The United Nations: Challenges and Change

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1 Challenges and Change

2 Contents Introduction: The UN Today 1 Part I: The UN and the International Community 2 The League of Nations 3 The UN Takes Shape 4 The Structure of the UN 6 Part II: Debating the UN s Role 10 The Security Council 10 Peacekeeping 14 Human Rights 20 Options in Brief 28 Option 1: Utilize the UN to Protect U.S. Interests 29 Option 2: Recommit the UN to its Founding Principles 31 Option 3: Scale Back the UN 33 Supplementary Documents 35 Charter of the United Nations 35 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 36 UN Member States Timeline 40 Supplementary Resources 42 THE CHOICES PROGRAM is a program of the Watson Institute for International Studies at Brown University. CHOICES was established to help citizens think constructively about foreign policy issues, to improve participatory citizenship skills, and to encourage public judgement on policy issues. The Watson Institute for International Studies was established at Brown University in 1986 to serve as a forum for students, faculty, visiting scholars, and policy practitioners who are committed to analyzing contemporary global problems and developing initiatives to address them. Copyright February Fourth edition. The Choices Program. All rights reserved. ISBN /

3 Challenges and Change 1 The United States played an important role in the founding of the United Nations in After the terrible destruction of World War II, people in the United States believed the United Nations could provide the foundation for maintaining international peace and security. They were proud of their leadership and vision and hoped that it would establish the basis for a more peaceful world. Yet today, the U.S. commitment to the UN is uncertain. Within the United States, the role of the UN is part of a larger debate about U.S. foreign policy. The role of the UN raises an important question about how the United States should address its security concerns. Should the United States protect its security by cooperating and seeking consensus with other countries at the UN? Many people in the United States wonder if the UN helps or hinders U.S. foreign policy. Many others remain committed to the organization. Internationally, much discussion about the UN s future involves the question of U.S. cooperation with the organization. The debate is about the role of the UN, its effectiveness, and its fairness. Some have called the UN a place for humanity to unite for peace and security, while others have deemed it naïve and idealistic. While upholding faith in the aims of the UN, some criticize the way the organization operates. Some critics accuse the UN of serving only the interests of powerful states, while others regard it as an inefficient and meddling institution. Today, the world faces threats that no one foresaw at the time of the UN s founding in AIDS, terrorism, the spread of nuclear weapons, and global climate change were not international concerns when the UN was Introduction: The UN Today formed. Some wonder if the UN has the capacity to face the challenges of a changing world. Others note that the UN s success, above all, depends on the commitment its members have to working together to solve problems. They argue that the UN itself does not fail or succeed, the countries that make up its membership do. The United Nations is only as good as its members, especially its primary members, want it to be. Brent Scowcroft, former U.S. national security advisor Today, the UN provides a forum where diplomats can address some of the world s immediate and long-term problems. The UN has programs spanning the globe in numerous areas: for example, peacekeeping and preventing conflict, caring for refugees, and reducing poverty, to name a few. It has more than fifty thousand employees around the world performing a wide variety of tasks. In the following days, you will have the opportunity to immerse yourself in the history of the UN and the debates about its role. Part I will introduce the history and charter of the UN. Part II will examine the role of the United Nations in the world. After completing the readings, you will be asked to consider the U.S. role in the UN and how the organization should be reformed, if at all. These issues connect to other, more fundamental questions about international relations. What role should the UN play in the world? What should be the role of the United States in world affairs?

4 2 The United Nations: Challenges and Change Part I: The UN and the International Community During World War II, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt ( ) led an effort to create an organization that would bring countries together in a new system of international cooperation. On June 25, 1945, fifty countries signed a document known as the United Nations Charter. According to the charter, the central aim of the United Nations (UN) is to maintain international peace and security. The Charter discusses human health and well-being, as well as safety from violence, as key matters of security. Roosevelt was not the first U.S. president to propose a system of international cooperation. Having seen Europe devastated by the violence of World War I ( ), President Woodrow Wilson ( ) hoped that it would be the war to end all wars. In addition to committing troops, Wilson outlined a proposal for an organization of states he called the League of Nations. His proposal led leaders from around the world to give real thought to the idea of organizing the international community. What is the international community? Both President Wilson and President Roosevelt s visions for a world organization were founded on a concept of an international community. Each foresaw an organization run by representatives from governments around the world. By the twentieth century, the Part I Definitions Sovereignty the authority of a state to govern itself without outside interference. Territorial Integrity the idea that international boundaries should not forcibly be changed. world s population had come to be organized under various governments. These governments, also known as states, oversaw distinct geographic regions. International law gave states supreme authority, or sovereignty, over all those living within the boundaries of that territory. At times of widespread international conflict, it became clear that the system of state sovereignty alone could not prevent war. The world faced the question of who ought to govern the interactions between sovereign states. The international community established the League of Nations, and later the United Nations, as bodies of authority that would promote international order. In addition, they hoped that international cooperation could address hunger, poverty, racism, exploitation, slavery, disease, and other worldwide problems. Both organizations faced the challenge of balancing their authority with the participating states sovereignty. What is the difference between a nation and a state? The 193 official members of the United Nations are states, not nations. A nation is a group of people who are united by a common language, religion, history, or homeland. In international relations, a state is a country with a defined territory and government that is recognized by its citizens and other countries and has sole control over its military. States may contain one or more nations within their boundaries, and nations within a state may or may not feel that the state accurately represents them as a group. Many nations within states rally behind the cause of selfdetermination, claiming that they, and not the states claiming to represent them, should govern their affairs. For example, Kurds, an ethnic-linguistic minority in the states of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Armenia, and Syria, see themselves as a nation and are seeking the establishment of an independent Kurdish state that could represent their political interests. THE CHOICES PROGRAM WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

5 Challenges and Change 3 The League of Nations The League of Nations was the predecessor of the United Nations. The League was a far-reaching effort to prevent war and maintain international peace. It lasted for twentysix years, between 1920 and 1946, and its failures led to the creation of the United Nations. How did the League of Nations intend to serve as the conscience of the world? The United States entered World War I in April Nine months earlier, President Wilson had proposed a plan to end the fighting and prevent future conflict. Wilson suggested the creation of a new international organization. The organization would eliminate the causes of war by encouraging open diplomacy, securing freedom of the seas, developing free trade, and reducing the production and trade in arms. He called this permanent global organization the League of Nations. Wilson believed that if states held one another accountable for preserving peace, each would behave more conscientiously in its international relations. In this way, Wilson hoped the League of Nations would serve as the conscience of the world. In a document known as the League of Nations Covenant, Wilson and other world leaders outlined the principles of the proposed organization. A central feature of the covenant was the idea of collective security. Collective security was based on a member s promise to respect and preserve against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members of the League. It urged states to respond to an attack on any League member as though it were an attack on itself. The Big Four Prime Minister Lloyd George of Britain, Prime Minister Orlando of Italy, Premier Clemenceau of France, and U.S. President Wilson played leading roles in the creation of the League of Nations. May Many people in the United States bristled at the idea of collective security. Critics of the League of Nations said signing would obligate U.S. troops to fight in conflicts abroad. They worried that joining the League would threaten the sovereignty of the United States. Furthermore, Wilson s conflicts with congressional leaders hampered any possibilities for compromise. Wilson, a Democrat, did not include Republicans in the drafting of the covenant. In response to this snub, his opponents in the Senate were skeptical of his ideas before they even reached the table. In 1920, the U.S. Senate defied Wilson and rejected U.S. participation in the League. Why did the League of Nations fail? The organization began to fail after the League of Nations Covenant took effect in January The League did not have the power to compel sovereign states to respect its authority. Members had little incentive to honor their pledges of cooperating to stop aggression, protect human rights, and limit the production and spread of armaments. The League required unanimous decisions, and differences of opinion prevented it from acting in many cases. The League struggled to live up to its Photo courtesy of National Archives and Records Administration.

