United States History

Transcription

1 P a g e 1 United States History and Government Essential Content

2 P a g e 2 AMERICAN BEGININGS TO 1787 (page #6) Discovery to French and Indian War (page #7) Slavery in the English Colonies (page #8) Democratic Developments (page #9) ESSENTIAL CONTENT US HISTORY TABLE of CONTENTS The American Revolution Causes of the Revolutionary War (page #10) The War Effort and the Home Front (pages #11-#12) Consequences of the American Revolution (page #13) The Critical Period The Articles of Confederation (page #14) The Compromise at the Convention (page #15) The Ratification Debate - Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists (page #16) Articles of Confederation vs. US Constitution (page #17) AMERICA AS A NEW NATION (page #18) The Presidency and the Increase of National Power (pages #19-20) The Supreme Court and the Increase in National Power (page #21) State s Rights (page #22) The US follows a Foreign Policy of Isolation (page #23) BALANCING NATIONALISM AND SECTIONALSIM (page #24) Expansion and Manifest Destiny (pages #25 - #26) Native American Nations (page #27) Sectionalism (page #28) The American System (page #29) The Gathering Storm Territories become New States (page #30) African Americans and Slavery (pages #31-32) Growth and Disunion (page #33) DISUNION and RECONSTRUCTION (page #34) Civil War Timeline and Tally Sheet (page #35) The Civil War Effort (page #36) The Union Home Front (page #37) The Confederate Home Front (page #38) Consequences of the Civil War (page #39) Presidential Reconstruction (page #40) Congressional Reconstruction (page #41) The Reconstruction Period (page #42)

3 P a g e 3 The End of Reconstruction (page #43) The New South (page #44) Problems for African Americans (page #45) MIGRATION, URBANIZATION, and INDUSTRIALIZATION (page #46) The Great American West (page #47) Native Americans 1850 to 1890 (page #48) Urbanization (page #49) Patterns of Immigration (page #50) Factors Encouraging the Rise of Big Business (page #51) The Changing Business Structure (page #52) Major Growth Industries (page #53) Representative Entrepreneurs (page #54) Problems with workers and Farmers (page #55) The National Labor Movement (page #56) The Rise of the Populist (page #57) MODERN AMERICA EMERGES (page #58) The Progressive Era Working Conditions and Business Regulations (page #59) Improving the quality of Life and Social Reforms (page #60) The Extension of Democracy and Government Reform (page #61) America and the World Isolation vs. Imperialism (page #62) US Foreign Policy in Latin America(page #63) US Foreign Policy in Pacific and Asia (page #64) World War I Cause of World War I (page #65) The War Effort (page #66) The Home Front (page #67) Consequences of World War I (page #68) PROSPERITY and DEPRESSION (page #69) Isolation and Limited Involvement (page #70) Constitutional Conflicts and Shifting Values (page #71) US Responses to Immigration (page #72) The Economy of the Twenties (page #73) Causes of the Great Depression (page #74) The Great Depression (page #75) FDR and the New Deal (page #76) The New Deal on Trial (page #77) Workers and the New Deal (page #78)

4 P a g e 4 WORLD WAR II and ITS AFTERMATH (page #79) World War II Foreign Policy Leading to World War II (page #80) Causes of World War II (page #81) The War Effort (page #82) The Home front During WWII (page #83) Consequences of World War II (page #84) The Cold War Causes, Policies and Programs 1945 to 1961 (page #85) The Cold War at Home (page #86) The Cold War in Europe (page #87) The Cold War in Asia (page #88) The Korean Conflict to 1953 (page #89) The Cold War in Latin America to 1993 (page #90) Defining the US after the Cold War to 1995 (page #92) TOWARD EQUALITY and SOCIAL REFORM (page #93) Major Civil Rights Events (page #94) Civil Rights Leaders and Groups (page #95) The Poor and the Role of Government -FDR to Clinton (page #96) The Warren and Burger Courts 1954 to 1973 (page #97) THE US CONSTITION HANDBOOK (page #98) Federalism, Separation of Powers, and Checks and Balances (page #99) Legislative, Executive and Judicial Branches (page #100) Limiting the Power of Government (page #101) The Flexibility of the US Constitution (page #102) Undemocratic Features of the Constitution (page #103) Loose vs Strict Construction (page #104) Politics and Government - The Political Spectrum (page #105) The Role of the Executive Branch in US History (page #106) The Role of the Legislative Branch in US History (page #107) FOLLOW-UP QUESTIONS (pages #108 to 129)

5 P a g e 5 American Beginnings to 1787 The Evolution of the American Character Columbus, 1492 Mayflower Compact, 1620 Mercantilism Proclamation of 1763 Common Sense, 1776 Declaration of Independence, 1776 American Revolution Articles of Confederation The Convention, 1787

6 P a g e 6 COLONIAL HISTORY FROM DISCOVERY TO THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR The first discoverers of America, the ancestors of the American Indians, were small bands of hunters who crossed a temporary land bridge from Siberia and spread across both North and South America. Europe s growing demand for Eastern luxuries prompted exploration in the hopes of reducing the expense of those goods with new trade routes. Portuguese and Spanish explorers encountered and then conquered much of the Americas and their Indian inhabitants. After a late start, a proud, nationalistic England joined the colonial race and successfully established five colonies along the southeastern seacoast of North America. The English hoped to follow Spain s example of finding great wealth in the New World, and that influenced the financing and founding of the early southern colonies. The early southern colonies encounters with Indians and African slaves established the patterns of race relations that would shape the North American experience--in particular, warfare and reservations for the Indians and lifelong slave codes for African Americans. Religious and political turmoil in England shaped settlement in New England and the middle colonies. The Protestant Reformation, in its English Calvinist version, provided the major impetus and leadership for the settlement of New England. Principles of American government developed in New England with the beginnings of written constitution (Mayflower Compact and Massachusetts s royal charter) and with glimpses of self-rule seen in town hall meetings, the New England Confederation, and colonial opposition to the Dominion of New England. The middle colonies of New Netherlands (New York), Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware developed with far greater political, ethnic, religious, and social diversity, and they represented a more cosmopolitan middle ground between the tightly knit New England towns and the scattered, hierarchical plantation south. In the Chesapeake region, seventeenth-century colonial society was characterized by disease-shortened lives, weak family life, and a social hierarchy that included hardworking planters at the top and restless poor whites and black slaves at the bottom. By contrast, early New England life was characterized by healthy, extended life spans, strong family life, closely knit towns and churches, and a demanding economic and moral environment. Compared with its seventeenth-century counterpart, eighteenth-century colonial society became more complex and hierarchical, more ethnically and religiously diverse, and more economically and politically developed. Colonial culture, while still limited, took on distinct American qualities in such areas as evangelical religion, education, press freedom, and self-government. England s Atlantic sea-board colonies, with their population growth and substantial agricultural exports, grew and developed in importance to the English empire. As part of their worldwide rivalry, Great Britain and France engaged in a great struggle for colonial control of North America, culminating in the British victory in the Seven Years Way (French and Indian War) that drove France from the continent.

7 P a g e 7 SLAVERY IN THE ENGLISH COLONIES The English colonies evolved in drastically different political, social, and economic directions as a result of their geographic location. The warm climate and fertile soil allowed large plantations to prosper in Virginia. The greatest asset in British colonial America was the immensity of land. The greatest deficit in British colonial America is the shortage of hands to develop land. The growth and development of the southern economy would not have been possible without slave labor THE ECONOMICS OF SLAVERY The British government showed little interest in sponsoring emigration. Those who did emigrate were often the least prepared or the most anti-social (for religious or other reasons). Colonists already in America paid for the importation of convicts, beggars, prisoners-of-war, and indentured servants The colonists turned to an existing trade in forced labor in the form of slaves carried by Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch traders. The Colonies developed their own domestic slave trading industry, based on the Middle Passage centered in Newport, Rhode Island #1 An attractive option for labor starved colonists #2 Permanent it could be passed on generationally Social death at birth eliminated a slaves political life #3 Slavery becomes race based, because racial coloring offered an easy basis for marking the enslaved apart from the English and Indians #4 All told 11 million Africans were torn from their homes African Diaspora #5 Most of them were shipped to the West Indes and South America, but a sizable portion went to the North American colonies ALL the colonies participated is slavery, but the concentrations varied. The greatest concentration of slave labor was in the Carolinas Slave labor participated in almost every aspect of the colonial economy. Slavery generated conflict and treason, resulting in slave revolts

8 DEMOCRATIC DEVELOPMENTS in COLONIAL AMERICA P a g e 8 Compared with its seventeenth-century counterpart, eighteenth-century colonial society became more complex and hierarchical, more ethnically and religiously diverse, and more economically and politically developed. Colonial culture, while still limited, took on distinct American qualities in such areas as evangelical religion, education, press freedom, and self-government. Virginia House of Burgesses (1619) first legislative body in colonial America. Later other colonies would adopt houses of burgesses. Mayflower Compact (1620) first agreement for self-government in America. It was signed by the 41 men on the Mayflower and set up a government for the Plymouth colony. New England Town hall Meetings (1629) Church members discussed political and community issues Colonial Assemblies - The lower house of colonial assemblies gradually gained political influence; governors had difficulty ruling without the support of assemblies. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639) Set up a unified government for the towns of the Connecticut area (Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield). First constitution written in America. Maryland Act of Toleration (1649) Guaranteed religious freedom to all Christians (but not Jews and atheists they don t believe in the trinity) Zenger Case (1735) A colonial jury found John Peter Zenger innocent of libel against New York's governor. This is an important first step towards freedom of the press. Albany Plan for Union (1754) Proposed by Benjamin Franklin, this plan would have created an inter-colonial congress. It was rejected by Britain for giving too much control to the colonies. It was also rejected by the colonies who feared an oppressive colonial congress. Salutary Neglect long-standing British Policy in the 13 colonies which allowed the colonists to flout, or violate, the laws associated with trade. There were no effective enforcement agencies and it was expensive to send British troops to America. The British policy of Salutary Neglect was not documented. The policy and era of Salutary Neglect lasted from the 1690's to the 1760's and benefited the colonists boosting their profits from trade. The Enlightenment (1720's to 1790's) American political thought was influenced by Locke's natural rights philosophy (including consent of the governed) and Montesquieu s views on checks and balances.

9 P a g e 9 CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR Great Britain began to colonize the New World in the 1600 s. Under the mercantilist system, the American colonies existed to benefit the mother country, Great Britain. As the industrial giant of the world, Great Britain used the colonies to gain a cheap source of raw materials and as a market for their finished products. BEGINNING YEARS OF MERCANTILISM Prior to the French and Indian Way, mercantilist theory was generally accepted in the colonies. Great Britain provided a market for cotton, tobacco, and food products grown in the colonies while the British military provided colonists with protection against the French and Native Americans, and safe passage on the open seas. Because Great Britain was content with its profits from the American colonies, they failed to vigorously enforce the mercantilist laws NAVIGATION ACT: The law required that all American trade to Europe had to pass through Great Britain ports. The act was generally not enforced and the colonists continued to trade with other European countries MOLASSES ACT: This act forced New England rum merchants to buy their molasses from Great Britain. The colonists widely ignored the law and began to smuggle goods on a large scale. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 1754-FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR BEGINS: Great Britain and France began a war for control of North America. A major reason for the war was the colonists desire for French-held lands in the Ohio River Valley WRITS OF ASSISTANCE: As smuggling continued, Parliament passed a law allowing British officials to search for smuggled goods in any building or ship in the colonies without a warrant FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR ENDS: Great Britain defeated French and gained all of Canada. However, waging war in North America pushed Great Britain heavily into debt. THE RELATIONSHIP CHANGES BETWEEN BRITAIN AND THE COLONIES Great Britain began to enforce the Navigation Acts and created new taxes in order to reduce their war debt. These actions strained relations between Great Britain and the American colonies PROCLAMATION OF 1763: In order to appease the Native Americans, Great Britain forbade the colonists from moving into the newly won land from France. The colonists disobeyed the Proclamation and moved west in fairly large numbers SUGAR ACT: Great Britain placed a tax on sugar, textiles, coffee, and iron. American colonists protested this unfair taxation without representation COMMITTEES OF CORRESPONDENCE: The colony of Massachusetts contacted other colonies about possible action against the Sugar Act STAMP ACT: Great Britain required a stamp be purchased and placed on newspapers, legal documents, and playing cards in an effort to indirectly collect taxes from the colonies SONS OF LIBERTY FORMED: The Sons of Liberty used violence to prevent British officials from collecting the Stamp tax STAMP ACT CONGRESS FORMED: Nice colonies met and passed the Non-Importation Agreements barring the purchase of British made products TOWNSHEND ACTS: Great Britain placed taxes on everyday items such as tea, paper, lead, and glass GREAT BRITAIN SUSPENDS NEW YORK S LEGISLATURE: When the colony of New York refused to provide lodging for soldiers sent to enforce the Townshend Acts, Parliament suspended its legislature GREAT BRITAIN SUSPENDS MASSACHUSETTS S LEGISLATURE: The Massachusetts legislature was suspended when trouble erupted between colonists and British troops stationed in Massachusetts BOSTON MASSACRE: Tension between colonists and British troops in Boston erupted into a skirmish that left five colonists dead BOSTON TEA PARTY: Colonists seized a cargo of tea on a ship in the Boston harbor and threw the tea overboard to protest the British law giving the East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the colonies COERCIVE ACTS: Passed in retaliation to the Boston Tea Party, the acts closed the port of Boston, suspended the Massachusetts charter, and sent rabble-rousing colonists to Great Britain to stand trial FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS: Twelve colonies sent delegates to discuss possible actions against Great Britain. The Congress called for a complete boycott of Great Britain s goods BATTLE OF LEXINGTON AND CONCORD: Great Britain tried to take colonial gunpowder supplies. Two skirmishes at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts result, signally the beginning of war

10 P a g e 10 THE WAR EFFORT The Revolutionary War was fought from 1775 to 1781 between Great Britain and the American colonists. Many expected militarily powerful Great Britain to defeat the colonist quickly. As the fighting continued, however; it became clear the colonists had some advantages of their own. The change of purpose from fighting for rights of Englishmen to independence from Great Britain and the fact that France aided the colonists financially and militarily helped the colonists defeat Great Britain. TIMELINE 1775: British troops, sent to seize colonial supplies, were fired upon by Massachusetts Militia in the Battle of Lexington and Concord. This was called the shot heard round the world. In August, the King of Great Britain stated the colonists were in rebellion against Great Britain. 1776: The Declaration of Independence explained to the world why the colonists wanted independence, separated the Loyalists (colonists loyal to Great Britain) from the Patriots (colonists wanting independence), and signaled a change from gaining rights as British subjects to fighting for independence. Colonial victories occurred in Massachusetts, South Carolina, and New Jersey. The British won victories in Virginia and New York. 1777: The British Parliament belatedly offered the colonists a measure of home rule after British troops surrendered after the Battle of Saratoga in New York. The colonial victory helped assure French aid to the colonies. The victory was a turning point in the war. 1778: Frontiersman George Rogers Clark led the capture of several key British forts along the Ohio River. The British shifted their fight to the Southern colonies, hoping to make up for the lack of success in the Middle colonies. 1779: Georgia and most of colonial South Carolina fell under British control by Spain and Holland entered the war against Great Britain. John Paul Jones won several victories at sea against the British fleet. 1780: Charleston, South Carolina fell to British troops. 1780: General Cornwallis surrendered on October 19 to a combined force of American and French soldiers. This signaled the end to the war, although fighting was to continue for more than a year. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EACH SIDE COLONIAL ADVANTAGES: Colonists were familiar with the territory and were skilled outdoors men and marksmen. They also had strong military leadership, led by George Washington, and foreign support from France, Holland and Spain. BRITISH ADVANTAGES: Great Britain had a stable government, a highly trained military, and a strong navy. They also had adequate money for the war effort, and had Loyalist support within the colonies. COLONIAL DISADVANTAGES: A weak colonial government under the Articles of Confederation and an inexperienced military caused many problems. There was also a constant turnover and desertion from the army and inadequate supplies. Loyalist/Patriot divisions existed within the colonies not allowing for a united front. BRITISH DISADVANTAGES: The military had little familiarity with the territory and had a long supply line. Costly mistakes by the military and fighting Ireland and Egypt as well as the colonies further weakened the military. There was also support for the colonial cause in Great Britain causing divisions within the government.

