, W. (1986). Hot spring resorts and sexual entertainment: Observations from northern Taiwan A study in social geography. The Philippine Geographical Journal, 30, Smith, J., & Clurman, A. (1997). Rocking the age: The Yankelovich report on generational marketing. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Smith, V. (1979). Women: The taste-makers in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 1(1), Swain, M. (1995). Gender in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(2), Swain, M. (Ed.). (1995). Gender in tourism [Special issue]. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(2). Wang, D. (2004). Hong Kongers cross-border consumption and shopping in Shenzhen: Patterns and motivations. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 11(3), Wang, Z. (2009). What crisis? Chinese women happy to spend [Electronic version]. China Daily. Retrieved from World Tourism Organization. (2001). Tourism 2020 Vision. Madrid, Spain: World Tourism Organization. World Tourism Organization. (2006). China The Asia and the Pacific intra-regional outbound series. Madrid, Spain: Author. Xu, F. (2003). Chinese outbound tourism. Madrid, Spain: World Tourism Organization. Yuan, S., & McDonald, C. (1990). Motivational determinants of international pleasure time. Journal of Travel Research, 24(2), Zhang, H., & Lam, T. (1999). An analysis of Mainland Chinese visitors motivation to visit Hong Kong. Tourism Management, 20(5),

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