6 4 The United Nations: Challenges and Change promise of being a global organization. Because the covenant s authors were enemies of Germany during World War I, the covenant reflected anti-german sentiments. Britain and France saw to it that Germany and a number of other important countries, such as the Soviet Union, were excluded from League membership. Their exclusion, along with the fact that the United States never joined, diminished the League s credibility. [The] League was considered a European and not a world organization. Lord Edward Grey, British foreign minister The UN Takes Shape When World War II ( ) erupted, the League of Nations goal of preventing another world conflict had clearly failed. Not only did the death toll of World War II surpass that of World War I, but the fighting caused unparalleled destruction. The war also alerted the international community to the human capability for mass execution of civilians on an unprecedented scale, known as genocide. The search for a lasting solution to conflict had never been more urgent. What conditions made a new international organization possible? Japan s attack on Pearl Harbor and U.S. involvement in World War II made people in the United States aware of how connected countries and their conflicts could be. As a result, the U.S. public became more open to international cooperation regarding matters of peace and security. Other governments saw new value in international organizations as well. While governments resolved to abandon the League of Nations, they focused on creating an international organization that could serve as the League s replacement. If it [the League] were to disappear today, nearly every treaty of a political character which has been concluded during these thirteen years would vanish with it. A state of chaos would result. [T]he first task which would confront the statesmen on the League s disappearance would be to reinvent the League. League Secretary-General Eric Drummon President Franklin R. Roosevelt, who had denounced the creation of the League in 1932, took the lead in creating a new international institution, the United Nations. Recalling President Wilson s inability to get the League of Nations Covenant passed in Congress, Roosevelt did not bring the United Nations Charter to Congress for approval until he knew he had the votes to guarantee ratification. How was the UN established? President Roosevelt died before the United Nations could be officially established. However, his successor, Harry S. Truman ( ), was determined to carry out Egypt signs the UN Charter, June 6, 1945, San Francisco. United Nations photo library. THE CHOICES PROGRAM WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

7 Challenges and Change 5 Roosevelt s vision for the UN. On June 25, 1945, just weeks before the end of World War II, fifty countries gathered in San Francisco to approve the United Nations Charter. Of the fifty states to sign the United Nations founding document, only a handful played a role in its drafting: Britain, China, the Soviet Union, and the United States. The League of Nations ceased to exist and transferred its powers to the United Nations. In early 1946, the United Nations set up its headquarters in New York City. The decision to house the UN headquarters in New York marked a new phase in the history of the international community. Prior to the two world wars, Europe was seen as the center of international politics, but World War I and World War II had called European stability into question, and the United States emerged as a strong and stable player in the international arena. Many in the world believed that placing the headquarters of the United Nations in the United States would help engage the U.S. public in world politics. The technological capabilities, democratic media, and available facilities in the United States made it a practical choice as well. People in the United States saw hosting the UN headquarters as a step toward spreading U.S. values and pursuing U.S. interests abroad. UN headquarters in New York City. What are the core values of the UN Charter? Sovereignty: The first underlying principle of the United Nations Charter is the sovereignty of all member states. Sovereignty means the authority of a state to govern itself without outside interference. Governments support the UN on the condition that their right to govern themselves will be respected. At the same time, the charter gives the permanent members of the Security Council authoritative power over others. Self-determination: Self-determination is the right of a people to choose their own UN Photo/MB. Choosing a Headquarters In a vote of 30 to 14, the UN decided to place its headquarters in the United States. Switzerland, though it had housed the League of Nations, had concerns about hosting the United Nations. Its priority after World War II was to maintain neutrality. (In fact, Switzerland did not join the UN until 2002.) Indeed, the failure of the League of Nations had tainted all of Europe as a site for the new international organization. Cities like Boston, San Francisco, Philadelphia and New York vied for the honor. New York City was chosen as the temporary site. U.S. oil businessman John D. Rockefeller offered the UN $8.5 million in order to purchase a specific piece of property in New York City. The deal was settled, and the United Nations set up headquarters in New York City in early The UN headquarters remains in New York City today.

8 6 The United Nations: Challenges and Change government. Examples of self-determination include the right to establish a constitution, run for office, and vote for local and national officials. The cause of self-determination has inspired nations to challenge empires and states that rule them. Throughout history, some world leaders have viewed self-determination struggles as a threat to international peace and stability. With thousands of ethnic groups in the world, fully honoring the principle of self-determination could lead to the creation of thousands of states. Territorial Integrity: Territorial integrity is the idea that international boundaries should not forcibly be changed. The United Nations is committed to respecting boundaries. What controversies surrounded the creation of the UN Charter? In the nearly seventy years of its existence, the UN Charter has undergone few changes. As the first international treaty of its scale, the charter is one of the most important documents in international relations. Still, there are a number of provisions in the charter that have been subject to multiple interpretations and disagreement over the years. In 1945, some delegates insisted that the charter promote self-determination and racial equality. But this line of thinking ran contrary to the practices of member states that maintained colonies overseas, such as France, Britain, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Colonial systems were often characterized by violence, racial oppression, and segregation. In the case of the United States, racial discrimination was part of many states laws. Though the perspectives of numerous peoples who lived under colonial rule and systems of racial oppression were not included in the creation of the United Nations Charter, some delegates present echoed concerns about discrepancies between the values the UN s founders claimed to uphold and the ongoing injustice that prevailed around the world. [T]he peoples of the world are on the move. They have been given a new courage by the hope of freedom for which we fought in this war. Those of us who have come from the murk and mire of the battlefields, know that we fought for freedom, not of one country, but for all peoples and for all the world. Carlos Romulo, delegate from the Philippines at the San Francisco Conference, 1945 Ultimately, the UN Charter prioritized the principle of sovereignty over these emerging concerns. In this way, colonial powers and, later, other world leaders could defend their actions by claiming sovereignty protected them from outside interference. The Structure of the UN The United Nations is a vast organization spanning the globe that employs more than fifty thousand people. UN employees perform a wide variety of tasks and include scien- Kirk Anderson. Reprinted with permission from Artizans.com. THE CHOICES PROGRAM WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