11 P a g e 11 THE HOME FRONT When the Revolutionary War began on April 18, 1775, the American colonists were fighting against the British Crown for their rights as Englishmen. However, as the war raged on and the colonists dissatisfaction with Great Britain grew, colonists sought complete independence. FROM RIGHTS AS ENGLISHMEN TO INDEPENDENCE RIGHTS AS ENGLISHMENT: When the war began the goal of the colonists was to obtain their rights as Englishmen. Their major goal was representation in the British Parliament for each colony. In addition, they sought an end to Britain s practice of searching colonists homes without a warrant and sending colonists to Great Britain to be tried for crimes. COMMON SENSE: Thomas Paine wrote Common Sense in January Paine claimed that if the colonists used common sense in analyzing their situation, they would sever ties with Great Britain and set up an independent country. This widely read book stirred many colonists to fight for independence rather than rights as Englishmen. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: The colonists declared their independence on July 4, The Declaration of Independence explained the reasons the colonies were asserting their independence and philosophies for a democratic government. This document, written mainly by Thomas Jefferson, stated in part: All men are created equal (and are endowed with the rights of) life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. Whenever any form of government becomes destructive of those ends, it is the right of people to alter or abolish it. FOREIGN RELATIONS FRANCE: France had been secretly supplying the American rebels with munitions. It openly supplied the colonists war effort with soldiers, supplies, money and ships after the Battle of Saratoga, when it became clear that a colonial victory was possible. Long an enemy of Great Britain, France became the colonists ally in 1778 with the signing of the Treaty of Alliance. SPAIN AND HOLLAND: Both countries went to war with Great Britain in Each also sent money and military aid to the colonies. No longer was Great Britain s fight contained in the American colonies. It became a global war. RUSSIA: In 1780, Russia arranged the countries of Europe into the Armed Neutrality hostile to Great Britain. THE U.S. ADOPTS A GOVERNMENT SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS: The Second Continental Congress was convened in May 1775, to act as the government for the thirteen colonies. The Congress established the U.S. Army and Navy, adopted the Declaration of Independence, and negotiated a Treaty of Alliance with France. ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: The Articles of Confederation were written in 1777 and ratified in They became the basis for the first government of the United States. The Articles were an essential first step in uniting the individual states under one government. IMPACT OF THE REVOLUTION ON THE AMERICAN PEOPLE THE WAR DIVIDES THE COLONISTS: When the Declaration of Independence was issued in 1776, not all colonists agreed about severing ties to Great Britain. Approximately one-third of the colonists remained loyal to Great Britain. Called Loyalists, many fled to Canada or to Great Britain once independence was declared. Roughly one-third of the colonists supported independence. Men such as John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, and Thomas Paine were labeled Patriots. The remaining one-third of the colonial population were undecided when independence was declared. WOMEN: The philosophy of equality stated in the Declaration did not apply to colonial women. They had no right to vote or own property. Nevertheless, many women were influential in helping the war effort. While men were at war, many women ran the farms and businesses. AFRICAN AMERICANS: the All men are created equal philosophy put forth in the Declaration did not apply to African Americans. In fact, during this time period, most African Americans were slaves. However, African Americans took an active role in the Revolutionary War. Some 5,000 African Americans served in the colonial army.

12 P a g e 12 CONSEQUENCES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR The battles of Lexington and Concord stated the Revolutionary War. This was called the shot heard round the world, because it was a sign of hope for people living in colonies and countries throughout the world who had no rights. After the U.S. victory at Yorktown, the Treaty of Paris officially ended the war in The boundaries of the United States were established to the north at the Great Lakes, to the west at the Mississippi River, and to the south at Spanish Florida. The United States became a democracy. POLITICAL CHANGES The government was a representative democracy in which voters elected officials to represent them in national, state, and local governments. Voting rights were given to all white, male, landowners. Most state constitutions included a Bill of Rights. The Articles of Confederation became the basis of the government of the United States. SOCIAL CHANGES The institution of slavery was weakened. Although slavery continued to exist in the south, many Northern states abolished it. The common man was given more rights and control over his life and the government. Primogeniture (first-born male inheriting the entire estate upon the death of his father) was abolished. People considered themselves Americans, not Englishmen. ECONOMIC CHANGES Mercantilism was abolished. The U.S. was now able to trade freely with all nations. Therefore, trade increased dramatically. Industry and manufacturing increased dramatically once mercantilism was abolished. Westward migration across the Appalachian Mountains was no longer prohibited by British restrictions. This made cheap and plentiful land readily available. Many of the large Loyalist estates were confiscated. The land was then divided up and given to Patriots of the Revolutionary War. INTERNATIONAL CHANGES The United States now needed to establish a foreign policy and form alliances with countries throughout the world. Many of the world s oppressed peoples looked to the United States as an example

13 P a g e 13 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION The Articles of Confederation were written in 1777 and ratified in Due to the rule of King George III during colonial times, as well as to the framers of the new government who were intent on protecting the self-interest of their individual states, the Articles gave the majority of power to individual states leaving the federal government very little power. The time period under the Articles became known as the Critical Period because the Articles did not give the national government sufficient power to effectively solve foreign and domestic problems. The Articles proved too weak and a new constitution would be written only six years later. WEAKNESSES OF THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION The Articles of Confederation were ineffective in large part because they failed to provide the national government with enough power to govern effectively. Major weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation included: The national and state governments printed money. There was no President to enforce laws. There were no national courts to interpret national laws, only state courts. Congress had no power to regulate foreign and domestic trade. The federal government could not tax. It had to ask the states for money. New laws needed the approval of 70% of the states (9 out of 13 states.) Each state had one vote in Congress. The small states had equal power with the large states. Amending the Articles required a unanimous vote of all states. ACHIEVEMENTS UNDER THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION THE U.S. BECOMES A DEMOCRACY: The most important achievement of the Articles was the creation of a democratic government and establishing the groundwork for the Constitution. However weak, the United States, under the Articles of Confederation, remained a sovereign nation and began to develop both economically and politically. NORTHWEST ORDINANCE OF 1787: An important achievement since it outlawed slavery in the Northwest Territory and guaranteed individual rights to those living in territories of the United States. THE CRITICAL PERIOD FOREIGN PROBLEMS: The United States under the Articles could not deal effectively with several foreign crisis. England refused to remove troops from several key forts in the Northwest Territory of the U.S. and would not allow the United States to trade in the British West Indies. Spain would not allow the United States to trade in the British West Indies. Spain would not allow the United States to use the mouth of the Mississippi River since it controlled the port of New Orleans. This caused severe problems for farmers in the Midwest who relied on the Mississippi River for trade. Also, pirating by the Barbary States of North Africa severely limited United States trade routes abroad. NATIONAL DEPRESSION: A serious depression following the Revolutionary War caused problems throughout the United States. Since states controlled trade, many states placed tariffs on goods coming into their states to protect their own economies. This not only hurt the nationally economy, but adversely affected national unity as well. SHAY S REBELLION: In 1786 an armed rebellion led by Daniel Shay occurred in the state of Massachusetts over high taxes. The federal government could not act since Congress could not establish an army unless the states provided the troops. The rebellion was finally put down by the Massachusetts militia but the incident proved how ineffective the Articles were in maintaining order

14 COMPROMISES NEEDED FOR RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION P a g e 14 The new government s second attempt at a constitution proved difficult. Investing more power in the federal government was necessary but there was much debate over the amount and type of power it should have. Many representatives at the Constitutional Convention in 1787 sought to preserve state control while others urged a dominant central government. Without the compromises made at the constitutional convention, there probably would not have been enough support for the Constitution and it would not have been ratified by the states. THE GREAT COMPROMISE DISPUTE: Populous states favored representation based on population while less populated states favored an equal number of representatives from each state. TERMS OF COMPROMISE: Both large and small states were accommodated by a Congress made up of two houses. Population would be the basis for representation in the House of Representatives. In the Senate, all states would have equal representation, with two Senators representing each state. THE 3/5 ths COMPROMISE DISPUTE: Southern states felt that slaves should be counted when determining representation for each state. Northern states argued that only free persons should be counted when determining representation. TERMS OF COMPROMISE: Population counts for the purpose of representation would include all free persons and allow slaves to be counted as well. Every five slaves would be counted as three free people COMMERCE AND SLAVE TRADE COMPROMISE DISPUTE: Southern states sought no Congressional interference in the slave trade. They also wanted to protect their cotton trade with Great Britain. The Northern states wanted Congress to regulate both foreign as well as interstate trade. This would allow only the national government, not each state, to impose tariffs. TERMS OF COMPROMISE: Regulation of foreign and interstate trade was controlled by the federal government. In return, the slave trade would not be outlawed until To guarantee the South s cotton trade, export taxes were made illegal. ELECTION OF THE PRESIDENT DISPUTE: Those wishing more democracy sought the election of the President directly by the people and election to a short term in office. Those distrusting the common voter wanted to see the President elected by Congress and elected to a longer term in office. TERMS OF COMPROMISE: The President would be elected to a four-year term of office. He would be elected indirectly by the people through the use of the Electoral College. INCLUSION OF A BILL OF RIGHTS DISPUTE: Those favoring a strong national government felt the original Constitution provided enough protection of individual rights. Anti-Federalists refused to vote for the Constitution without this written guarantee. TERMS OF COMPROMISE: The first ten Amendments of the Constitution were added to guarantee individual rights. These amendments, called the Bill of Rights, include such rights as freedom of speech, press, religion, and assembly, the right to bear arms, no cruel and unusual punishment, and rights of those accused of a crime.

15 P a g e 15 Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists The Ratification Debate Federalist defenses Anti-Federalist objections of the Constitution to the Constitution Federalists -- Well educated and propertied class. Most Anti - federalists -- states' rights advocates, backcountry lived in settled areas along the seaboard. farmers, poor farmers, the ill-educated and illiterate, debtors, & paper-money advocates. In general, the poorer classes of society. RATIFICATION PROVISIONS RATIFCIATION PROVISIONS 1. Articles of Confederation were weak and ineffective. 1. Articles of Confederation were a good plan. 2. National government needed to be strong in order to function. Powers in foreign policy needed to be strengthened while excesses at home needed to be controlled. 3. Strong national government needed to control uncooperative states. 4. Men of experience and talent should govern the nation. "Mobocracy" threatened the security of life and property. 5. National government would protect the rights of the people. 6. Constitution and state governments protected individual freedoms without bill of rights. Since people could take back delegated power to the government, there was no risk that the national government would overreach. 7. In favor of establishing the Constitution with almost any means possible. 2. Opposed strong central government. Opposed a standing army and a 10 square mile federal stronghold (later District of Columbia). 3. Strong national government threatened state power. 4. Strong national government threatened rights of the common people. Constitution was created by aristocratic elements. Suspected a sinister plot to suppress liberty of the masses. 5. Constitution favored wealthy men and preserved their power. Opposed the dropping of annual elections for representatives. 6. Constitution lacked a bill of rights. State governments already had bills of rights but they might be overridden by the Constitution. 7. Argued against 2/3 ratification plan. Articles of Confederation required unanimous consent.

16 P a g e 16 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION vs. THE U.S. CONSTITUTION Structure of Government Articles of Confederation The Firm League of Friendship where states had the supreme power Constitution A firm Union of the People where the national government was supreme Executive Power Voting in Congress Laws executed by a committee of Congress 1 vote in Congress no matter the size of the state Laws executed by a powerful president 2 votes per state in the senate representation in the House based on population Passing Laws 2/3 vote to pass a law Simple majority needed to pass a law, which the president could veto. Powers of Congress The Economy National Judiciary Process for Amending document No Congressional power to control commerce States could levy duties on trade Domestic and Foreign States could choose not to follow a treaty Congress could ask states for money, but couldn t levy taxes or force the states to pay No court system. States were free to resolve any differences on their own Unanimous vote required for an amendment The veto could be overrode by a 2/3 vote of both houses of Congress Congress given the power to control commerce foreign and interstate Congress given the power to coin money Congress given the sole power to lay and collect taxes Supreme Court set up as well as a lower federal court system Amendment process was less difficult 2/3 vote of Congress to propose a new amendment and a ¾ vote of the states to ratify

17 P a g e 17 America as a New Nation 1791 to 1828 Washington Takes the Oath, 1789 Hamilton s Financial Plan, 1791 The Whiskey Rebellion, 1794 Farewell Address, 1796 Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798 Chief Justice John Marshall, 1801 Monroe Doctrine, 1823 Exposition and Protest, 1828 The Force Bill, 1833

18 P a g e 18 THE PRESIDENCY AND THE INCREASE IN NATIONAL POWER During the early years of the American experience, the federal government strengthened its authority and established a precedent of exercising power over the states. Several key incidents helped several Presidents increase the power of the federal government. HAMILTON S FINANCIAL PLAN (1790) President Washington s Secretary of Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, believed the strength of a country was determined by its industrial might. He convinced President Washington to create a plan designed to provide a strong monetary system for merchants, bankers, and manufacturers. He accomplished this through: High protective tariffs (a tax on foreign made products) designed to stimulate United States industries by increasing the cost of foreign-made products. Using the elastic clause to create a National Bank to assist in tax collection and the sale of government bonds. WHISKEY REBELLION (1794) Farmers in western Pennsylvania, claiming a whiskey tax was unconstitutional, used force to prevent the government from collecting the tax. President Washington sent 15,000 troops to crush the rebellion and collect the tax. This was the first time the President used federal troops to compel states to obey federal laws. LOUISIANA PURCHASE (1820) Napoleon offered to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States in 1803 in order to finance French wars in Europe. President Jefferson, a strict constructionist, felt the power to purchase the land was not given to the federal government in the Constitution. After careful deliberation, Jefferson used the elastic clause and his constitutional power to make treaties to justify the purchase of the Louisiana Territory. TARIFF ISSUE (1832) Congress raised protective tariff levels to 50% in South Carolina, claiming that the tariff was unconstitutional, passed the Nullification Doctrine and refused to collect the tariff for the federal government. President Jackson threatened to send federal troops to South Carolina to force the state to collect the tariff. South Carolina, eager to prevent armed confrontation with federal troops, reluctantly complied and collected the tariff.