9 Challenges and Change 7 tists, doctors, diplomats, refugee and disaster specialists, security personnel, and administrators. The organization is divided into sections known as organs. There are six principal organs of the UN: the Security Council, the General Assembly, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, the Economic and Social Council, and the Trusteeship Council (see box). Who sits on the Security Council? The UN s executive body, the Security Council, holds the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. The Charter gives only the Security Council the legal authority to enforce its decisions through diplomatic or military action. The Security Council has fifteen seats: five permanent and ten nonpermanent. Elections are held every year for half of the nonpermanent seats. Their terms are for two years. Current practice allocates five elected seats to African and Asian states, two to Latin American and Caribbean states, one to an Eastern European state, and two to Western European and Other states. (The UN uses Other to refer to Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Turkey, and Israel.) The five remaining seats belong to the permanent members the United States, Britain, France, China, and Russia. Each of the five permanent members has the right to veto Security Council decisions. (To veto means to prevent a resolution from being enacted.) In order for a resolution to pass, nine of the fifteen members on the Security Council must vote in its favor, and no permanent member can use the veto. All UN members are legally required to abide by resolutions of the Security Council. Why has the veto power of permanent members of the Security Council been criticized? The five major victors of World War II granted themselves the exclusive power to veto resolutions. The veto power gave the permanent members a final say in UN Security Council resolutions. Other founding members of the UN expressed concerns over the fairness of the The Six Organs of the United Nations The Security Council: The Security Council is the UN body responsible for peace and security. It is the most powerful of the six organs. The Charter gave the five major victors of World War II Britain, China, the Soviet Union (now, Russia), the United States, and France permanent positions on the UN Security Council. The General Assembly: The General Assembly is composed of representatives from every UN member state. Votes in the General Assembly carry moral weight, but are not binding. The International Court of Justice (ICJ): The ICJ is the judicial organ of the United Nations. Cases come before the ICJ only when all parties (states, not individuals) involved agree to appear in court. The Secretariat: The Secretariat carries out the decisions of the organs of the United Nations and is the administrative section of the UN. The secretary-general is the head of the Secretariat. The Economic and Social Council: The Economic and Social Council coordinates the work of the UN s specialized agencies, functional committees, and regional commissions, which do much of the UN s work. The Trusteeship Council: The Trusteeship Council oversaw the transition of colonies to selfgovernment or independence. This organ ceased regular operations on November 1, 1994, and now only convenes as needed.

10 8 The United Nations: Challenges and Change veto power. They worried that disagreements among the permanent members of the Security Council could create deadlocks that would hinder the UN s ability to maintain peace and security. Although permanent members vowed not to obstruct operations of the council with their veto power, many states were skeptical of this promise. At the same time, they conceded that the full participation of the five permanent members was essential for the UN to succeed where the League of Nations had failed. While the status of the five permanent members of the Security Council has not changed since 1945, it has not gone unchallenged. Two important historical periods the Cold War and the era of decolonization had dramatic consequences for international politics and highlight some of the issues surrounding representation and power in the UN. The Cold War Many of the original UN members concerns over the veto power quickly proved valid. Following World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union became involved in a long, drawn-out conflict that caused more than forty years of hostility between these two states and their allies. This conflict, known as the Cold War, lasted roughly between 1947 and 1989 and limited the Security Council s ability to respond to global issues. What was the role of the UN during the Cold War? While the UN Charter enshrined international cooperation, the United States and the Soviet Union two permanent members of the Security Council were locked in an ideological battle during the Cold War. The Security Council could not act without their joint permission. The Security Council passed an average of fifteen resolutions a year during the Cold War. Today, the Security Council typically passes one resolution per week. Nevertheless, three important developments took place during this period. First, the UN established a peacekeeping program and began its first operation in During the Cold War, there were eighteen peacekeeping operations around the world. Second, the UN became an international leader on issues of development, human rights, and the environ- In July 1967, the UN hosted the Seminar on Apartheid, Racial Discrimination, and Colonialism in Southern Africa. The photograph above depicts the opening ceremony in Kitwe, Zambia. UN Photo # THE CHOICES PROGRAM WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

11 Challenges and Change 9 ment. Finally, less powerful countries of the world discovered that the UN was a forum to voice their concerns. The UN became an important tool for many African and Southeast Asian countries that were striving for independence from colonialism. Decolonization At the same time the Cold War was taking place, decolonization movements were growing in strength across the world. Colonies in Africa and Asia became independent states and gained UN membership. The UN played a significant role encouraging independence for colonies. In 1960, the General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples. The declaration reinforced the UN s commitment to self-determination. The subjection of peoples to alien subjugation, domination and exploitation constitutes a denial of fundamental human rights, is contrary to the charter of the United Nations and is an impediment to the promotion of world peace and cooperation. Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, December 14, 1960 With increased membership, criticism of the distribution of power on the Security Council grew louder. Newly independent countries argued that the Security Council underrepresented countries from Latin America, Africa, and Asia. In 1965, the UN General Assembly added four nonpermanent (elected) seats to the council, bringing the total to the current number of ten. The Assembly also established quotas for the number of seats filled by different regions of the world. Overall, decolonization rapidly expanded UN membership from 51 in 1945 to 159 countries in How did the end of the Cold War affect the United Nations? Improving relations between the United States and the Soviet Union brought the Cold War to an end in the late 1980s. When the Soviet Union dissolved, former Soviet republics became independent countries and UN membership grew even more. The end of the Cold War was a rebirth for the UN. Cooperation among the permanent members grew, while demands on the UN were greater than ever. One of the pressing concerns was how to appropriately address the fact that membership had nearly quadrupled since the UN Charter had first been signed. In addition, the changing nature of global concerns required the Security Council to consider the reach of its authority. The next section will discuss the leading concerns of the UN today representation in the Security Council, peacekeeping, and human rights and consider several of the debates surrounding these topics.

12 10 The United Nations: Challenges and Change As you read in Part I, the victorious powers of World War II established the UN to maintain international peace and security. The importance of this primary aim has not decreased since the UN s founding in 1945, but the world has changed dramatically since then. Part II: Debating the UN s Role Maintaining security in 1945 meant protecting states from war. Today, security is no longer solely a matter of war and peace between states. In addition to safeguarding countries from the attacks of aggressive states, defending human rights has become a leading concern for the United Nations. Terrorism, climate change, the HIV/AIDS pandemic, and the spread of nuclear weapons are also important issues that were not on the agenda in By all accounts, the UN faces big challenges. Today we face events of such magnitude and complexity. Diplomats of this generation now have the obligation to envision a second phase, a new chapter on collective action so as to eradicate these modern threats. Mexican Foreign Secretary Luis Derbez, September 24, 2004 Part II of the reading focuses on three major components of UN work that are highly debated: the Security Council, peacekeeping, and human rights. Each section discusses real cases that demonstrate the successes and shortcomings of the UN. In addition, each helps address key questions about the UN in three areas: representation, mandate, and effectiveness. Representation: Who should hold power within the UN? This is among the most lively and heated controversies today. Some countries express frustration that decision-making power is not shared equally among states. Mandate: What is the scope of the UN s responsibilities? For example, should the Security Council decide all matters of war and peace? Effectiveness: How should the UN be organized and run? Can the UN be more effective? Some critics contend that the UN is inefficient and ineffective. The Security Council The UN has many critics who argue that a few powerful states control the organization. In particular, they accuse the Security Council of placing great power in the hands of only a few. The Security Council holds the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. Only the Security Council has the legal authority to enforce its decisions through diplomatic or military action. Since the UN s formation after World War II, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Russia, and China have led the Security Council. Each of these countries has a permanent seat on the council. Any one of these five states can stop a resolution from passing by vetoing it. Many other members find the makeup of the council unfair. Some desire a Security Council that accurately reflects the political situation in the world today not The time has come for world views to prevail at the UN, rather than those of the West. Cameron Duodo, Ghanaian journalist Recent proposals for reforming the UN call for expanding the permanent membership of the Security Council. Member states are divided about which states should be added or whether the current system needs changing at all. In addition to more democratic representation, debates about reform revolve around the question of the Security Council s reach and effectiveness. In reviewing the history THE CHOICES PROGRAM WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