19 P a g e 19 THE PRESIDENCY AND THE INCREASE IN NATIONAL POWER Presidential Powers are outlined in Article II of the US constitution. The President has many roles. They include: Chief of State, Chief Executive, Chief Diplomat, Commander-in-Chief, Chief Legislator, Party Chief, Judicial enforcer President Term Domestic Policy Foreign Policy George Washington Set precedents (cabinet, two terms) Warned against entangling alliances (S.A.F.E) Warned against political parties Hamilton convinced Washington to create a plan designed to provide a strong monetary system for merchants, bankers, and manufacturers. President Washington sent 15,000 troops to crush the Whiskey Rebellion and collect the excise tax. Thomas Jefferson/DR Purchased Louisiana Territory (1803) by loosely interpreting the President s treaty making powers. James Monroe/DR Presided over the era of Good Feelings Issued the Monroe Doctrine (1824) which warned European powers not to interfere in the Western Hemisphere Andrew Jackson/DR Forced removal of the Cherokees on the Trail of Tears Killed the Second Bank of the US Jackson threatened to send federal troops to South Carolina to force the state to collect the tariff (Force Bill)

20 P a g e 20 THE SUPREME COURT AND THE INCREASE IN NATIONAL POWER Federalist, John Marshall served from 1801 through 1835 as Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Marshall increased the power of the Supreme Court, established the judiciary as a powerful branch of the federal government, and strengthened the national government s supremacy over the states. MARBURY V. MADISON (1803) BACKGROUND: William Marbury was chosen as justice of the peace for Washington, D.C. but never received his appointment. Marbury petitioned the Supreme Court to compel Madison to give him his appointment. DECISION: The Court found that Madison was wrong for not giving Marbury the Justice of the Peace job but that the law Marbury used to petition the Supreme Court was in violation of the Constitution. IMPACT: This case established the power of judicial review. Judicial review is the power of the Supreme Court to decide the constitutionality of all laws passed by Congress. By defining its constitutional mission, the Supreme Court strengthened its power and gained equal footing with the legislative and executive branches. DARTMOUTH COLLEGE V. WOODWARD (1819) BACKGROUND: New Hampshire s state legislature changed Dartmouth College from a private institution to a public (state) institution in order to reduce the cost of a college education. DECISION: The Supreme Court decided that Dartmouth College s charter was a contract and states may not pass laws impairing obligations of contracts. The Supreme Court ruled the New Hampshire law was unconstitutional. IMPACT: The Court expanded federal power by declaring a state law unconstitutional. It also aided businesses by guaranteeing that business contracts could not be altered by the government. McCULLOCH V. MARYLAND (1819) BACKGROUND: The state of Maryland placed a large tax on deposits in the National Bank in an effort to destroy the Bank. James McCulloch, a National Bank official, refused to pay the tax to the state. DECISION: The Supreme Court declared the National Bank legal and stated the Maryland tax was unconstitutional since it was designed solely to destroy the National Bank. IMPACT: Congress used the elastic clause to create the National Bank. Since the Bank was found to be constitutional, the Supreme Court implied use of the elastic clause was constitutional. GIBBONS V. OGDEN (1824) BACKGROUND: New York State granted Aaron Ogden total control of ferry service on all rivers and waterways in New York State. Thomas Gibbons had a federal license to operate steamboats between New York and New Jersey. Ogden sued Gibbons to regain the monopoly he had over ferry service in New York State. DECISION: New York State s monopoly was ruled invalid since only the federal government can control interstate commerce. IMPACT: The Court increased federal power by classifying transportation as a part of interstate commerce. The ruling set a precedent for federal government regulation of railroads, airlines, and other forms of transportation as well as communications and manufacturing in future years.

21 P a g e 21 STATES RIGHTS As the federal government continued to assume more powers over the state governments, many feared its authority would grow unchecked and become dangerous to individual freedoms. Political leaders, especially in the South, felt that the national government had gone beyond their constitutional powers and needed to be checked. States rights advocates used the 10 th Amendment to justify nullifying (ignoring) laws and seceding (leaving) the Union. NULLIFICATION AND SECESSION ESTABLISHED CAUSE: The Alien and Sedition Acts were passed by the Federalist Party in 1798 to weaken the Democrat-Republican Party. Under the acts, many Democrat-Republicans were fined and/or imprisoned for publishing false, scandalous and malicious material about the Federalist-dominated national government. KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS (1798): The resolutions were written by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in reaction to the Alien and Sedition Acts which both felt were unconstitutional. They argued that under the 10 th Amendment states had the right to nullify a federal law or secede from the Union since neither action was denied to the states in the Constitution. These resolutions signaled the beginning of the states rights movement in the South. NULLIFICATION OF THE TARIFF OF 1828 CAUSE: The Tariff of 1828, or Tariff of Abominations placed a 50% tariff on most imported goods. The South, who imported goods from Europe and relied on the export of cotton and tobacco to Europe for its economic survival was hurt by the protective tariff. CALHOUN S EXPOSITION OF PROTEST (1828): In 1828, John Calhoun, from South Carolina, claimed protective tariffs were unconstitutional because the Constitution allows the federal government the right to tax only to pay public debt, provide for the common defense, and promote the public welfare. Since a protective tariff did none of these, states had the right to nullify the unconstitutional tariff. NULLIFICATION OF THE TARIFF OF 1832 CAUSE: The Tariff of 1832 lowered the rate to 35%. Southern states felt the tariff was still much too hight. NULLIFICATION DOCTRINE (1832): The state legislature of South Carolina passed the Nullification Doctrine in The doctrine declared South Carolina s right to nullify the law and refuse to collect the tariff s import duties within its borders. President Jackson threatened to send troops to force South Carolina to collect the tariff. NULLIFICATION OF THE FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW CAUSE: As a part of the Compromise of 1850, the federal government passed the Fugitive Slave Law requiring northern states to return runaway slaves to their owners in the South. PERSONAL LIBERTY LAWS: Many northern states passed Personal Liberty Laws which forbade northern officials from complying with the Fugitive Slave Law. SECESSION OF THE SOUTH CAUSE: Many southerners feared that the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln in 1860 threatened the institution of slavery since he ran on a platform of prohibition slavery in the territories. SECESSION OF THE SOUTHERN STATES ( ): Believing the 10 th Amendment gave them the right to secede, South Carolina left the Union in December of The states of Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas soon followed South Carolina s lead and formed the Confederate States of America in February 1861.

22 P a g e 22 U.S. PURSUES A FOREIGN POLICY OF ISOLATION Upon taking office, President Washington s main concerns were national security and economic stability. Washington instituted a policy of isolation in 1793 to achieve these goals. It wasn t until 1917, when the U.S. entered World War I, that the U.S. abandoned isolation and became actively involved in world affairs. PROCLAMATION OF NEUTRALITY (1793) BACKGROUND: France asked the U.S. for aid in their war against Great Britain. They felt that under the Treaty of Alliance, the U.S. had an obligation to help France since they helped the U.S. in the Revolutionary War. PROVISIONS: President Washington broke the Treaty of Alliance and declared that the United States would not help France. He felt the U.S. should maintain a foreign policy of neutrality in order to protect U.S. independence. JAY TREATY ( ) BACKGROUND: Great Britain, at war with France, began commandeering American ships to prevent U.S. trade with France. Many Americans also believed Britain had encouraged Native American attacks on U.S. settlements in the west. PROVISIONS: The Treaty called for Britain to remove troops from the western territories of the U.S. While it prevented war with great Britain, it failed to stop Britain from plundering U.S. ships trading with France. WASHINGTON S FAREWELL ADDRESS (1796) BACKGROUND: George Washington left office after two terms as President of the United States. In this Farewell Address, he spoke about U.S. foreign policy.. PROVISIONS: Washington called for the U.S. to pursue a policy of isolation. Washington felt the distance between the U.S. and Europe made isolation possible. Isolation, he reasoned, would protect U.S. independence and allow the nation to grow economically stable. XYZ AFFAIR (1797) BACKGROUND: The Proclamation of Neutrality prevented the U.S. from aiding France in their war against Great Britain. France mistook this signal that the U.S. was allying itself with Great Britain rather than France. To protect itself, France began to attack and seize American ships.. PROVISIONS: France demanded money just to begin negotiations with the U.S. about France s seizure of U.S. ships. As a result of President Adams refusal to pay tribute, the U.S. and France fought an undeclared naval war until WAR OF 1812 ( ) CAUSES: The U.S. declared war against Great Britain to achieve freedom of the seas and to end Britain s seizure of American ships and impressments of its sailors. The U.S. also hoped to gain Canada, a colony of Britain. THE WAR EFFORT: Both United States invasion of Canada and Britain s invasion of the United States were unsuccessful although Washing, D.C. was burned to the ground. The war ended in stalemate in HOME FRONT: U.S. industry increased dramatically since importing industrial products from Great Britain was prohibited during the war. CONSEQUENCES: A positive outcome of the war was increased nationalism though thousands lost their lives and prohibited during the war. MONROE DOCTRINE (1823) BACKGROUND: Spanish, French, and Portuguese colonies in Latin American sought independence during the Napoleonic War as their mother countries were busy fighting for control of Europe. The U.S. supported the weak, independent countries in an effort to keep European colonial powers out of Latin America. Also, many Americans, fondly recalling their own fight for independence, enthusiastically supported the Latin American revolutions. PROVISIONS: The U.S. guaranteed protection to the new countries in the Western Hemisphere to stop Spain, France and Portugal from retaking their colonies following the Napoleonic Wars. Great Britain, who wanted to trade with the newly formed nations of Latin America, aided the U.S. in the enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine. Without Britain s naval support, the U.S. would have been hard-pressed to enforce the doctrine.

23 P a g e 23 Balancing Nationalism and Sectionalism Manifest Destiny Trail of Tears Sectionalism Tariff Issues The American System The Erie Canal, 1825 The Growth of Slavery Compromises 1820 to 1850 The Abolition Movement

24 EXPANSION AND MANIFEST DESTINY NARATIVE P a g e 24 During the 1840 s, Americans expanded westward. Manifest destiny, the belief that occupying land from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean was America s God-given right, became a national passion. The territory the U.S. purchased or won in war between 1783 and 1853 was occupied by Native Americans who also claimed the land. The explosion of cotton production fastened the slave system deeply upon the South, creating a complex, hierarchical racial and social order that deeply affected whites as well as blacks. The economic benefits of an increasing production of cotton due to the cotton gin and slavery was shared between the South, the North, and Britain. The economics of cotton and slavery also led to bigger and bigger plantations, since they could afford the heavy investment of human capital. The emergence of a small but energetic radical abolitionist movement caused a fierce proslavery backlash in the South and a slow but steady growth of moderate antislavery sentiment in the North. American expansionism gained momentum in the 1840s, leading first to the acquisition of Texas and Oregon, and then to the Mexican War, which added vast southwestern territories to the United States and ignited the slavery question. American international prestige grows as the United States expands. Successful military campaigns against Mexico along with well negotiated treaties with Britain force Europe to respect America more while Latin America begins to be wary of the "Colossus of the North". The sectional conflict over the expansion of slavery that erupted after the Mexican War was temporarily quieted by the Compromise of 1850, but Douglas's Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 exploded it again. In the 1850s American expansionism in the West and the Caribbean was extremely controversial because it was tied to the slavery question. A series of major North-South crises in the late 1850s culminated in the election of the antislavery Republican Lincoln to the presidency in 1860.

25 P a g e 25 EXPANSION AND MANIFEST DESTINY During the 1840 s, Americans expanded westward. Manifest destiny, the belief that occupying land from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean was America s God-given right, became a national passion. The territory the U.S. purchased or won in war between 1783 and 1853 was occupied by Native Americans who also claimed the land. 13 ORIGINAL STATES (1783) The U.S. won the Revolutionary War and was granted independence by Great Britain in TREATY OF 1783 The Treaty of Paris, which officially ended the Revolutionary War, resulted in Great Britain ceding the Northwest Territory to the U.S. In return, the U.S. agreed to pay debts owed to British investors and not to prosecute colonists who remained loyal to Britain during the war. LOUISIANA PURCHASE (1803) In 1800, the U.S. feared the closing of the Mississippi River to United States by France. President Jefferson tried to buy the port of New Orleans and West Florida from France and obtain a guarantee that U.S. vessels cold navigate the Mississippi River. France offered to sell the entire Louisiana Territory. After considerable deliberation, the strict constructionist Jefferson, purchased the Louisiana Territory for $15 million. FLORIDA (1819) In 1818, General Andrew entered Florida (a colony of Spain) to attack the Seminole Native Americans who were raiding settlers in Georgia. The U. S. demanded that Spain control the Native Americans or sell Florida to the U. S. In 1819, Spain sold Florida to the U. S. for $5 million. TEXAS (1845) In 1821, Mexico (a colony of Spain) became independent. Americans, especially cotton growers, began moving to Texas, a territory within Mexico s border. Fearing that U. S. Settlers were becoming too numerous and powerful, Mexico passed several laws which banned additional slaves in Texas. In 1836, Texas fought and won its independence from Mexico. Texas requested annexation into the U. S. but was opposed by northerners who feared the admittance of an additional slave state. Despite northern pressure, President Polk annexed Texas in MEXICAN WAR/MEXICAN CESSION ( ) A boundary dispute with Mexico resulted from the U. S. annexation of Texas in Mexico claimed that the boundary of Texas was the Nueces River while the U. S. claimed it was further south along the Rio Grande River. When Mexico refused to sell California to the U. S., President Polk sent troops into the region and fired upon the U. S. troops they felt entered Mexican territory. By 1847, Mexico had surrendered to superior U. S. forces. As a result of the 1848 peace treaty, Mexico ceded much of present-day southwest and California to the United States (Mexican Cession) and settled on the Rio Grande as the boundary of Texas. The U. S. agreed to pay Mexico $15 million. OREGON TERRITORY (1848) Since Britain and the U. S. settled the Oregon Territory jointly, there was no specific boundary. U. S. expansionists wanted all of the Oregon Territory. Presidential Polk, whose campaign platform called for total control of the disputed territory, eventually compromised with Great Britain and the boundaries of the Oregon Territory were established at the 49 th parallel. GADSDEN PURCHASE (1853) Acquire from Mexico for $10 million, the land was to be used for the transcontinental railroad. Many historians feel the large sum of money for such a small parcel of land was compensation for land taken from the Mexican War.

26 P a g e 26 NATIVE AMERICAN NATIONS Thousands of Native Americans throughout the United States lost their lives while others were forced to abandon their lands and move to reservations in what is undoubtedly one of the most shameful periods of U.S. History. More than 60,000 Native Americans were forced onto western reservations, some of the country s worst land. This opened millions of acres of fertile areas to white settlers and traders. In 1700, between three and eight million Native Americans lived in what is now the United States. By 1860, only some 300,000 Native Americans remained in North America, two-thirds of whom lived in the Great Plains. STATUS AS INDEPENDENT NATIONS Initial American government policy acknowledged that Native American nations possessed the right of the soil they occupied and could not be dispossessed without their consent. Native tribes were considered independent nations with which the U.S. held treaty agreements. Since Native American nations were considered independent nations, they did not receive any rights guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution. NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURES Many Native-American cultures consisted of complex social and political systems. Native American tribes were usually governed by councils which made decisions based on unanimous agreements. Some Native tribes embraced the white man s values and took up practices of white society. The Cherokee developed a written language in 1821, published a tribal newspaper in 1828, established a formal constitution, developed legislation, and codified laws. Many owned farms, built European-style homes, and owned slaves. The American s inability to recognize and accept political economic, or cultural differences, and demand for the land, led to policies and practices that eventually destroyed many Native American societies. PRESIDENT JACKSON AND THE REMOVAL BILLS Growing numbers of settlers demanded that the federal government clear Native Americans off the fertile Southeastern land they wanted for their cotton and slave economies. In 1830, at the urging of President Jackson, Congress gave the President power to exchange land west of Mississippi River for Native American land in the southeast. Thousands of Native-Americans suffered incredible hardships and were forced from their lands during his administration. The Cherokee were removed by force from George in 1836 in what became known as the Trail of Tears. Almost one-fourth of the 16,000 refugees died of cold, starvation, and disease along the 800 mile long route. By 1839, three other tribes, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek, were forced to relocate in accordance with the Indian Removal Act of Although the Seminoles of Florida fought from 1835 to 1842 to stay on lands reserved to them under previous government agreements, they were all but exterminated by federal troops by THE SUPREME COURT AND NATIVE AMERICAN NATIONS The Cherokee fought their removal and won victories in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia in 1831 and Worcester v. Georgia in The Marshall court sided with the Cherokee stating that they had a legal right to stay on the land. President Jackson refused to enforce the Court s ruling and ordered the army to remove Native Americans by force, if necessary.

27 P a g e 27 SECTIONALISM Sectionalism is a loyalty to your section of the country rather than the country as a whole. Sectional differences grew out of the contrasting geographic and economic conditions. By 1830, political influence in the Northeast was controlled by the industrialists. They favored a strong national government, high tariffs, and other policies to promote industry. In the South, the development of cash-crops such as cotton and tobacco made slavery profitable. The South was controlled by plantation owners who advocated a policy of states rights. Western settlers, miners, and traders favored a strong national government to secure economic opportunities and assistance dealing with Native Americans. NORTHEAST TARIFFS: Favored high protective tariffs on imported goods to force an increase in the cost of foreign made products. This, in turn, led to an increase in the sale of goods made in the Northeast. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS AT FEDERAL EXPENSE: The building of roads, canals, and eventually railroads would open new markets for manufactured goods made in the Northeast. THE NATIONAL BANK: A National Bank would allow industrialists to borrow large sums of capital as well as stabilize U.S. currency. WESTWARD EXPANSION: Believed that opening new western territories would provide new markets for manufactured goods. SLAVERY: Generally against slavery since there was little economic need for it. However, most people in the Northeast did not favor the abolition of slavery in the South. SOUTH TARIFFS: Since there were very few industries in the South and plantation owners bought many imported factory goods from Europe, the South did not favor the protective tariff. Additionally, the south feared that if the U.S. put high tariffs on foreign products, European countries would place high protective tariffs on their cotton and tobacco in retaliation. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS AT FEDERAL EXPENSE: The South did not want to be taxed in order to build transportation networks. The rivers in the South and the Atlantic Ocean provided ample natural trade routes for southern products. Improved trade routes also allowed Western farms to compete with Southern agricultural products. THE NATIONAL BANK: Favored using state and local banks where they could borrow the funds needed before crops were harvested. Southerners also distrusted the National Bank because it increased federal power. WESTWARD EXPANSION: Favored expansion because they felt it would result in the admitting of slave states. Also, new lands were needed since cotton was depleting Southern soil. SLAVERY: Without slavery the plantation system of the South would cease to exist. Southern plantation owners believed slavery was an issue to be left to the individual states and feared the North would attempt to abolish it through federal law. WEST TARIFFS: Despite higher prices on imported goods resulting from tariffs, the West benefited from increased sales of foodstuffs to the prosperous Northeast. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS AT FEDERAL EXPENSE: Roads, canals, and railroads would open the West to more settlers and allow them to trade more easily with the railroads would open the West to more settlers and allow them to trade more easily with the Northeast. These federally funded transportation networks were the life-line to the West. THE NATIONAL BANK: Favored state and local banks since soft currency was easier to pay back for the farmers than hard currency. [Soft currency was not backed by gold or silver.] WESTWARD EXPANSION: They were in favor of westward expansion. SLAVERY: Generally against slavery since most settlers to this region came from areas rich with anti-slavery sentiment such as the Northeast and Europe. Also, most were small, family owned farms with no need for slave labor.

28 P a g e 28 THE AMERICAN SYSTEM The American System was developed by Henry Clay. Clay felt the U.S. consisted of three sections the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South and West. The Northeast would provide industrial products for the South and West while they in turn would provide foodstuffs for the Northeast. In order to accomplish this, Clay s American System included high protective tariffs, creation of a National Bank, and internal improvements financed by the federal government. Attempts to enact this program highlighted sectional differences between the North and South. These differences helped lead to the Civil War. TARIFFS BACKGROUND: A tariff is a tax placed on foreign products being imported into the U.S. Revenue tariffs are designed to make money for the federal government while protective tariffs are used to make American products more competitive. When Congress began to pass protective tariffs, sectional differences surfaced. The South believed they did not benefit from the tariff since industry was located almost entirely in the Northeast and they purchased many of their manufactured goods from Great Britain. The South was also afraid that Great Britain, which purchased much of the South s cotton and tobacco, would place a retaliatory tariff on the South s products making cotton from India and tobacco from the Caribbean less expensive. TARIFF OF 1789: The first tariff in U.S. history was part of Hamilton s Financial Plan. Although Hamilton asked for a high protective tariff, Congress passed a revenue tariff of 10% on most imported goods. TARIFF OF 1824: Congress passed a protective tariff of 33% on many imported goods. The South felt the tariff did not benefit them. TARIFF OF 1828: A protective tariff of almost 50% on most manufactured goods was called the Tariff of Abominations by Southerners. John C. Calhoun, in his Exposition of Protest, stated that Southern states had a right to nullify federal laws including the unfair protective tariff that did not benefit their state. TARIFF OF 1832: As Southern discontent with the Tariff of 1828 grew, Congress passed the Tariff of 1832 which lowered tariff levels to approximately 35%. South Carolina s state legislature was still upset by the unfair tariff and passed the Nullification Doctrine, providing a legal basis for refusing to collect the tariff within their state. When President Jackson threatened to send in federal troops to enforce collection, South Carolina rescinded the doctrine. TARIFF OF 1833: In an effort to avoid a civil war over the tariff issue, Congress passed the Compromise Tariff of 1833 which lowered tariffs enough to satisfy the South. THE NATIONAL BANK PROPONENTS OF THE NATIONAL BANK: The National Bank was used by the federal government to deposit its revenue, sell government bonds, and provide loans for businesses. It was also developed to provide a sound currency by forbidding state banks to issue bank notes without the gold and silver to back it up. (This is known as hard currency.) OPPONENTS OF THE NATIONAL BANK: Most Southerners and Westerners felt that the National Bank was more harmful than beneficial to the country. Loans were difficult for farmers and small businesses to acquire since the National bank required security on its loans. Since most farmers were debtors, they favored the soft currency allowed by state and local banks. Since currency could be printed without having gold or silver to back it up, inflation usually resulted making money worth less and thus making loans easier to replay. PRESIDENT ANDREW JACKSON AND THE NATIONAL BANK: Re-chartering the National Bank was the major issue between President Jackson and Henry clay in the election of Jackson viewed his landslide victory as a mandate from the people to end the National Bank. In 1836, Jackson closed the National Bank INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS The building of roads, canals, and later railroads, was the lifeblood for the West and the industrial Northeast. The tremendous amounts of capital needed for such ventures made federal grants a necessity. While the Northeast and West favored increased taxes for these purposes, the South usually opposed them because they traditionally had used their extensive river network and oceans for transportation.

29 P a g e 29 TERRITORIES BECOME NEW STATES In 1819, the U.S. consisted of eleven free states and eleven slave states, giving free and slave states equal representation in the U.S. Senate. As new territories from the Louisiana Purchase and later, the Mexican Cession, requested statehood, both free and slave states tried to maintain control of the Senate. Several compromises in Congress were needed in order to admit new states into the Union. MISSOURI COMPROMISE (1820) (Pertaining to territories from the Louisiana Purchase) SITUATION CAUSING CONGRESSIONAL ACTION: Before Missouri applied for statehood as a slave state in 1820, there were equal number of free and slave states in the Union. Many Northerners did not want to admit Missouri since this could give the slave states an advantage in the Senate. PROVISIONS: 1) Maine was admitted as a free state in ) Missouri was admitted as a slave state in ) Slavery in the Louisiana Purchase would be illegal above the N line and legal below it. RESULTS OF LEGISLATIVE ACTION: The compromise settled the issue of slavery in the Louisiana Territory until 1854 when the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act re-opened the problem of slavery in the territories. Three years later, in 1857, the Supreme Court, in the Dred Scott v. Sanford decision, declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional because U.S. citizens could not be deprived of their property (and slaves were considered property by the Court). COMPROMISE OF (1850) (Pertaining to territories from the Mexican Cession) SITUATION CAUSING CONGRESSIONAL ACTION: When California requested admission into the Union as a free state, there were several problems that confronted the U.S. Congress. Many Southerners were upset over the large number of slaves escaping to the North. Southern slave holders feared that Congress would outlaw slavery in the rest of the Mexican Cession. Also, many Northerners wanted to abolish slavery in Washington, D.C. since it was the nation s capital. PROVISIONS: 1) California was admitted as a free state in ) A strict Fugitive Slave Law was passed forcing the North to return runaway slaves. 3) The Slave Trade was prohibited in Washington, D.C. (slavery was still permitted.) 4) The rest of the Mexican Cession was to be divided into the territories of Utah and New Mexico. Popular sovereignty would be used to determine whether the territories would be free or slave. RESULTS OF LEGISLATIVE ACTION: The compromise eased tensions between the North and South for several years. Still, many Southerners were upset because with the admission of California, free states would now outnumber slave states in the U.S. Se3nate. Many Northerners were upset with the Fugitive Slave Law: Several Northern states passed Personal Liberty Laws which forbade state officials from enforcing the Fugitive Slave Laws and returning runaway slaves KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT (1854) (Pertaining to territories from the Louisiana Purchase) SITUATION CAUSING CONGRESSIONAL ACTION: Senator Douglas of Illinois proposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act in He proposed allowing popular sovereignty (allowing the people of the territory to decide on the issue of slavery) in the territories of Kansas and Nebraska to settle the issue of slavery though the Missouri Compromise had made them free territories. In return, Senator Douglas hoped the South would vote to build a railroad from his home state of Illinois to the West Coast. PROVISIONS: The proposal divided the rest of the Louisiana Purchase into the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. Popular sovereignty (a popular vote on the legality of slavery) would determine whether they would be free or slave. RESULTS OF LEGISLATIVE ACTIONS: Southern slave owners and Northern abolitionists sent settlers to Kansas. A small scale war known as Bleeding Kansas erupted as pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces tried to control that territory s government. Also, the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, caused many Whigs and Democrats to join with the Free Soil Party to create the Republican Party, a group opposed to the extension of slavery into the territories. This was the first major party which took a stand on the issue of slavery.

30 P a g e 30 AFRICAN AMERICAN and SLAVERY There were several classes of African Americans in the United States during the 1800 s: slaves, bondsmen who enjoyed more freedom or been released by their owners, and businessmen, civic leaders, or clergy. Of the four million African Americans in the U.S. in the 1850 s, 95% lived in the South mostly as slaves. Beginning in the early 1800 s, abolitionists, a vocal minority in the North, began to press for an end to slavery. As tensions increased between abolitionists and slave owners, the federal government became more involved. SLAVERY BACKGROUND: Slavery was legal in the United States from colonial times. While the importing of slaves was forbidden by federal law in 1808, smuggling and selling slaves continued through the 1850 s. Most slaves in the South were owned by 1% of the white plantation owners. Over 80% of while Southerners owned no slaves and 19% owned five or fewer slaves. Reports of floggings, branding, and rape of African Americans held in slavery were common. Many slave families were separated when they were sold to different slave owners. It was also legal for an owner to kill a slave while punishing him or her. However, some slaves were well fed and cared for by their owners. SLAVE CODES: Passed by most slave states, these codes forbade slaves to learn to read or write, own property, congregate freely, testify in court against while person, or leave their owner s property. There were no legal provisions for marriages or divorces. Anyone appearing to be African American was presumed to be a slave unless he or she could prove to the contrary. THE ABOLITIONIST MOVEMENTS LITERATURE: Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Tom s Cabin in The book was loosely based on a visit to a plantation in Kentucky. The book, which exposed the evils of slavery, was a best seller in the North and helped the abolitionists cause. Southerners, on the other hand, believed the book exaggerated or lied about slavery. Newspapers also helped increase abolitionist sentiment. Examples include: William Lloyd Garrison s, The Liberator, an anti-slavery newspaper, former slave Frederick Douglass The North Star, an abolitionist newspaper, and, Horace Greeley s New York Tribune which published many anti-slavery editorials. POLITICAL PARTIES: As anti-slavery sentiment increased, several minor parties adopted anti-slavery platforms. The Liberty Party was the first party to include abolition of slavery in its party platform. In 1840 and 1844, James Birney ran for President on the Liberty Party ticket. The Free Soil Party, also an abolitionist party, nominated ex-president Martin Van Buren for president in The Republican Party, formed in 1854, opposing the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the spread of slavery into new territories. In just six year, the Republican Party, became a major national party and elected Abraham Lincoln as President in UNDERGROUND RAILROAD: This was a system of secret stations were slaves were smuggled to Canada and many Northern states where they could be free. Harriet Tubman, an ex-slave and leader in the Underground Railroad, made 19 trips to the South and led over 300 slaves to freedom. DRED SCOTT V. SANFORD (1856) BACKGROUND: Dred and Harriet Scott were slaves who had been brought to the free state of Illinois and then to the free territory of Wisconsin by Dr. John Emerson. After his death, the Scott s sued for their freedom. CONSTITUTIONAL ISSUES: First, does a slave, who is not a citizen of the U.S., have the right to bring a case to Federal court? Second, does a slave become a free person when he or she resides in a free state or territory? DECISION: The Supreme Court ruled against Dred Scott. Led by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, the Court held that since Scott was a slave and not a citizen of the U.S., he had no right to bring suit to federal court. In addition, the Court stated that slaves were property. Since the Constitution guarantees everyone the right to their property, the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional since it prohibited slavery (the slave owners property) in portions of the Louisiana Territory that were north of the line. FREE AFRICAN AMERICANS Not all African Americans were slaves. By 1860, over 250,000 freedmen lived in the slave states as well as in the North. Some African Americans were financially secure. For example, Denmark Vesey, a former slaves, ran a successful carpentry business in Charleston, South Carolina, prior to his unsuccessful slave revolt. Many African Americans were active abolitionists, and ran schools, businesses, and churches. However, most African Americans experienced limiting voting and educational rights in the North as well as the