13 Challenges and Change 11 of the UN, some critics point to conflicts in which the Security Council did not intervene but should have, like the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Other critics cite instances of conflict in which the Security Council did authorize intervention, as in Timor-Leste in They claim that the UN overstepped the boundaries of its power. This difference of opinion highlights a disagreement about how much say the Security Council should have on decisions to authorize the use of force. What was the role of the Security Council in the two wars in Iraq? The role of the Security Council came under scrutiny in 2003 when the permanent members were divided over the question of authorizing military action against Iraq. This was not the first time the Security Council had addressed conflict in Iraq. Thirteen years earlier, the Security Council met under different circumstances to debate taking military action against Iraq. In the 1991 Iraq War, the Security Council, led by the United States (who was joined by its former foe, the Soviet Union), authorized an intervention that succeeded in ending an act of aggression by Iraq against Kuwait. Under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, a repressive dictator, Iraqi forces invaded the neighboring oil-rich kingdom of Kuwait in U.S. President George H. W. Bush ( ) put In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the United Nations, its Members confer on the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, and agree that in carrying out its duties under this responsibility the Security Council acts on their behalf. together a military coalition of twenty-eight nations under the UN banner to end the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait. As part of the ceasefire agreement, UN monitors conducted regular inspections of Iraq to prevent the production of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, and destroyed any stockpiles of chemical or biological weapons that they found. Many believed that this military intervention, made shortly after the end of the Cold War, was the beginning of an era of international cooperation and increased importance for the UN. Thirteen years later, Iraq and the UN were in the headlines again, but this time the Security Council could not agree. UN Charter, Article 24:1 The United States and Britain argued that the weapons inspections were not working in Iraq. They contended that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), and that twelve A UN inspector in 1992 uses a chemical air monitor to help confirm whether Iraq was complying with orders to destroy its chemical weapons program. UN Photo #76180.

14 12 The United Nations: Challenges and Change years of UN sanctions had failed to persuade Hussein to comply with the 1991 ceasefire agreement. U.S. President George W. Bush ( ) and British Prime Minister Tony Blair advocated military action to remove the WMDs, and topple the government of Saddam Hussein. The five permanent members of the council disagreed on whether to continue the weapons inspections or take military action. France and Russia threatened to veto any Security Council resolution that called for military action against Iraq. In March 2003, the United States invaded Iraq, arguing incorrectly that Iraq possessed WMDs. The U.S. decision to go to war without Security Council authorization raised questions about the commitment of the United States to the UN and the rule of law. Three weeks after the U.S.-led ground offensive began, the Iraqi government fell. Months later, Saddam Hussein was captured. An unsuccessful search for biological, nuclear, and chemical weapons in Iraq began. What are the current debates about the Security Council? The Security Council s role in the two Iraq wars raised questions about the authority the UN has in decisions to go to war, and about who leads this decision-making process. Within the U.S. public, some dislike the idea of the UN Security Council claiming authority over matters of war and peace. On the other hand, some suggest that with a commitment from its members, the Security Council can work effectively against aggression as it did in Iraq in In this photo from 2006, an Iraqi family waits outside while a U.S. soldier searches their home. What is the U.S. government s position toward the Security Council? Under President George W. Bush, the U.S. government took military action without the authorization of the Security Council. President Barack Obama, who assumed office in 2009, has stepped away from this approach. He instead has emphasized international cooperation and the importance of countries working together to solve the world s problems. This approach has led to some frustration both in the United States and abroad. For example, U.S. efforts have failed to push the Security Council to authorize action to stop the use of force by the Syrian government against its own people. Russia and China have refused to consider a council resolution. As of January 2014, this civil war had killed more than 100,000 Syrians and forced 8.5 million from their homes. We live in a world of imperfect choices. Different nations will not agree on the need for action in every instance, and the principle of sovereignty is at the center of our international order. But sovereignty cannot be a shield for tyrants to commit wanton murder, or an excuse Jeremy Wood. U.S. Navy. THE CHOICES PROGRAM WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

15 Challenges and Change 13 for the international community to turn a blind eye. President Barack Obama, September 24, 2013 What proposals are being considered to reform the Security Council? Following the 2003 disagreement over Iraq, the UN appointed a panel of high-level officials to consider reform of the Security Council. Some believe that permanent membership should be granted to a handful of other states. Some proposals go so far as to grant veto power to new states. Regional powers like Brazil and India and major UN financial contributors such as Germany and Japan are vying for seats. Opinions about giving more countries permanent seats on the UN Security Council are split in the United States. Some see it as a natural and necessary reform, citing the historical example of the council s expansion in its early years from eleven to fifteen members. The UN and International Treaties Treaties are used to solve problems ranging from eliminating terrorism and reducing the spread of nuclear weapons, to protecting the environment and regulating international trade. One of the original purposes of the UN was to strengthen international order through greater respect for treaties and other multilateral agreements. The United States enters into treaties after considering its options and interests. As the most powerful member of the UN, the United States plays a leading role in the drafting of international agreements. The United States also promotes its own interpretations of existing international treaties, which may or may not be the same as the interpretations of other member states. The U.S. president or a representative can sign a treaty, but the U.S. Senate must ratify the treaty for it to become law. Below are three significant international treaties. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is one of the most important international treaties. The United States played a leadership role in drafting the NPT. For over four decades, the NPT, which regulates the production, trade, and dismantling of nuclear weapons, has been a centerpiece of U.S. foreign policy. 189 countries have joined the treaty. The NPT is the most widely-adhered-to arms control treaty and has slowed the proliferation (spread) of nuclear weapons. Genocide Convention: After the genocide of Jews and others by the Nazis during World War II, leaders worldwide pledged that such an event would never happen again. On December 9, 1948, the UN unanimously passed the Genocide Convention. This treaty made genocide a crime and obligated its signers to prevent, suppress, and punish genocide. The treaty held violators responsible whether they attacked another state or acted inside their own borders. The U.S. Senate did not ratify the treaty until February 11, Some senators objected to the treaty because it was seen as infringing on U.S. sovereignty and would allow foreign countries and organizations to examine the internal affairs of the United States. Tragically, there have been numerous genocides since These repeated genocides illustrate the limits of the international community when it comes to preventing massive violations of basic human rights. Convention on Rights of the Child: The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), which the UN General Assembly passed in 1989, was the first binding international treaty dedicated exclusively to protecting and promoting the rights of children. The CRC was put into effect within seven months and was ratified by all but two UN member states (the United States and Somalia) within a decade. Although participants from the United States played a major role in drafting this treaty, U.S. public opinion is split, with groups vigorously arguing both for and against the CRC s adoption.