31 P a g e The Declaration of Independence: It introduced equality as a basic democratic principle when it stated that all men were created equal. But it never addressed the slavery issue Constitution is Ratified: According to the Constitution the slave trade could continue until 1808 and five slaves would be counted as three whites when determining representation in Congress. (3/5ths rule) This gave more power to southern whites in Congress Invention of the Cotton Gin: As cotton production became easier and more profitable, Southern plantations prospered and became more dependent on slave labor. (Both tobacco and cotton production were labor intensive endeavors.) 1808-Congress Prohibits Slave Trade: This law made the foreign slave trade (importation of slaves) illegal although lack of enforcement by the federal government enabled the trade to continue African Colonization Society Formed: Organized by white Virginians to establish a colony of freed slaves in Africa. The Society succeeded in founding the colony of Liberia on the west coast of Africa which became a Black republic in Missouri Compromise: This compromise settled the issue of slavery in the Louisiana Territory. Missouri was admitted as a slave state, Maine as a free state and all territory north of would be free territory Slave Revolt Led By Denmark Vesey: Vesey, a former slave, organized a large group of African Americans from the Charleston, S.C. area and planned a slave revolt. The revolt failed and Vesey and 36 others involved in the revolt were hanged s-abolitionist Groups and the Underground Railroad Begin: Abolitionist groups called for the end of slavery. The Underground Railroad helped slaves escape to free territory. Abolitionists increased in numbers up to the Civil War while the Underground Railroad worked effectively throughout the ante-bellum period. AFRICAN AMERICAN and SLAVERY 1840-Liberty Party Formed: The Liberty Party was the first political party promoting an anti-slavery platform Compromise of 1850: This compromise allowed California to enter as a free state and ended the slave trade in Washington, D.C. Popular sovereignty would be used to determine the issue of slavery in the New Mexico and Utah territories Fugitive Slave Law: State and local officials were responsible for capturing and returning runaway slaves to the South. Northern states passed Personal Liberty Laws which, in effect, nullified the Fugitive Slave Law Uncle Tom s Cabin: Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, this bestseller depicted the cruelties of slavery. It called attention to the abolitionist movement in the North Kansas-Nebraska Act: This act reopened the issue of slavery in Louisiana Territories and caused fighting between slavery and antislavery opponents in what became known as Bleeding Kansas Republican Party Formed: Formed after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, the Republican Party took a stand against the spread of slavery into the territories Dred Scott v. Sanford: The Supreme Court declared slaves to be property and stated that Congress did not have the Constitutional authority to legislate on the issue of slavery. The Missouri Compromise was ruled unconstitutional as a result Lincoln-Douglas Debates: The much-publicized debates between the two Senate candidates from Illinois brought the issue of slavery to national attention John Brown s Raid: Brown, a white abolitionist, tried to encourage a slave revolt. His group seized U.S. weapons at Harper s Ferry, Virginia. Federal troops captured and hanged Brown and his followers Nat Turner Leads Slave Revolt: An African American slave led a rebellion of almost 70 slaves who killed more than 50 whites in Virginia. Turner and other leaders of the revolt were executed The Liberator Begins Publication: William Lloyd Garrison began The Liberator, a weekly newspaper in Boston which called for an immediate end to slavery without any compensation to slave-owners Election of Abraham Lincoln: When Abraham Lincoln, a Republican, was elected President, the South feared slavery would be prohibited in new territories. They seceded from the Union and established the Confederate States of America Emancipation Proclamation: President Lincoln s proclamation freed all slaves living in the Confederate States of America Frederick Douglass Edits the Northern Star: Frederick Douglass, a former slave, began editing the North Star, an anti-slavery newspaper, in Rochester, New York

32 P a g e 32 GROWTH AND DISUNION Territorial expansion dominated American diplomacy and politics in the 1840s. Settlers swarming into the still-disputed Oregon Country aggravated relations with Britain, which had staked its own claims in the Pacific Northwest. The clamor to annex Texas to the Union provoked bitter tension with Mexico, which continued to regard Texas as a Mexican province in revolt. And when Americans began casting covetous eyes on Mexico s northernmost province, the great prize of California, open warfare erupted between the United States and its southern neighbor. Victory over Mexico added vast new domains to the United States, but it also raised thorny questions about the status of slavery in the newly acquired territories questions that would be answered in blood in the Civil War of the 1860s PLANS FOR THE WESTERN TERRITORIES What kind of future will America have? Four plans are going to come together around this debate over slavery in the territories #1 The Wilmot Proviso (a rally cry of the Free Soil Movement). David Wilmot proposed an amendment that stated that the territory from Mexico should remain slave-free. The language was borrowed from the Northwest Ordinance. All but one northern state legislature endorsed it. All southern legislatures condemned it (a sign of things to come???). #2 State sovereignty (states' rights) The question of the individual's constitutional right of ownership in slaves as property and transport of slaves as property. State sovereignty, states' rights was indeed deeply at the root of the South's growing position here that, ultimately, no Federal Legislature, President--no Federal authority--existed to stop slavery's expansion. #3 Popular sovereignty (a compromise position) not a new idea in the midst of the Mexican War and its aftermath the idea that there would be no Act of Congress on slavery in the territories. Take Congress out of the story and simply let the people in the Western Territory have a vote. Let them have a referendum. Let there be popular democracy. #4 Geographical division Remember the Missouri Compromise of 1820 the 36º30' parallel from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean and slavery would never exist north of that line. The problem was that half of California was already north of that line.

33 P a g e 33 Disunion and Reconstruction Dred Scott, 1857 The Election of 1860 April 12, 1861 Antietam, 1862 Emancipation, 1863 Lincoln Assassinated, 1865 Radical Reconstruction Civil War Amendments Compromise of 1877

34 P a g e 34 C A U S ES OF T H E CI VIL W AR Many causes are cited for the Civil War including sectional issues such as the existence and expansion of slavery, rights of states to decide economic issues affecting the states, and the growth of the Republican Party. All contributed to the eventual clash between those who formed the Confederacy and those who chose to remain part of the United States. BACKGROUND CAUSES STATES RIGHTS: The dominant southern viewpoint was that the federal government had been created by the states to represent their interests. Accordingly, each state had the right to secede if the federal government was created by the people, and the agreement was binding for all. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES: The south, dominated by the aristocracy of the large plantation owners, differed dramatically from the working class peoples of the urban north. SECTIONAL DIFFERENCES: The north was already headed toward an industrial economy while the south was committed to commercialized agriculture based on slave labor. This difference caused disagreements over such issues as high tariffs, the Bank of the United States, and federal vs; state power. SLAVERY: Unionists from the north believed that the federal government had a legitimate power to decide the issue of slavery while the states rights advocates from the south felt that decisions about slavery should be left to the states. Southern plantation owners needed slavery to continue their way of life. Many southerners contended that slavery was less abusive than the practices of northern businessmen and industrialists toward their workers, who were forced to work long hours in unsafe conditions. Abolitionists, a vocal minority in the north, saw slavery as an intolerable, immoral institution. Many radical abolitionists called for an immediate end to slavery, even if it resulted in civil war. The Supreme Court created more problems with their decision in Dred Scott v. Sanford. The Court held that slaves were property and, therefore, the federal government could not legislate against slavery in the territories. Many people in the north were afraid this would increase the power of the south and increase the power of the south and increase slavery throughout the west. BIRTH OF THE REPUBLICAN PARTY: The Kansas-Nebraska Act, opened up the issue of slavery in the territories guaranteed free under the Missouri Compromise. This prompted the formation of the Republican Party who advocated laws to make slavery illegal in the western territories IMMEDIATE CAUSES ELECTION OF 1860: The November election of Abraham Lincoln, a Republican, led to the secession of South Carolina in December of Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas soon followed. In February 1861, these states established The Confederate States of America, with Jefferson Davis as President. FIRING ON FORT SUMTER: Confederate forces claimed Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. They attempted to starve out Union soldiers stationed there. When Union ships, under orders from President Lincoln attempted to supply the Fort in April, 1861, Confederate soldiers opened fire. Within a week, President Lincoln called 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion. This action prompted Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee to secede from the Union to join the Confederacy.

35 P a g e 35 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR TALLY SHEET The Civil War, which lasted from 1861 to 1865, was especially harsh since it often pitted family members against one another. The Civil War resulted in the loss of over 600,000 lives and destroyed billions of dollars of property making it the most costly war in United States history. More American lives were lost in the Civil war than all other wars combined involving the U.S. TIME LINE 1861: The Civil War began when Confederate troops fired on Fort Sumter in April Union soldiers were forced to surrender the fort located in Charleston harbor, South Carolina. The United States set up a naval blockade of the south almost immediately. The first major battle of the war was in July at Bull Run, which the Confederate Army won easily. 1862: General Lee and the Army of the Virginia won the vast majority of the early battles in the area between Richmond and Washington, D.C. In March, the Merrimac and Monitor, two iron-clad ships, fought off the coast of Virginia. In May, Admiral Farragut captured the southern port at the battle of New Orleans, Louisiana. In September, General Lee met his first defeat at Antietam, Maryland, when Confederate troops invaded the north. In December, General Lee defeated General Burnside at Vicksburg, Mississippi forcing Union troops to give up their goal of reaching Richmond, Virginia from the west. 1863: At the battle of Chancellorsville, General Lee defeated General Hooker, allowing Confederate armies to invade the north. But in July, General Lee s offensive into Pennsylvania was defeated at Gettysburg by General Meade and Union forces won the siege of Vicksburg giving them control of the Mississippi River and effectively splitting the Confederacy. These battles were the turning points in the Civil War. In November, general grant won a decisive battle at Chattanooga, allowing the Union forces to drive into Georgia. 1864: General Grant was made commander of United States Armed Forces in April. Grant and Lee met for the first time at the battle of The Wilderness. Heavy casualties were inflicted by both sides. After the battle of Cold Harbor, General Lee retreated to Richmond to bolster defenses there. In September, General Sherman burned down the city of Atlanta and marched on to the coast of Georgia. Once Sherman reached the coast, he drove north into South Carolina and North Carolina leaving a path of destruction in his wake. 1865: In April 1865, after four years of bitter fighting, and over 1 million casualties, General Lee surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox, Virginia. UNION ADVANTAGES 1. Larger population (22 million in the north compared to 9 million in the south), including African American soldiers who fought later in the war. 2. More railroads (22,000 miles of track in the north to 9,000 miles of track in the south). 3. Northern manufacturing economy helped supply war effort. (For example, New York produced twice as much war material as the entire Confederacy.) 4. Union kept control of the Navy. 5. Strong central government under a strong leader in Abraham Lincoln. UNION AND CONFEDERATE ADVANTAGES CONFEDERATE ADVANTAGES 1. Most soldiers had knowledge of the territory and training in outdoor skills. 2. The south was able to fight a defensive war. The south could win if the north did not win. 3. Great Britain needed the south s cotton. Many people in the south incorrectly assumed Britain would aid them. 4. Spirit of the cause: The south was fighting to preserve their way of life and culture. 5. Strong military leadership in General Robert E. Lee. 6. Many southern leaders were trained at West Point. 7. FOREIGN POLICY DURING THE CIVIL WAR ENGLAND: Many in the middle classes, themselves abolitionists, favored the north. However, English upper classes generally favored the southern aristocracy. In the first years of the war, England sold the Confederacy warships. However, President Lincoln s Emancipation Proclamation, issued in 1862, guaranteed that England would remain neutral throughout the Civil War. FRANCE: They favored the south, but only because they sought to exploit United States weaknesses during the Civil War by extending their influences into Mexico and Latin America. To this end, Napoleon II took control of Mexico in 1862, knowing that the United States was unable to take definitive action. Once the Civil War ended however, the United States sent troops to the Mexican border and forced France to withdraw its troops.

36 P a g e 36 THE UNION HOME FRONT The increase in power of President Lincoln during the Civil War, the limitation of civil liberties, the emancipation of slaves in the Confederacy, and the passage of federal laws to aid the growth of industry were, several of the many changes that were instituted during the Civil War. These changes had a lasting impact on United States history. POLITICAL CHANGES PRESIDENT LINCOLN LIMITS CIVIL LIBERTIES: In the border state of Maryland, particularly in the city of Baltimore, there was considerable anti-union sentiment. President Lincoln sent federal troops to occupy Baltimore, ordered the arrest of people suspected of acting against the Union, and suspended the writ of habeas corpus. Additionally, he sent people suspected of disloyalty to the Union ( Copperheads ), and editors of newspapers critical of Union efforts to military prisons without a trial. PRESIDENT LINCOLN S EXTRA-CONSTITUTIONAL ACTIONS: Lincoln increased the size of the army and withdrew two million dollars from the federal treasury for military purposes while Congress was not in session. PRESIDENT LINCOLN AND SLAVERY: During the war, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation freeing slaves in Confederate territories. Although the Supreme Court in Dred Scott v. Sanford, stated that slaves were property and the federal government could not deprive anyone of their property, Lincoln used his powers as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces to act on the issue of slavery. The Emancipation Proclamation re-focused the war effort to include both re-unification of the nation and the abolition of slavery. AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CIVIL WAR THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION: Issued for the most part to satisfy abolitionists, the Emancipation Proclamation only freed the slaves in the deep south that Lincoln had no control over and did not prevent slavery from continuing in the border states that had sided with the north. It did, however, become the basis for the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery throughout the United States after the Civil War. AFRICAN-AMERICAN PARTICIPATION IN THE CIVIL WAR: Almost 180,000 African Americans enlisted and served on the Union side. Although they were rejected in the early years of the Civil War and did not receive equal treatment or pay upon enlistment, African Americans became an important part of Union s military effort. Twenty-two Congressional Medals of Honor were awarded to African Americans who were involved in over 500 military engagements. EFFECTS OF THE CIVIL WAR IN THE NORTH WEST VIRGINIA ENTERS THE UNION: The western part of Virginia did not secede with Virginia in President Lincoln assured the loyalty of the area by sending in army volunteers to protect it. West Virginia entered the Union as a separate state in DRAFT LAWS: The first draft law was passed in 1863 to guarantee the Union enough soldiers for the war effort. It allowed draftees to avoid service in the army by hiring a substitute or paying $300 to the government. Draft riots broke out in New York City and other places in protest to the draft laws which were seen as a government effort to have poor men fight a rich man s war. THE WEST: The Homestead Act was passed in 1862 to stimulate the settlement and cultivation of western farmland. It provided 160 acres of public land in the west to all citizens who would occupy and improve the land for at least five years. ECONOMIC CHANGES LAWS PASSED TO AID BUSINESS: During the Civil War, Republicans dominated the U.S. government and were able to pass many laws which helped big business prosper. The Morill Tariff, passed in 1861, raised protective tariffs on many goods to 47%. The National Banking Act provided a uniform, national currency throughout the United States and created a system of inspections of all participating banks. Congress also gave large land grants and subsidies to aid in the building of the transcontinental railroad. LAWS PASSED TO HELP FUND THE WAR EFFORT: In 1861, for the first time in United States history, income tax laws were passed to help pay for the war.

37 P a g e 37 THE CONFEDERATE HOME FRONT The Confederacy was plagued by many serious problems on the home front. Its government, much like the United States government under the Articles of Confederation, game much of its power to the states. In addition, its plantation economy was devastated by the loss of white males who left to fight the war and slaves who escaped. In addition, much of the south s infrastructure was destroyed. POLITICAL CHANGES ORIGINS OF THE CONFEDERACY: Fearful of federal domination, South Carolina seceded from the Union following the election of Abraham Lincoln. Alabama, Florida, Georgia Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas quickly followed suit and by February 1861, the Confederate States of America was established. When President Lincoln called for volunteers to suppress the rebellion in the south, Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee also joined the Confederacy. THE CONSITUTION OF THE CONFEDERACY: The Confederate constitution was a virtual replica of the United States Constitution, though it differed in several key respects. It included strong guarantees of slavery, states rights, and limited the president to one, six-year term. JEFFERSON DAVIS: Davis, a former U.S. Senator from Mississippi, was elected Confederate States of American President in February Although an experienced statesman and competent administrator, Davis had only limited success in unifying the Confederacy. His administration was plagued by confusion, disagreement, and instability. For example, the fact that several states refused to send troops outside their own territory hindered the Confederacy s unity and war effort. SOCIAL CHANGES DRAFT LAWS: The Confederacy passed its first draft law in White males from 18 to 35 years of age were drafted for three years. The law allowed one exemption from the draft for every twenty slaves on a plantation. Many southerners were irritated that the poor white males fought the war to save slaver for the plantation owners who were exempt from the draft. Later the draft said to rob both the cradle and the grave was extended to the ages of 17 and 50 years of age. Because of these laws, 90% of southern white men fought in the Civil war. In some cases, owners sent slaves in their place. WOMEN: During the war women often ran the plantations and were responsible for disciplining the slaves while the men fought the Union Army. To help the war effort, the Confederate government employed many women in clerical positions. Many women also went to work in the factories and arsenals of the south. Some served as spies for the Confederacy. AFRICAN-AMERICANS: The first two years of the war had little impact on slaves in the Confederacy. However, as Union troops conquered territory in the south, thousands of African Americans escaped from the plantations and joined the armies of the north. More than 180,000 fought in more than 500 Civil War battles. SHORTAGES: Because of the Union blockade and problems relating to logistics and infrastructure, there were often severe shortages of necessities in the Confederacy. Linens, shoes, clothing, and meat were in extremely short supply. In 1863, bread riots occurred in Richmond, Virginia over shortages of food. ECONOMIC CHANGES INFLATION: The Confederate States of America issued paper money without enough gold and silver to back it. As the Confederacy continued to print more money, uncontrolled inflation developed. The high inflation rate caused many hardships as prices continued to increase. By 1864, a breakfast for three in Richmond, Virginia cost almost $150. TAXES: A 10% tax was placed on farm products in order to raise money for the war effort. The tax placed additional burdens on the southern farmer. DESTRUCTION OF THE SOUTHERN ECONOMY: As Union forces invaded the southern states, entire railway systems, farms, towns, and cities were destroyed. The southern economy, already weakened by the Union blockade, took decades to recover from the Union Army s destructive attacks.

38 P a g e 38 CONSEQUENCES OF THE CIVIL WAR The Union victory over the Confederate States in the Civil war effectively ended states ability to challenge the federal government s supremacy via nullification and secession. The Civil War also had devastating effects on the lives and property of people on both sides, although the south was particularly hard hit. POLITICAL SUPREMACY OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT OVER THE STATES: With the defeat of the Confederacy, nullification of federal laws and secession from the Union were established as illegal and no longer issues for debate. INCREASE OF PRESIDENT POWERS DURING WARTIME: The danger of losing the Civil War prompted congress to allow Lincoln powers not specifically given the president in the constitution. In fact, Lincoln simply assumed them without congressional approval. This set a precedent which allowed future presidents to increase their powers during times of war. POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF THE SOUTH DESTROYED: Congressional reconstruction began in 1866, denied most white southerners the right to vote or hold office. This temporarily destroyed the Democratic Party in the south and guaranteed the dominance of the Republican Party for years to come. The war also cost the south many of its political leaders. SOCIAL SLAVERY ENDED: The Emancipation Proclamation was the basis for the Thirteenth amendment ratified in 1865, which abolished slavery in the United States. Large numbers of African Americans were now free from slavery but did not own land and were not automatically accepted in either northern or southern dominated society. HUMAN COST OF WAR: The Civil War lasted four years with more than 600,000 lives lost. Physical devastation, especially in the south, was severe. Homes, schools, churches, businesses, and infrastructure were destroyed. SOUTHERN SOCIETY AND CULTURE DESTROYED: Plantation owners had dominated the culture and society of the south. The war impoverished the owners. In addition, the accepted social norms of southern society were destroyed by the emancipation of the slaves. The impact of these changes on the south, were profound. The rules of society were turned virtually upside down as freed African Americans sought new roles and better lives. ECONOMIC DESTRUCTION OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOUTH: The naval blockade by the north during the war halted southern sales of cotton and tobacco to Europe. The war also destroyed entire plantations, houses, crops, and livestock. The war casualties suffered by the south meant a severe shortage of labor. The Thirteenth Amendment provided the final blow to the plantation economy as owners lost their primary labor source slaves. LAWS PASSED TO AID BUSINESS IN THE NORTH: The domination of the Republican Party helped assure the passage of laws favorable to business such as the Morrill Tariff Act, which increased protective tariffs to nearly 50%, and the National Banking Act, which provided a uniform national currency.

39 P a g e 39 PRESIDENTIAL RECONSTRUCTION Reconstruction, or rebuilding the nation after the Civil War, began in There were four major questions that faced the country. Under what circumstances was the Confederacy to be re-admitted to the Union? Did the President or Congress have the constitutional authority to establish criteria? What rights should freedmen (newly freed slaves) have? Could or should the federal government guarantee freedmen s rights? President Lincoln and Johnson controlled Reconstruction from the end of the Civil War until the election of LINCOLN S TEN PERCENT PLAN ( ) PRESIDENT LINCOLN TAKES CONTROL OF RECONSTRUCTION: During the war, President Lincoln sought to establish a viable method for re-admitting the Confederate states to the Union. President Lincoln believed that since the southern states had never legally seceded, individuals, not the states, had committed the crimes. Because pardoning federal criminals was a presidential power, President Lincoln felt he should control Reconstruction. Lincoln s Ten Percent Plan was issued in December 1863 and established the following terms for re-unification. 1. Most southerners would be pardoned upon taking the Oath of Allegiance (a guarantee to obey the Constitution from this point on.) 2. High ranking officials in the confederate government and military would not be pardoned. 3. A state would be re-admitted into the Union after 10% of those people signed the Oath of Allegiance and that state agreed to abolish slavery. In 1864, with the Civil War still raging, Tennessee, Louisiana, and Arkansas rejoined the Union under the terms of Lincoln s Ten Percent Plan. CONGRESS TRIES TO TAKE CONTROL OF RECONSTRUCTION: Congress refused to seat the southern representatives voted into office under the terms of Lincoln s Ten Percent Plan. In addition, Congress passed the Wade-Davis Bill, giving Congress control over Reconstruction. Congress generally believed the south had seceded from the Union and, were conquered territories. Therefore, the congressional power to admit new states gave the legislative branch the constitutional right to control Reconstruction. The congressional bill stated that in order for a southern state to enter the Union, a majority, not just 10% of the people, would have to take the Iron Clad Oath a pledge stating the person had never supported the Confederacy during the Civil War. PRESIDENT LINCOLN KEEPS CONTROL OF RECONSTRUCTION: President Lincoln vetoed the Wade-Davis bill and continued his control of Reconstruction. JOHNSON S PLAN FOR RECONSTRUCTION ( ) PRESIDENT JOHNSON ASSUMES CONTROL AFTER LINCOLN S DEATH: Andrew Johnson assumed the Presidency after President Lincoln was assassinated. Johnson, a Democrat, was chosen by the Republican Lincoln as his Vice President to increase his support for his re-election in Johnson s Reconstruction Plan, issued in May 1865, generally pattered Lincoln s Plan. It included the following: 1. Amnesty would be granted to all ex-confederates who took the Oath of Allegiance (except for the highest ranking military and government officials.) 2. Property would be restored to individuals. African Americans who had been viewed as property by their owners were not included in this provision. 3. States desiring to return to the Union must ratify the Thirteenth Amendment (abolishing slavery) and disavow any right to secede. PROBLEMS OCCUR DURING JOHNSON S CONTROL: President Johnson pardoned many of the important officials in the Confederate government. This allowed many of the southern leaders prior to and during the Civil War to win positions in the southern state governments. Southern state governments began passing Black Codes which segregated people of color, made intermarriage illegal, and forbade African Americans from owning land. In addition, those who were jobless could be arrested as vagrants and sold off to plantation owners who paid their fines. These laws were designed to limit the freedom of newly freed African Americans, give plantation owners a source of labor, and guarantee white supremacy.

40 P a g e 40 CONGRESSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION Although President Lincoln was a Republican, he chose Andrew Johnson, a southern Democrat, as his Vice President in When Johnson assumed the presidency in 1865, he was faced with a Republican dominated Congress. Upset with the passage of the Black Codes by southern state legislatures, Congress fought to control Reconstruction. By 1867, Congress had wrested control of Reconstruction from the president and kept control until federal troops were removed from the south in CONGRESS MIDDLE COURSE ( ) CONGRESS USES THE VETO TO TAKE CONTROL OF RECONSTRUCTION: Congress responded to the Black Codes by passing the Freedmen s Bureau Bill and the Civil Rights Bill in The Freedmen s Bureau Bill gave the national government broad powers to protect African American rights. The Civil Rights Bill granted ex-slaves federal citizenship and the same rights as white citizens. It also stated that federal troops could be sent into the south in order to enforce its provisions. President Johnson s veto of the Freedmen s Bureau Bill and the Civil Rights Bill were countered by congressional override. In April 1867, Congress proposed the Fourteenth Amendment, (which made African Americans citizens of the state and guaranteed all citizens equal protection under the law.) The Amendment also called for a reduction of southern representation in the House of Representation proportional to the number of African Americans who were not allowed to vote. JOHNSON REFUSES TO COMPROMISE WITH CONGRESS: With President Johnson s veto of the Freedmen s Bureau and the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the issue of who should control Reconstruction and what efforts should be taken to ensure African Americans rights became the issue in the Congressional elections of President Johnson also opposed the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment and campaigned for Congressional leaders opposed to the amendment. Congressional seats were won by those campaigning for the passage of the 14 th Amendment. The results clearly signaled American support for the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment and Congressional control of Reconstruction. THE NEW CONGRESS CHANGES DIRECTION ( ) CONGRESSIONAL ELECTIONS OF 1866: The Congressional elections of 1866 proved to Congressional leaders the people supported their programs which guaranteed equality to African Americans. New laws were passed to ensure these goals. RECONSTRUCTION ACT OF 1867 ( ): Passed over the veto of President Johnson, the terms of the Act included: 1. All southern state governments reconstructed under the Presidential Plans were illegal. 2. Tennessee, which had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, was admitted into the Union. 3. The southern states (except Tennessee) were divided into five military districts governed by General of the Army Ulysses S. Grant. Congress sent federal troops into these states to guarantee African American rights. 4. In order to be admitted back into the Union and have federal troops removed; the state was required to write a new constitution which guaranteed African Americans the right to vote. State legislatures were required to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment. 15 TH AMENDMENT: Congress feared that since states controlled voting laws, southern states would pass such laws to stop African Americans from voting. To prevent this, Congress passed the 15 th Amendment in 1870 which guaranteed the right to vote to all African American males.

41 P a g e 41 THE RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD A major focal point of Reconstruction was the treatment in the south of newly freed African Americans. President Johnson felt that the federal government should limit its involvement to emancipation and not meddle in the affairs of southern states. Congress felt that without federal action African Americans situation would be no better than that prior to the Civil War. Once Congress gained control of Reconstruction, new governments in the southern states under Republican control provided services for an protection to African Americans. Many southern Democrats felt these governments were corrupt and, consequently, were unwilling to support them. DOMINATION OF THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH BATTLE FOR CONTROL OF RECONSTRUCTION: By December 1865, battle lines were drawn between President Johnson (a Democrat) and Congress (controlled by Republicans) over who would direct Reconstruction. The Congressional elections of 1866 centered on whom should control Reconstruction, Congress, which favored the Fourteenth Amendment, or the President, who opposed it. In a decisive victory, the Republicans in Congress garnered enough seats to effectively take control of Reconstruction. Congress would now direct Reconstruction, while President Johnson was compelled to enforce its decisions. THE IMPREACHMENT OF PRESIDENT JOHNSON: President Johnson exercised his powers as chief law enforcer to weaken the military occupation of the south. Several generals who provided protection for freed people were dismissed by Johnson and replaced with generals sympathetic to southern whites. In 1867, Johnson attempted to replace his Secretary of War, Edward Stanton because his views were sympathetic to Congress. Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act which forbade the President from discharging any Cabinet officials without consent of the Senate. President Johnson dismissed the act as unconstitutional and fired Stanton. On February 24, 1868, the House of Representatives voted to impeach President Johnson. The Senate, serving as the jury for the impeachment trial, acquitted Johnson after falling one vote short of the two-thirds needed to convict him. SOUTHERN RECONSTRUCTION GOVERNMENTS POSITIVE CHARACTERISTICS: The new constitutions adopted by southern states as a result of congressional pressure were better than the constitutions enacted prior to the Civil War in a number of respects. These governments were responsible for the development of public school systems and social services for ex-slaves and poor white. The ratification of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments were supposed to establish civil and political equality for freedmen under the Constitution. NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS: Partly because plantation lands were not divided or redistributed at the conclusion of the Civil War, ex-slaves faced hardship as they were left with few means of employment and faced tremendous social, political, and economic restrictions. White southerners were upset by northerners, known to them as carpetbaggers, who migrated south seeking economic and political opportunity. GOVERNMENT CORRUPTION CORRUPTION IN THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: Several scandals broke during Grant s tenure as President. Credit Mobilier, a railroad construction company gave stock to Grant s vice president and members of Congress in order to avoid being investigated. A large number of distillers, known as the Whiskey Ring, bribed Treasury officials to avoid paying taxes. Another scandal involved the Secretary of War who was implicated in an illegal scheme to provide inferior government supplies to Native Americans. CORRUPTION IN LOCAL GOVERNMENTS: Bosses, or strong local politicians, ran political machines in most larger cities. They aided the poor by providing jobs, and some necessary services who, in return, expected votes for their own political candidates. During his tenure as leader of New York City s Tammany Hall machine, Boss Tweed controlled much of the city government and stole over $100 million.

42 P a g e 42 THE END OF RECONSTRUCTION Although the Compromise of 1877 is considered the official end to the Reconstruction Period, Reconstruction was waning by the early 1870 s. A devastating nation-wide depression and increased political corruption shifted the country s focus away from Reconstruction and African Americans rights. President Grant became less willing to support Republican state governments in the south, and he removed troops from many states. These events also brought changes to the south. State control in most southern states shifted back to the Democratic party and African Americans were faced with increasing levels of intimidation, discrimination and violence aimed at disenfranchising them by weakening their political and economic resolve. NATIONAL CAUSES DEPRESSION OF 1873: More than three million jobs were lost during the depression which lasted from 1873 to Because the depression was blamed on the Republican Party, Democrats were able to gain control of the House of Representatives in As the depression continued, many northerners became more concerned with the problems of the economy than protecting African Americans civil rights. CORRUPTION: Civil service reform began to take precedence over civil rights for African Americans as scandals during the Grant administration and big city political machines were exposed. Additionally, corruption in the Reconstruction governments led many northerners to lose interest in Reconstruction altogether. COMPROMISE OF 1877: The Compromise of 1877, which settled the disputed Presidential election of 1876 between Democratic candidate Samuel Tilden and Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, effectively ended Reconstruction as a formal government policy. The election was given to the Republican Hayes in return for the removal of the few remaining troops from the south. CHANGES IN THE SOUTH AMNESTY ACT: Except for 500 of the most important Confederate leaders, southern whites were given the right to vote and hold political office in REPUBLICAN LOSS OF STATE GOVERNMENTS: By 1876, only three states, South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida, were still under Republican control. INTIMIDATION OF SOUTHERN AFRICAN AMERICANS: Thousands of whites used physical violence and intimidation tactics to thwart attempts by newly enfranchised African Americans to vote. Called the white line program, poor whites and local government officials were able to effectively curtail the civil rights African Americans had been promised. EFFECTS OF RECONSTRUCTION THE SOLID SOUTH : Domination by the Republican Party during Reconstruction and the desire of southern whites to limit the rights of African Americans were factors that led the south to become a Democratic stronghold once white southerner s regained control. In national, state and local elections, the south voted overwhelmingly in favor of Democratic candidates until the 1980 s LOSS OF AFRICAN AMERICAN RIGHTS: An erosion of African Americans rights was evident even during Reconstruction. Once southern state governments came under the control of southern Democrats, their rights were curtailed even more. Jim Crow laws, passed in the 1880 s and 1890 s, separated African Americans and whites in all public facilities. The poll tax, literacy test, and grandfather clause were used into the 1950 s to keep African Americans from voting. Extreme physical violence, including lynching, was not only tolerated, but at times even encouraged by white politicians and business leaders.