16 14 The United Nations: Challenges and Change United Nations photo library. UN peacekeepers fulfill a range of duties, from monitoring elections to using troops to enforce borders. Others contest this, arguing that U.S. leadership in the UN would be diluted and that an enlarged council would make reaching agreement more difficult. Other critics propose adding nonpermanent seats for those geographic regions currently underrepresented on the Security Council. Proposals calling for additional nonpermanent seats often also ask for restrictions to be placed on the veto power and express interest in its eventual elimination. [C]ontemporary world realities, in particular the substantial increase in membership of developing countries since 1963, requires an expansion of the Security Council, in the nonpermanent category, in order to ensure fairer opportunities for all Member States. A draft resolution put forth by Argentina, Canada, Colombia, Korea, Mexico, Spain, Turkey, and other states, July 21, 2005 Peacekeeping UN peacekeeping forces are primarily military forces of UN members who have been assigned to work with the UN. Peacekeeping forces have a range of duties that can include: monitoring a border, making a ceasefire hold, and protecting civilians. The UN deployed the first peacekeepers to secure peace in 1956 during the Suez Crisis. The Suez Crisis was a conflict that began when Israel, supported by France and Great Britain, invaded Egypt. At that time, the international community was primarily concerned with preventing war between countries. Today, civil war and other types of local conflict take far more lives than do wars between countries. What is the difference between peacekeeping and peace enforcement? Early peacekeepers were unarmed and were impartial in conflicts. Due to the changing nature of conflict, peacekeepers today are usually well armed. The challenges they face are often complex civil conflicts, commonly involving governments waging war All Members of the United Nations, in order to contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security, undertake to make available to the Security Council, on its call and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, armed forces, assistance and facilities, including rights of passage, necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security. UN Charter, Article 43:1 THE CHOICES PROGRAM WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

17 Challenges and Change 15 on their own people, rather than conventional wars between states. Peacekeeping missions frequently involve military engagement, sometimes referred to as peace enforcement, that places these soldiers on a particular side of the conflict. In addition, peacekeeping troops fulfill an increasingly wide range of nonmilitary tasks. Since the UN does not have a standing army of its own, the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) relies entirely on member states to contribute troops and resources for its operations. SLOVENIA Adriatic Sea HUNGARY CROATIA BOSNIA- HERZEGOVINA MONTENEGRO SERBIA KOSOVO ROMANIA MACEDONIA BULGARIA Why is there a debate about peacekeeping? The debate surrounding peacekeepers is fueled by the history of previous peacekeeping operations. One of the most terrible events of the twentieth century sparked calls for change. For one hundred consecutive days in 1994, thousands of Rwandan men, women and children were killed by machine gun fire, machetes, and hand grenades. Within four months, nearly one million people were murdered simply because of their ethnic origin. Escalating tensions between Rwanda s Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups overwhelmed the UN s tiny peacekeeping force. In the wake of the UN s failure to prevent genocide in Rwanda and other tragedies of the twentieth century, some member states proposed the creation of a standby UN military force. (Currently, member states volunteer troops only when peacekeeping and security needs arise.) This idea has sparked intense debate. Some states are unwilling to give control of their troops to the international organization. Other objections include the financial cost of maintaining a standing UN force. Two peacekeeping operations, one in the former Yugoslavian republic of Bosnia and the other in the Asia-Pacific island of Timor-Leste illustrate the debates about peacekeeping missions. Bosnia The former state of Yugoslavia slowly began to disintegrate after the death of its longtime leader, Marshal Tito in The ITALY ALBANIA GREECE The republics of the Yugoslav Federation, republics that had been united under the state of Yugoslavia came apart. Several, including Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, and Macedonia, sought independence. Nationalists in many of the republics exploited this chaos. An extremist, Slobodan Milosevic, rose to power in the republic of Serbia. His nationalist message reached ethnic Serbs across the former Yugoslavia. In the early 1990s, ethnic Serbs in Bosnia grew nervous when they heard rumblings of aspirations for an independent Bosnian state. While Bosnia s Muslims and Croats supported the creation of an independent state, Bosnian Serbs feared they would be subject to persecution. The conflict in Bosnia quickly erupted into violence. Supported by armies from neighboring republics, all sides were guilty of atrocities. But Serb forces were responsible for most of the brutality against civilians. The Serbs sought to expel or kill Muslims and Croats from the region by targeting civilians. This process of ethnic cleansing utilized torture, gang rape, concentration camps, and massacre. How did UN peacekeepers try to end the violence? Because neither Europe or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) wished to be involved, the UN sent a peacekeeping force

18 16 The United Nations: Challenges and Change UN Photo #907/John Isaac. In this photo from May 1994, UN soldiers monitor the movement of Bosnians at a UN checkpoint. to Bosnia. (NATO is a political and military alliance of countries from Europe and North America.) The mission mandated peacekeepers to enforce trade sanctions and a no-fly zone against Serbia, but gave the peacekeepers no authority for military action. In 1993, the UN Security Council designated several safe areas throughout Bosnia, where displaced Muslims and Croats could take refuge and have the protection of a small peacekeeping mission. In the midst of a war zone, peacekeepers were still not given authority to take military action to protect civilians. Neither were the 35,000 extra troops the UN secretary-general requested from member states for the peacekeeping in the region. In July 1995, Serb forces invaded one safe area in the city of Srebrenica. As fighting worsened, Serb forces took thirty peacekeepers hostage. The commander of the peacekeeping forces filed a request with the UN for air support from NATO to suppress Serbian attacks. No air support came. Peacekeepers later learned from UN headquarters that the support had not come because the request had been filed on the wrong form. The request was resubmitted correctly, SLOVENIAV and NATO planes then targeted Serbian bases with two airstrikes. The delay highlighted the difficulties of sending a peacekeeping force into a full-scale war without a mandate for military action. Serb forces responded to the air strikes by threatening to kill the hostages they had taken. As the situation worsened and no additional support came for peacekeepers to defend their position, the peacekeeping mission left Srebrenica altogether. Meanwhile Serb forces lay siege to the city, deported more than twenty thousand women and children, and killed some eight thousand males between the ages of twelve and seventy-seven. What was the effect of NATO intervention? Serbian massacres of Bosnian Muslim villagers and artillery attacks against the city Zagreb Adriatic Sea ITALY HUNGARY CROATIA BOSNIA and HERZEGOVINA Sarajevo Dayton agreement line Muslim-Croat sector Serb sector Belgrade ROMANIA SERBIA and MONTENEGRO Kosovo MACEDONIA GREECE This map shows the peace agreement that was reached in 1995, dividing Bosnia into two republics one for Muslims and Croats, and one for Serbs. BULGARIA THE CHOICES PROGRAM WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