43 P a g e 43 THE NEW SOUTH Coined by a southerner Henry Grady, the term The New South referred to post-civil War changes in the south towards a new industrial development and the growth of cities. However, race relations and civil rights issues remained in the forefront. While some freedoms were gained, many African Americans faced similar economic and social barriers they had prior to the Civil War. CONSEQUENCES OF THE CIVIL WAR SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC DEVASTATION: More than 250,000 southerners were killed during the war and countless were wounded. The war caused the destruction of railways, crops, and livestock. Cities were destroyed in battle and a market for goods such as cotton decreased as a result of the northern blockade during the war. ABOLITION OF SLAVERY: African Americans released from slavery sought new opportunities in education, employment, and politics. Despite some new rights, life for many African Americans improved little from their lives prior to the Civil War. Southern white policy was aimed at denying African American s economic independence. VOTING PATTERNS OF A SOLID SOUTH : From 1877 through the early 1930 s white southerners voted predominantly Democratic because they opposed the Republican party of President Lincoln. They favored state authority over issues of suffrage, civil rights, and regulation of business. This phenomenon became known as The Solid South. SOUTHERN INDUSTRY USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES: Southern industries grew from the natural resources they possessed. For example, cotton led to textile mills, timber to paper plants, oil to refineries, and tobacco to cigarette factories. The south s manufacturing production was four times great than pre-civil War levels although it still lagged behind northeastern output. GROWTH OF CITIES: Many southern cities became industrial centers. Birmingham, Alabama, for example, became known as the Pittsburgh of the South. Despite low wages and poor working conditions, many people left rural areas of the south and moved to cities for jobs in factories and mills. Low wages, however, prevented large numbers of workers, businessmen, and professionals from moving south. SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE SHARECROPPING AND TENANT FARMING: Sharecropping became the dominant form of farming since many African Americans and poor white southerners were forced to work for landlords who took portions of their crops as payment for land use. They often went into debt and could not leave their rented farms as a result. RELIANCE ON COTTON AND COMMERCIAL FARMING: Though southern production of cotton eventually rose to pre-civil War levels, prices for cotton steadily declined. By the 1900 s farmers began to produce other crops such as soybeans, peanuts, fruits, vegetables, tobacco, and indigo.

44 P a g e 44 PROBLEMS FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS The end of Reconstruction caused African Americans in the south to lose the rights gained during Reconstruction. Voting rights were restricted in the south and west and African Americans were segregated by southern laws which protected white dominance. Elsewhere, African Americans were able to vote but faced other forms of discrimination. For example, they were barred from most labor unions in the northeast. In response to such exclusion, African Americans established their own communities. African American organizations emerged to combat discrimination and fight for equality and civil rights. RECONSTRUCTION AMENDMENTS MADE INEFFECTIVE 13 TH AMENDMENT: This amendment abolished slavery in After Reconstruction, sharecropping replaced slavery as the method used by southern plantation owners in order to use African Americans as a cheap source of labor. African Americans were given a lease on farm land. In return, the sharecropper agreed to turn over a portion of his crops (usually one-third for the land and one-third for use of equipment) to the plantation owner. This system meant that sharecroppers were almost completely dependent on plantation owners because they were always in debt to him. 14 TH AMENDMENT: This amendment, passed in 1868, made African Americans citizens and guaranteed all citizens must be treated equally. Following Reconstruction, southern states adopted Jim Crow laws, which legally separated African Americans from whites in restaurants, schools, trains, and all other aspects of public life. The U.S. Supreme Court heard the case of Plessy v. Ferguson in Homer Plessy, an African American, was not allowed to sit in the white only car on a Louisiana railway line. He claimed the law separating African Americans and whites violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court, in an 8-1 decision, found segregated facilities were constitutional as long as they were separate but equal. This decision legalized the segregation and discrimination of African Americans for over 50 years. 15 TH AMENDMENT: This amendment gave black males the right to vote in State laws were passed in the south following Reconstruction to deny African Americans voting rights. The poll tax required payment of a fee for the right to vote. The literacy test established unfair requirements on African American voters, and the grandfather clause limited voting to only those whose ancestors could vote in RACE RELATIONS CULTURAL SEPARATION: After slavery, families re-united and African Americans worked to establish communities to exercise their rights and enjoy cultural unity. Because segregation laws, African Americans established their own churches, community organizations, schools, colleges, and reform associations. VIOLENCE: Lynching, especially in the south, was a major problem for African American. In many cities violence broke out as racial prejudice and increased competition for jobs grew. Most racial tensions were fueled by poor whites who didn t want competition from African Americans. MIRGRATION NORTH AND WEST: African Americans moved from the south in order to escape segregation, violence, and civil rights violations. Some moved west for land during the late 1800 s. many who moved to northeastern cities during World War I found jobs vacated by servicemen. LEADERS DISAGREE ON HOW TO STOP DISCIMINATION BOOKER T. WASHINGTON: A former slave, Washington believed discrimination would be overcome by preparing for a job, for which he founded Tuskegee Institute (Alabama) in He urged African American people to accept segregation and concentrate instead on gaining economic skills. W.E.B. DuBOIS: A Harvard-educated professor from the north, DuBois favored immediate integration of blacks and whites. He believed African Americans would overcome discrimination through political action.

45 P a g e 45 Migration, Urbanization and Industrialization Settlement of the West Urbanization How the Other Half Lives Municipal Corruption Patterns of Immigration Age of Industry Labor Unites Labor Disruption and Strikes Farmers Unite

46 THE GREAT AMERICAN WEST P a g e 46 Legends of a vast wilderness and a land waiting to be conquered continued in the late 1800 s, but in reality the west had changed to areas of commercial farming, ranching, mining, and timber cultivation. Increased demands for foodstuffs, improved transportation, favorable government policies, increased agricultural technology, and vast supplies of natural resources led to rising population. By 1890, the U.S. Census Bureau declared the frontier closed, though thousands still continued west in search of land and riches. FACTORS AFFECTING WESTERN GROWTH RAILROADS: Completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 allowed people to travel across the country. It was used to ship raw materials in the west to markets in the east while finished products could be shipped west. Cities in the west grew along railways. In 1883, railroad time became national time when railroads established four U.S. time zones to achieve consistency in time schedules. NATURAL RESOURCES: Exploitation of natural resources by the mining and timber industries became commonplace. Many western towns in places such as South Dakota, Colorado, and Nevada sprang up almost overnight with the discovery of gold. As the gold dwindled, ghost towns were created as entire populations moved to new destinations in hopes of finding gold. This boom to bust cycle was repeated many times in western communities. AGRICULTURE: From 1860 to 1910, the number of farms rose from two million to over six million. Farming became increasingly commercial (many farms were owned and operated by large businesses.) Technological and scientific developments helped increase crop yield while decreasing the amount of labor needed. Improvements were also made to crops, soil, and irrigation. With increased technology came an increase in the farmers cost. Many had to borrow against next years projected profits and banks, railroads, and suppliers charged outrageous prices for their services. RANCHING: Cattle ranching expanded tremendously in the late 1800 s and the nature of ranching changed. Previously, large herds grazed on public lands and were driven to faraway locations to be sold. Now cattle were fenced in by barbed wire and taken to nearby rail lines to be shipped east. CONSEQUENCES OF WESTERN GROWTH GROWTH OF CITIES: Mid-western and western cities emerged as communication and transportation systems brought civilization. Rail lines increased from 35,000 to 200,000 miles of tracks between 1865 and 1890 and cities and towns seemed to grow overnight where the rails were placed. POPULATION CHANGES: Populations west of the Mississippi River grew from 7 to 17 million between 1870 and Cities had mostly white settlers though small numbers of African Americans, Chinese, Japanese, Mexicans, and other groups lived and worked in the west. Characterized as unsettled, much of the western region was also home to Native Americans who fought to stay on lands they occupied for centuries. Ultimately, many were confined to reservations. CULTURE: Colorful characters such as Wild Bill Hickok, Wyatt Earp, and Calamity Jane Conway became western folklore heroes. Legends of the wild west saloons, shoot-outs, and desperadoes had some basis in reality due to easy money making opportunities and lax law enforcement. But life in the west was more a matter of daily survival and chores. Men and women toiled long hours and gambling and fun fighting were more the exception than the rule. COMMUNICATION AND SERVICES: Mail order stores such as Sears Roebuck and Montgomery Ward expanded in the 1870 s making new products widely available. The U.S. Postal service established free Rural Delivery in The telegraph and telephone created communication systems which connected the country. Life in the west was still isolated, however, with people separated by vast expanses of land

47 P a g e 47 CONQUEST of THE WEST - NATIVE AMERICANS From the 1850 s to 1890, a series of wars occurred between Native Americans and United States troops in the west. By the late 1800 s, most Native Americans were forced onto reservations as a result of broken treaties, and unscrupulous government policies. Even President Hayes admitted in 1877 that, many, if not most, of our Indian wars have had their origin in promises and acts of injustices on our part. Government policy and action reflected racism commonplace at that time and an almost total disregard for human rights. NATIVE AMERICANS AND THE RESERVATION WHITE SETTLEMENT: Railroad expansion made western lands much more accessible to white settlers who felt Native Americans stood in the way of fully using the new territories. Broken treaties and the discovery of gold and other metals also resulted in loss of Native American lands often promised for eternity. Buffalo, many Plains tribes main food source, decreased from some 13 million in the 1850 s to only hundreds by the 1880 s. As food sources and land continued to be taken away, Native Americans became increasingly dependent on whites. INTER-TRIBAL CONFLICT: Many tribes had long term hatreds and often treated weaker tribes as badly as whites treated them. The Sioux slaughter of Pawnees in Nebraska forced the Pawnee to ask the federal government to move them to Indian Territory to escape the Sioux oppression. The Crow hated the Sioux and Cheyenne and served as scouts for Custer and other army officials in the combat against the Sioux. INDIAN WARS AND RESERVATION POLICY: Leaders such as Sioux Chief Sitting Bull and Nez Perce Chief Joseph as well as other fought to preserve their people s freedom as broken agreements and the U.S. Army drove them onto smaller and smaller parcels of land. Those who resisted were destroyed by white settlers with the aid of federal troops. Those who moved to reservations were promised food, clothing, supplies, and protection from further land loss. Due to the corruption of agents in the Indian Bureau, most reservations lacked adequate supplies and medicines. Deaths to large numbers of Native Americans resulted. RESERVATION LIFE: Land was often impossible to farm (especially for Native Americans who had never farmed but had hunted freely on the Plains) and were unprotected from invading miners and ranchers. Different and even warring tribes were put on the same reservations. Forced relocation meant loss of traditional ways of life and often unfamiliar and hostile climates far away from tribal homelands. While some Native Americans attempted to accept white ways, other resisted assimilation. Beginning in 1870, Congress funded schools for Native American children where they were taught white values and culture. THE DESTRUCTION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURE THE DAWES GENERAL ALLOTMENT ACT (1887): It was hoped by many reformers that Native Americans could be uplifted and civilized to prevailing while values of Christian education, private property, and market economy thus allowing them to assimilate into American culture. By 1887, reservation land held in common was all that was left of tribal unity. White groups called for the land to be owned by Native Americans individually in hopes of buying the land from poor natives and destroying what was left of Native American culture. The Dawes Act granted citizenship to those adapting to a white man s life. Farmland was given to families and individuals, thus breaking tribal ownership. GHOST DANCE: As the ability to resist the intrusion of whites became impossible, Native Americans, predominantly the Sioux, turned to a visionary religion of the Ghost Dance. The dance promised a day when all whites would be destroyed when the land and water would swallow them up while Native Americans would be saved by dancing as ghosts above the earth. In 1890, U.S. troops killed two hundred men, women, and children, including Sitting Bull, who had gathered for a religious Ghost Dance ceremony. The Wounded Knee Massacre virtually ended Native American resistance although a few fought throughout the 1900 s for return of compensation for lands and better reservation conditions.

48 P a g e 48 URBANIZATION Following the Civil War, the U.S. began to change from a primarily agricultural nation to one depending on industry. By the early 1870 s, industry had increased 75% and for the first time in the country s history, the number of non-agrarian workers outnumbered farmers. This tremendous rate of industrialization led to the growth of cities, especially in the northeast. In fact, more than 50% of all Americans lived in urban settings by The rapid, unplanned growth of cities caused many problems for city inhabitants and government officials. REASONS FOR URBANIZATON INDUSTRIALIZATION: The industrial revolution, which began in the 1800 s and expanded during the late 1800 s, created millions of jobs in factories, offices, and service-industries in the cities. Since workers were often forced to live close to their jobs, the population of cities soared. MIGRATION DUE TO THE ATTRACTIONS OF CITIES: Many Americans had been steadily moving to the cities due to the availability of jobs, better professional services, and material goods. They also offered entertainment, social, and cultural attractions such as theaters, museums, colleges, and libraries. MIGRATION TO ESCAPE HARDSHIPS: Agricultural hardship and the growth of commercial farming caused many farmers to leave rural areas. African Americans moved to cities in large number in the early 1900 s in search of work and to escape segregation in the south. INCREASED IMMIGRATION: After 1880, harsh economic conditions and persecutions forced large numbers of people from southern and eastern Europe, Asia, and the Western Hemisphere to immigrate to the U.S., most settled in cities in search of work. In several large cities, immigrants outnumbered U.S born citizens. Newcomers unfamiliar with the United States often congregated in special areas of the city among those of similar culture traits. PROBLEMS OF URBANIZATION UNSANITARY CONDITIONS: Most large cities lacked clean drinking water and had no sewage systems. Untreated drinking water and the piling up of garbage helped cause epidemics of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis. CORRUPTION AND POLITICAL MACHINES: Powerful individuals called bosses, ran political machines which controlled city administration, gave franchises and contracts to businesses in return for money and favors, and filled jobs with unqualified political appointees who participated in illegal profiteering. One famous Boss was New York City s Boss Tweed of Tammany Hall, who stole over $100 million from the city. Bosses, however, provided invaluable services for immigrants. They earned the immigrants loyalty and votes by providing jobs and housing for the newcomers. DEMANDS FOR CITY SERVICES: Cities often lacked the money to provide enough fire and police protection, hospitals, and schools. Certain areas, such as tenements, needed more services since residents there were often poor, unskilled, and often unemployed. There was increased need in these areas for city governments to provide housing, transportation, and health care. POVERTY/OVERCROWDING/SLUMS: Many families lived in overcrowded tenements with only one room, often without heat, light sources, or toilets. Large pockets of tenements, called slums, trapped the poor who couldn t afford to leave. Immigrants and minorities, who often faced discrimination and low-paying jobs, usually lived in slums. SOLVING THE PROBLEMS OF URBANIZATION REFORMS IN THE CITIES: Jacob Riis helped publicize the evils of New York City s slums in his 1890 book How The Other Half Lives. Settlement house workers such as Jane Addams and Lillian Wald provided assistance to the poor. Some corrupt political machines were ousted from power through combined efforts of civic leaders, journalists, and citizens. CITY GOVERNMENT: Cities tried to solve some of these problems by passing tenement laws which required slum landlords to improve living conditions, fix fire escapes, add sanitary facilities, and improve ventilation, heating and lighting. Often, however, these laws were not strictly enforced.