19 Challenges and Change 17 of Sarajevo stirred international anger. NATO launched a hardhitting bombing campaign against the Bosnian Serb army. NATO s air war, led by U.S. pilots, allowed Bosnian Croat and Muslim fighters to take the initiative on the ground. In an example of ethnic cleansing, the Croatian army drove more than 200,000 Serbs out of eastern Croatia, a region in which their people had lived for three centuries. The Croats, along with the Bosnian Muslims, quickly followed up their advance by attacking the Bosnian Serbs in western Bosnia. THAILAND MALAYSIA The combatants reached a ceasefire in October 1995 and signed a formal peace agreement in Dayton, Ohio, in December The Dayton Accords set forth ambitious goals. The agreement was meant not only to end the war, but to build a democratic, multiethnic society. Several thousand peacekeepers under European Union leadership remain in place to enforce the accords. Hundreds of millions of dollars in economic aid have been spent to restore the economies in the region. In addition, officials and soldiers from both sides of the conflict have been tried for war crimes at a UN-sponsored tribunal in the Netherlands. KAMPUCHEA SINGAPORE VIETNAM Jakarta South China Sea BRUNEI MALAYSIA PHILIPPINES INDONESIA TIMOR LESTE (see inset) Provincial border Kupang Pacific Ocean Timor-Leste For more than four hundred years, Portugal ruled the eastern half of the Pacific island of Timor. (In English, Timor-Leste means East Timor. ) The Dutch ruled the western half of the island, along with the islands that today make up Indonesia. The Indonesians gained independence from the Netherlands in 1949, and for the next sixteen years grappled with mounting political instability. The turmoil erupted into civil war in The Portuguese colony of Timor-Leste was shielded from the violence in Indonesia. But in 1974, Portuguese colonial rule over Timor-Leste suddenly ended after Portugal s dictatorial government fell from power. The people of Timor-Leste hoped that the collapse of the Portuguese empire Dili Suai Manatuto TIMOR L ESTE Viqueque PAPUA NEW GUINEA UN Peacekeeping Operations Statistics Peacekeeping Operations (December 2013) Peacekeeping operations since Current peacekeeping operations 16 Personnel (December 2013) Military and police personnel 97,904 Countries contributing military and police 122 Top ten troop contributors Total UN peacekeeper fatalities since ,186 Financial Approved resources (July 2013-June 2014) Estimated total costs from 1948-June 2010 Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Nepal, Jordan, Ghana, Senegal $7.83 billion $69 billion

20 18 The United Nations: Challenges and Change would allow them to achieve independence. Indonesia s President Suharto had other plans for Timor-Leste. In December 1975, he ordered his army to invade the island. Indonesian forces massacred thousands of unarmed civilians. In the months and years that followed, air attacks destroyed entire villages. Indonesia s actions met with little opposition from the international community. The UN General Assembly passed a resolution condemning the invasion. But because Indonesia was a key trading partner of many powerful countries, a number of member states including the United States, Britain, Germany, France, and Australia abstained from voting, while Japan opposed the resolution. The UN Security Council passed a resolution calling on all states to respect the territorial integrity of Timor-Leste. Suharto ignored the UN resolutions and tightened Indonesia s occupation of Timor- Leste. But the people of Timor-Leste did not give up their struggle. In 1998, a severe economic downturn forced Suharto to resign, which suddenly opened up new opportunities for change. Suharto s successor, B.J. Habibie, promised to transform Indonesia into a democracy. As part of his reform program, he declared his support for a plan to allow the Timorese people to decide their own political future. How did UN peacekeepers aid Timor- Leste s transition to independence? In 1999, the UN deployed a mission to assist Timor-Leste s transition to independence. Students in Timor-Leste on the first day of school in The school building was burned during the violence after the 1999 vote to make Timor- Leste independent. UN peacekeepers built desks and chairs for students in this school and later repaired the roof. Despite Habibie s promises, violence erupted, apparently with the backing of Indonesia s military. The Indonesian military forcibly transported one quarter of the population across the border out of Timor-Leste. The UN authorized a military peace enforcement intervention, led by Australia, to stop the violence. Soon after, Indonesia pulled out of the region. After Indonesia s retreat, UN peacekeepers resumed efforts to establish law and order and distribute humanitarian aid. The UN gave the peacekeepers the task of creating a government for Timor-Leste from scratch. It was the first time in history that the UN stepped in to play the role of government and build a state from the bottom up. In May 2002, the UN transferred full sovereignty to Timor-Leste. By 2003, most refugees had returned to their homes. But violence in 2006 and the near-assassination of the country s president in 2007 highlighted the fragility of the peace. UN peacekeepers remained in the country until December 31, 2012 to ensure security, enforce the law, and train police and civil servants. Today, the political situation remains stable, and the economy shows growth, UN Photo/Eskinder Debebe. THE CHOICES PROGRAM WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

21 Challenges and Change 19 helped in large part by the development of oil and natural gas resources offshore. Nevertheless, more than 40 percent of the population lives below the poverty line. What are the current debates about UN peacekeeping? The history of UN peacekeeping missions in conflict areas such as Bosnia and Timor-Leste frame the debate about peacekeeping. These missions evoke questions about whether the UN s mandate should include intervening in conflicts within states at all, whether the UN is capable of properly supplying and supporting its missions, and who should have responsibility for peacekeeping. The reasons for the UN mission s failure in Bosnia and the resulting tragedy of Srebrenica are contested. Some argue that the mission s mandate was unclear and insufficient or that it was not effectively carried out. Many argue Ceremony marking the transfer of police authority from the UN Mission in Timor-Leste to the government of Timor-Leste. March 27, that the UN s failure in places like Bosnia suggests that it should not continue to intervene in tricky and costly conflicts, at least until there is a ceasefire. The peacekeeping mission in Timor-Leste was unprecedented in its scope and scale. Some object to peacekeepers taking such a far-reaching role in building a state from the ground up. UN Photo # Scandal in the UN While the UN focuses its efforts on maintaining peace and security worldwide, it must also confront corruption and crime within the organization itself. One of the most well-known UN scandals relates to the Oil-for-Food Programme. In 1995, the United Nations made an agreement with the Iraqi government under Saddam Hussein. The government of Iraq could sell oil to a handful of buyers, and then the money from those sales would go toward food and humanitarian goods for the country. (At the time, there were economic sanctions against oil companies in Iraq that prevented them from selling oil on the world market.) In 2005, an investigation into the program found that the Iraqi government had placed a series of unauthorized fees on oil, food, and humanitarian contracts. In doing so, the government of Iraq made over 1.5 billion dollars. The UN was blamed for failing to monitor the bank accounts and personnel involved in the program. The UN s credibility has also been questioned due to cases of UN peacekeepers committing crimes while in the field. There have been multiple reports of sexual assault and human trafficking by UN personnel. The UN has a zero tolerance policy for crime, but perpetrators have not always been held accountable. Laws in some countries prevent UN personnel from being brought to court because the crime was committed abroad. These judicial gaps are a challenge for the UN as it seeks to address misconduct within the peacekeeping force.

22 20 The United Nations: Challenges and Change United Nations photo library. Reprinted with permission. Many look to the list of failed peacekeeping missions as an indication that peacekeeping requires more attention and resources. Peacekeeping is consistently underfunded. In addition, the system of enlisting national armies for all UN missions is identified as a root problem. Member states are not always eager to contribute troops to end conflicts in which they are not involved. One proposal to fix the problem the creation of a standby military force is highly controversial. Supporters argue that the proposal would allow the UN to respond to crises more quickly and effectively. Critics worry that an independent standing UN force could make it more likely that the UN would use military action to deal with conflicts. Many are concerned that this could lead to violations of state sovereignty. What is the Peacebuilding Commission? In September 2005, the UN agreed to form a Peacebuilding Commission. UN members agreed to devote resources to identify states in danger of collapse, to provide assistance to prevent state collapse and conflict, and to help rebuild states after there has been a conflict. In addition, remembering the tragedies in Rwanda and Srebrenica, states agreed that they Eleanor Roosevelt displays a poster of the Declaration of Human Rights. were prepared to take prompt collective action through the UN Security Council to prevent genocide and other crimes against humanity. What is the U.S. position on UN peacekeeping? The United States has been active in leading enforcement operations and has also played a critical role in operations led by regional organizations like NATO. The United States often provides transportation for peacekeeping operations to reach their destination, but does not contribute a significant number of troops to peacekeeping operations for several reasons. The UN directly controls peacekeeping operations and the United States traditionally has avoided giving command of its soldiers to the UN or any non-u.s. leaders. Many in the United States oppose the idea of creating a standby UN military force because they fear giving too much power to the UN. Human Rights The denial of human rights is a leading cause of violent conflict. Among the UN s greatest achievements have been its successes at defining international human rights standards. Led by Eleanor Roosevelt, the UN developed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in This document and two later treaties the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights make up the foundation for current international human rights standards. Together these documents are known as the International Bill of Human Rights. The International Bill of Human Rights broke new ground. Never before had the world THE CHOICES PROGRAM WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

23 Challenges and Change 21 Major Elements of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Everyone is entitled to: life liberty security a nationality freedom from slavery, discrimination, or torture equal protection under the law presumption of innocence until proven guilty freedom from arbitrary interference with privacy freedom of movement freedom to marry and start a family ownership of property freedom of thought, opinion, expression, association, and religion suffrage (the right to vote) social security work and membership in trade unions equal pay for equal work and just remuneration rest and periodic holidays with pay an adequate standard of living free fundamental education come together to agree on universal expectations of individual rights and freedoms. These documents have become guidelines for states domestic laws, as well as for the conduct of business among states. Three examples of areas in which the Bill of Human Rights has had significant impact are in securing women s rights, labor standards, and voting rights as international standards. On the other hand, the UN has not successfully enforced the ambitious agenda set by the International Bill of Human Rights. What was the Commission on Human Rights? In 1946, the UN Economic and Social Council recognized the link between ensuring human rights and maintaining international peace and security. It created the Commission on Human Rights and charged it with examining, monitoring, and reporting on human rights situations. For the first twenty years of its existence, the commission focused solely on promoting human rights and helping develop international treaties on human rights issues. Beginning in the late 1960s, the Commission also began investigating and monitoring human rights abuse, publicly reporting on these abuses, and condemning the perpetrators. Since the end of the Cold War, the growing prominence of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and the globalization of communication have made human rights abuses increasingly visible. This has led to demands for better enforcement of the human rights standards put forth over a half-century ago. Increasing concern about human rights led the UN to create the position of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in The commissioner, who reports directly to the secretary-general, leads and coordinates all UN efforts related to human rights issues. The era of declaration is now giving way, as it should, to an era of implementation. Secretary-General Kofi Annan, April 7, 2005 Why did the UN reform its system for dealing with human rights issues? Critics had long denounced the Commission on Human Rights for its membership. The Commission, with fifty-three members elected to three-year terms, often had representatives

24 22 The United Nations: Challenges and Change from countries with questionable human rights records. When Sudan was re-elected to the UN Commission on Human Rights in 2004 despite its government being responsible for massive human rights abuses, the U.S. representative walked out of the session. The U.S. gesture of disapproval reflected a concern about the membership and effectiveness of the Commission on Human Rights. In his April 2005 address to the commission, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan declared that the commission was failing. We have reached a point at which the commission s declining credibility has cast a shadow on the reputation of the United Nations system as a whole, and where piecemeal reforms will not be enough. Secretary-General Kofi Annan, April 7, 2005 To prove the UN s commitment to human rights, Annan proposed that the UN replace the Commission with a new body a Human Rights Council. In May 2006, the General Assembly elected forty-seven countries as Humanitarian Aid and Development The UN s role in humanitarian aid and development work may be the organization s most visible presence around the world. UN aid and development takes a variety of forms. Sometimes UN agencies administer projects independently, sometimes the UN channels aid to specific governments, and sometimes UN agencies work alongside or provide funding to nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). UN agencies and affiliated NGOs must navigate political complexities and extensive bureaucracies. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) is one of many organizations within the UN working on development. Others include the United Nations Children s Fund (UNICEF), the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the World Food Programme (WFP). The UN s vast network of organizations is involved in addressing long-term problems and immediate crises like natural disasters and refugee situations. In 2001, members of the United Nations General Assembly, including the United States, agreed on eight development goals for the year The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) include the elimination of hunger, increasing children s access to primary [T]he United Nations shall promote: a. higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and social progress and development; b. solutions of international economic, social, health, and related problems; and international cultural and educational cooperation... UN Charter, Article 55 education, reducing gender inequality, and promoting global partnerships, among others. Major gains have been made toward reducing poverty, child mortality, and the spread of HIV/AIDS, but many MDGs still remain out of reach. In December 2013, the UN announced a post-2015 development agenda, which will be used to recommit member states to existing and new MDGs. Some see these goals as necessary and achievable, while others think they are idealistic and go beyond the UN s mandate or capabilities. The commitment involved in humanitarian and development projects have caused some to question how highly the UN should prioritize aid within its wider agenda of peace and security, and whether there is a better method of administering aid. THE CHOICES PROGRAM WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

25 Challenges and Change 23 In 2003, tensions over land and grazing rights in Darfur, Sudan escalated between ethnic groups. Non-Arab groups, who are mainly farmers, claimed that the central government gave special privileges to the Arab population of nomadic herders. This was not a new grievmembers of the Human Rights Council and the Commission on Human Rights ceased to exist. It was an important reform of the way the UN dealt with human rights issues. The new Human Rights Council is accountable to the General Assembly and meets for nearly twice as long each year. Still, the UN continues to struggle to define its role in addressing human rights. The case of Darfur, Sudan highlights the difficult balance the UN must strike between the interests of its member states and its mandate to effectively protect the human rights of people around the world. Humanitarian Crisis in Darfur, Sudan Sudan is the third largest country in Africa, and is made up of hundreds of diverse ethnic, religious, and linguistic communities. Since it gained independence from Britain in 1956, Sudan has been embroiled in civil war. Different ethnic groups have fought for control of the government and access to natural resources. Decades of conflict between the Arab, Muslim elite in the north and other groups in the south culminated in the separation of the country into Sudan and South Sudan in Issues between Sudan and the newlyindependent South Sudan continue to this day, but the United Nations remains focused on another conflict in the region, the ongoing violence and displacement in Darfur, a region in western Sudan. Libya Egypt Saudi Arabia Chad Darfur Sudan Eritrea Yemen Ethiopia Somalia Central African Republic South Sudan

26 24 The United Nations: Challenges and Change ance; non-arabs in Darfur have long argued that the Sudanese government favored Arab populations and neglected Africans during periods of prolonged drought and famine. When non-arab opposition groups organized to protest their treatment in 2003, the Sudanese government and pro-government militias (known as the Janjaweed) responded brutally. Entire villages were burned, and militants carried out systemic campaigns of rape and murder. Many international observers accused the government of supporting the violent militia and of dropping bombs on villages in Darfur. In 2004, U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell labeled the violence an act of genocide. Both sides in the conflict perpetrated great violence against the region s civilian population. It is estimated that since 2003, up to 400,000 people in Darfur have died due to violence, starvation, and disease. The nature of the conflict in Darfur has shifted in recent years. When South Sudan gained independence in 2011, Sudan lost access to profitable oil fields and saw a sharp decline in the country s GDP (gross domestic product). An already impoverished country, Sudan came under increasing pressure to find new sources of revenue. Competition over gold mines in Darfur renewed conflict between the government and local groups. The range of conflicts in Darfur that began in 2003 have left over 1.5 million people displaced from their homes. (This does not include the over one million people who were displaced and have since returned.) In 2013, the United Nations recorded 460,000 new internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Darfur, more than the previous two years combined. Many Sudanese have fled to other parts of Sudan and to neighboring countries, where refugee camps and services are overcrowded. Violence has spilled over Sudan s borders into neighboring Chad, the Central African Republic, and South Sudan. How has the UN responded to the crisis in Darfur? Early on in the conflict, international observers called for the creation of a UN peacekeeping force for Darfur. But Sudan s government was hostile to this suggestion, claiming that it would view the presence of international troops as an occupation. So the UN instead supported a regional organization, the African Union (AU), in its efforts to reduce violence in Darfur. The AU force, deployed to Darfur in late 2004, was small and underfunded and had little effect in stemming the violence. Ban Ki-moon, who was elected UN secretary-general in October 2006, renewed the UN s commitment to the crisis in Darfur. After months of negotiations led by Ki-moon, Sudan s government agreed to the deployment of UN peacekeeping troops. In July 2007, the Security Council unanimously approved a resolution to create a combined UN-AU force of troops and police in Darfur. The council also approved the use of force by these troops for self-defense as well as for the protection of civilians. The UN-AU Hybrid Mission in Darfur, UNAMID (often pronounced yoon-ah-mid), is the second largest peacekeeping force in the world. While the protection of civilians is UNAMID s core mandate, the force also works to make sure aid groups are able to get services to the people that need them. In recent years, the UN has shifted the conversation toward finding durable solutions to the issues in Darfur. The UN has worked United Nations Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) December 2013 Uniformed troops, military observers, and police 19,271 International civilian personnel 1,061 United Nations volunteers 411 Budget FY 2013 $1,335,248,000 THE CHOICES PROGRAM WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

27 Challenges and Change 25 UN Photo/Albert Gonzalez Farran, Photo # Sudan s Boy Scout and Girl Guide association marches in a UNAMID parade on September 23, 2013, the International Day of Peace. The banner reads, We Need Peace Now. with Darfur s opposition groups and with the Sudanese government to help negotiate a peace settlement. In addition, UN workers have conducted a series of community meetings to incorporate people from Darfur into the ongoing discussion about rebuilding efforts and urban planning. [E]fforts to further stabilise Darfur and initiatives to promote early recovery and development of Darfur are ongoing. We strongly believe that giving the people of Darfur the security to return to their homes and opportunities to build livelihoods is the best guarantee of enduring peace. Joint Special Representative Ibrahim Gambari of UNAMID, September 14, 2011 Reintegrating the 1.8 million IDPs back into their communities in Darfur is a top priority for the UN High Commission of Refugees. The UN provides return packages for IDPs which may include kitchen items, blankets, soap, and other nonperishable materials. Through partnerships with the World Food Programme, IDPs also receive food vouchers for use in local markets. What has been the U.S. role in Darfur? The United States is a main financial backer of UNAMID. In the 2012 fiscal year, the United States government spent close to $200 million on humanitarian aid and peacekeeping operations in Darfur. While President Obama has given diplomatic priority to resolving the ongoing conflict between Sudan and South Sudan, his administration pushes for peaceful, nonmilitary interventions to stop the fighting in Darfur. We are...deeply concerned about the situation in Darfur where continuing violence has displaced an estimated 320,000 people this year alone. We call on all parties in these conflicts to ensure the safety of the civilian population and allow unhindered humanitarian access. U.S. Department of State, September 27, 2013

28 26 The United Nations: Challenges and Change UN peacekeepers from Nigeria register people at a UNAMID medical clinic in Labado, East Darfur. Fighting between the government of Sudan and armed groups forced many humanitarian workers to leave the region. In April 2013, the UNAMID clinic became the sole provider of health care for IDPs in East Darfur. UN Photo/Albert Gonzalez Farran, Photo # The U.S. government also maintains economic sanctions against companies controlled by the government of Sudan. Still, critics argue that the United States has not done enough to end the violence in the region. What challenges does the UN face in Darfur? The UN s presence in Darfur is not without challenges. On a number of occasions, Sudan s government has threatened to withdraw its support if UNAMID tries to expand its role in the country. In 2013, tensions rose between Sudan s government and UN officials due to an increase in attacks against UN personnel. Out of fifty-eight UN casualties worldwide, sixteen occurred in Darfur. The UN has called for the Sudanese government to take a stronger stand on the matter, but the perpetrators have not been brought to court. In addition, the Sudanese government has been slow to renew permits for aid workers in Sudan. In August 2013, twenty out of thirtyseven permits were not renewed for high-level UN staff. The UN argues that these delays International Criminal Court In the late twentieth century, questions arose about how to ensure that individuals guilty of committing genocide, war crimes, or crimes against humanity were punished. Only states, not individuals, can be tried before the International Court of Justice (ICJ). In 1998, a separate criminal court was created for the purpose of trying individuals. This court is known as the International Criminal Court (ICC) and is not part of the United Nations. The United States opposes an international court that can judge and sentence U.S. citizens. Supporters of the court argue that there are enough safeguards in place to ensure U.S. citizens would receive due process. THE CHOICES PROGRAM WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

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