49 P a g e 49 PATTERNS OF IMMGRATION Peoples from all corners of the world immigrated to the United States in search of a better life. There were two separate waves of immigration. Between 1840 and 1880, northern and western Europeans comprised the first wave. After 1880, the second wave of immigrants came mainly from southern and eastern Europe, Asia, Canada, and Mexico. Immigrants faced many hardships including language barriers, prejudice, discrimination, and harsh working conditions. Some came to America to escape, others in search of something, and yet others seeking to gain wealth and return to their native land. By 1920, there were almost six million foreign-born people living in the United States. PUSH FORCES (Reasons immigrants left their homeland) REASONS FOR IMMIGRATION: PUSH/PULL FORCES PULL FORCES (Reasons immigrants came to the U.S.) poverty religious persecution political persecution poor soil for farming political unrest in Europe high taxes and unemployment overpopulation cheap land jobs created by the industrial revolution social mobility business opportunities political freedom religious freedom family members had immigrated earlier MAJOR GROUPS EMIGRATING TO THE UNITED STATES OLD IMMIGRANTS : From 1840 through the 1880 s, most immigrants came from northern and western Europe from countries such as England, Ireland, Germany, and Holland. Although many arrived after 1890, the percentage of old immigrants dropped significantly. The prominent religion was Protestant although many Irish and Germans were Catholic. Most moved west to obtain cheap farm land. These groups faced resistance from native-born Americans such as the Know Nothing Party which formed to stop immigration, especially of Irish and Germans. NEW IMMIGRANTS : Beginning in the mid-1800 s and increasing in great numbers between 1880 and 1920, immigrants from southern and eastern Europe and Asia came to the U.S. in search of manufacturing jobs created by the industrial revolution. Leaving countries such as Italy, Poland, Russia, China, and Japan, the largest number of immigrants were Catholic and Jewish. Many lived in the northeast cities while other groups, such as the Chinese and Japanese, settled on the west coast where they got menial jobs in mining camps and supplied cheap labor for railroad construction. New immigrants faced strong resistance from nativist groups due to prejudice and fears that Americans would lose jobs to the newly arrived Americans. In the 1920 s, Congress passed legislation which limited immigration, especially from southern and eastern Europe and Asia. THEORIES OF AMERICANIZATON FOR IMMIGRANTS MELTING POT THEORY: The melting pot theory contended that immigrants blend together, or melt down, to form a unique, new culture---an American culture. Immigrants became absorbed into U.S. society and helped contribute to a new American character. CULTURAL PLURALISM: Cultural pluralism emphasized the heterogeneity (differences) of groups within America and their contributions to the culture. Each ethnic group should retain many of its customs and traditions. This allowed each immigrant group to preserve its own unique identity while at the same time adding to a larger culture of America. REALITY VS. THEORY: The national character of the U.S. was not ever-changing. The Americans was basically Anglo- Saxon and immigrants were expected to conform, or assimilate. Since most immigrants faced discrimination, many worked hard to adopt traditions and customs however, had difficulties assimilating into society.

50 P a g e 50 FACTORS ENCOURAGING THE RISE OF BIG BUSINESS Hamilton s Financial Plan of 1789 was evidence that from the outset, the Federal government wanted to aid industrial growth. As a result of the industrial revolution, the small, family-owned businesses of the early 1800 s became massive factories employing thousands. The period from 1865 to 1900 saw an unparalleled rise of business in the United States. Favorable government policies coupled with important technological advances and the availability of natural resources made the industrial revolution in the U.S. possible. GOVERNMENT POLICIES CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION: The Republican Party, which dominated the U.S. Congress during the Civil War and Reconstruction, passed laws to aid business growth. The Morill Tariff (1861) set tariff levels at almost 50% and the National Banking Act of 1863 provided a uniform national currency. Finally, millions of dollars in land grants and subsidies were provided for the building of the transcontinental railroad. CONGRESSIONAL POLICIES: Congress enacted high tariffs in order to protect United States industries from foreign competitors. Massive land grants and cash subsidies were given to various railroad builders to help speed the growth of a national rail system. LAISSEZ-FAIRE: Although Congress was actively involved in the economy by providing tariffs, subsidies, loans, and tax relief, they claimed to use a policy of laissez-faire in regards to the economy. This helped guarantee there would be little or not regulation of business by the national government. SUPREME COURT DECISIONS: In the Supreme Court case Wabash v. Illinois (1886), the Court held that because railroads were involved in interstate commerce they could not be regulated by state governments. This case negated attempts by state governments to regulate business. TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ENERGY SOURCES: The ability to refine oil and better utilize electricity were important advances that helped the rise of big business. Used as lamp fuel, oil became the major source of light in the latter part of the 19 th century. It was also used as a lubricant for decreasing the wear and tear on industrial machines. Electricity, created by Edison in 1876, allowed factories to product goods twenty-four hours a day and led to the creation of many new industries. COMMUNICATION: Telephones enabled businesses around the country to communicate instantaneously with those involved in the production and distribution of products. DEVELOPMENT OF RAILROADS: The first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869 and provided part of a vast network of transportation that stimulated industry. From 1865 to 1890, the total amount of railroad track in the United States grew from 35,000 miles to over 200,000 miles. By 1920, over one-third of all railroad tracks in the world was in the United States. RESOURCES NATURAL RESOURCES: The development of an industrial nation is often dependent on a plentiful supply of inexpensive natural resources. The United States was blessed with vast amounts of fertile land, a vast river system, and large quantities of lumber, coal, iron, oil, and copper. POPULATION: The massive influx of European and Asian immigrants increased U.S. population from only five million in 1800 to over 75 million by the year The increase in immigration not only provided a cheap source of labor for businesses but created a greater demand for their industrial products.

51 P a g e 51 CHANGING BUSINESS STRUCTURE Prior to the Civil War, most industries were family-owned businesses or partnerships. However, the need for larger industries to meet the demand for larger quantities of supplies during the Civil War led to the formation of corporations, or businesses owned by many shareholders. Corporations quickly became the dominant form of business in the United States. People who favored big business embraced the doctrine of Social Darwinism. Adapted from Charles Darwin s theory of the origin of species, Social Darwinists believed that the strong, powerful businesses would dominate the industry while smaller, less capable businesses would be taken over or die out. CORPORATIONS BACKGROUND: Corporations are business, which are granted state charters that allow multiple owners to operate as a single artificial legal person. Corporations sell stock. Each person who buys stock becomes a stockholder or part owner in the corporation. The large sum of money generated from the sale of stock is used to develop, produce, and market products or services. ADVANTAGES: The most important advantage of incorporation is raising large sums of money by selling stocks to the public. This influx in capital allows corporations to build massive factories, purchase machinery, and spend large sums on advertising, research, and development. Another benefit is stockholders can only lose the amount invested in the stock, not their personal assets. DISADVANTAGES: The greatest disadvantage associate with corporations is the loss of contact between owners and workers. Because stockholders live throughout the country and have very little contact with the day-to-day operation of the business, often their only concern is profits. Thus, the worker became increasingly vulnerable to low wages and poor working conditions in order to increase profits for stockholders. RESULTS: Corporations used the influx of capital to increase the size of factories and to mass produce products. For example, in 1907, Ford Motor Company produced just over 6,000 automobiles. With the introduction of mass production and the assembly line, Ford produced 750,000 automobiles in However, the massive costs involved in the modernization of factories reduced the number of businesses producing particular products and caused a tremendous growth in the few that survived. For example, a steel mill could be purchased for $150,000 in 1860 but cost as much as $20 million by CORPORATIONS REDUCE COMPETITION PURPOSE: Business leaders such as John Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie devised ways to absorb smaller competitors or drive them out of business. Their goals were to establish a monopoly which would give them total control over their particular industry. By eliminating competition, corporations could then establish high prices and assure large profits to shareholders. In fact, by 1904, there was one corporation in each of the 75 major industries which controlled over fifty percent of production and sales within that industry. TYPES OF CONSOLIDATION: Several methods were used by the business leaders to eliminate competition and control prices. The pool was a secret agreement between competing corporations to set prices and to fix output of a certain amount. Many railroad companies used pools in the 1870 s and 1880 s in order to increase profits. A second method, established by John Rockefeller and Standard Oil, was the trust. Stockholders from smaller, competing companies would give their stock to the board of directors of the larger corporation. In return, they received trust certificates that gave them dividends from the larger corporation. This gave the larger corporation virtual control of the smaller companies within their industry. By 1900, there were trusts in the steel, sugar, tobacco, milk, rubber, and lead industries. Holding companies were also used to reduce competition. Larger corporations would buy enough stock in the smaller corporation in order to control it.

52 P a g e 52 MAJOR GROWTH INDUSTRIES Several industries provided the spark needed to ignite the industrial revolution. The massive growth of these industries provided jobs for thousands of people as well as many new products for the American consumer. RAILROADS BACKGROUND: The rise of big business in the United States coincided with the growth of railroad. Although railways were first laid in 1828, the national rail system grew most dramatically after the adoption of a standard gauge (1866) and federal and state land grant for railroad building (155 million and 49 million acres respectively.) On May 10, 1869 at Promontory Point, Utah, the nation s two coasts were finally connected by rail thus ushering in a new era of industrial and passenger transportation. BENEFITS: Railroads stimulated industry dramatically by bringing raw materials to the factories and finished products to the consumer more quickly. In addition, railroads helped settle the frontier and speed the growth of cities. Lastly, the railroad industry was the single largest customer of the fledgling steel industry. CONSOLIDATION: Rate wars destroyed many railroads, especially the smaller ones. In fact, by 1890, two-thirds of the nation s railways had been taken over by the larger rail lines. STEEL BACKGROUND: During the second half of the 19 th century, steel became a major factor in the industrial revolution. Although steel had been around since the Middle Ages, its exorbitant cost precluded its use. In 1857, Henry Bessemer s new steel processing techniques dramatically reduced the cost of producing steel. The use of this process coupled with the discovery of mass deposits of ore in the Lake Superior region enabled the U.S. to lead the world in steel production by BENEFITS: The growth of the steel industry helped improve the safety of railroads and was especially responsible for the growth of railroads. Steel also became the key material for the building of bridges, factories, and skyscrapers. CONSOLIDATION: Carnegie Steel controlled more than half the production of steel in the United States. U.S. Steel formed in 1901 when the Carnegie Steel Corporation was sold to J. Pierpont Morgan. The first billion-dollar corporation, U.S. Steel produced over 60% of all steel in the United States in OIL BACKGROUND: Prior to the 1850 s, oil was used primarily for medicine. However, it was later found to be an excellent source of lamp fuel. When the first oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania in 1859, oil mania erupted. Oil soon became an important U.S. industry as American corporations supplied oil both in the U.S. and abroad. BENEFITS: Oil became the light of the world in the latter part of the 19 th century due to its use as lamp fuel. It was also found to be an ideal lubricant for decreasing the wear and tear on industrial machine. In addition, the refining of oil into gasoline helped the tremendous boom in the automobile industry in the 1920 s CONSOLIDATION: The trust originated by Standard Oil in 1882 enabled that corporation to control over 90% of all oil produced in the United States. In 1911 the Ohio Supreme Court found the trust illegal and Standard Oil was broken up.

53 P a g e 53 REPRESENTATIVE ENTREPRENEURS The period from became known s the Gilded Age as business leaders pursued material wealth and luxuries. These business leaders were considered captains of industry people who created or founded new, massive industries which created better products at cheaper prices. They were also called robber barons due to their cruel treatment of workers and destruction of competing businesses. CORNELIUS VANDERBILT ( ) BACKGROUND: A grade school dropout, Cornelius Vanderbilt purchased his first boat by the age of 16. By the end of the War of 1812, he owned a fleet of ships dominating the shipping industry in the east until the 1850 s when he became interested in the railroad industry. Arguably, the most successful and powerful man of his time period, Vanderbilt amassed a fortune of over $100 million. POSITIVE ASPECTS: Vanderbilt offered superior service at low rates. In addition, he was among the first railway owners to replace iron rails with steel ones which improved the safety and reliability of train travel. PHILANTHROPY: Upon retiring, Vanderbilt contributed $1 million to Central University (now Vanderbilt University) and donated money to Yale University, Columbia s College of Physicians and Surgeons, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. ABUSES AND CONSOLIDATION: Known as a ruthless businessman, Vanderbilt bought off legislators and destroyed competitors in a successful effort to increase profits and reduce competition. By 1873, Vanderbilt controlled virtually all railroad traffic between Chicago and New York City. ANDREW CARNEGIE ( ) BACKGROUND: Andrew Carnegie s rags to riches story began in 1848 when he emigrated to the U.S. from Scotland. He was selfeducated and rose rapidly in the business world. He began as a railroad executive but successfully ventured into the steel industry. Before long, Carnegie Steel became the dominant steel company of its time. POSITIVE ASPECTS: By using the Bessemer process. Carnegie was able to improve the quality and durability of steel while drastically reducing its price. PHILANTHROPY: After selling Carnegie Steel to J.P. Morgan, Carnegie donated over $350 million to fund a variety of educational endeavors such as libraries and institutions of higher learning. ABUSES AND CONSOLIDATION: Carnegie ruthlessly undersold competitors in order to drive them out of business. He was known for paying very low wages to workers who labored under notoriously unsafe working conditions. Labor movements at his steel plants were virtually nonexistent after his crushing victory over striking workers in the 1892 Homestead steel Strike. By 1900, Carnegie Steel produced over 50% of all steel in the U.S. Carnegie also consolidated Vertically-purchasing the ore deposits in the Mesabi Range, fleets of ore ships on the Great Lakes, and railroads from the Great Lakes to Pittsburgh. From raw materials through distribution of finished goods, Carnegie owned and operated virtually all phases of the steel business. JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER ( ) BACKGROUND: A bookkeeper for a grocery store at the age of 16, Rockefeller built a small oil refinery in Cleveland, Ohio, by the age of 23. In 1870, Rockefeller formed Standard Oil of Ohio and processed 20% of all U.S. oil. POSITIVE ASPECTS: Rockefeller eliminated waste and inefficiency in oil distribution by using pipelines. He continually labored to improve and upgrade the quality of his oil products. Rockefeller paid his workers relatively well and was among the first large corporation owners to provide pensions for his workers. PHILANTHROPY: Rockefeller donated over $500 million to various charities. He founded the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research as well as the Rockefeller Foundation. ABUSES AND CONSOLIDATION: Called Reck-a-fellow by Andrew Carnegie, Rockefeller used a variety of ruthless tactics such as price-cutting, rebates, and espionage to drive competitors out of business. By threatening to use competing railroads, Rockefeller was able to collect rebates from railroads that shipped his oil products. He also destroyed competitors refineries and had railroad s lose competitors cars of oil. These distribution vehicle, Rockefeller created the Standard Oil Trust. Through a variety of questionable business tactics, Standard Oil controlled over 90% of all the oil refined and shipped in the U.S. His trust was ordered dissolved in 1890 by the Ohio Supreme Court, so he created the holding company, Standard Oil of New Jersey. It was ordered dissolved in 1911 by the Supreme Court

54 P a g e 54 PROBLEMS OF WORKERS AND FARMERS The tremendous growth in big business in the late 1800 s caused many problems for the workers and farmers in the United States. Much of the profits businesses reinvested in factories came at the expense of the workers who faced many hardships at the work place. Many farmers were also adversely affected by industrialization. The new technology enabled farmers to overproduce which in turn caused prices and profits to drop. WORKERS LOW WAGES: A glut of unskilled laborers due to immigration and child labor enabled business owners to keep wages extremely low. Workers of this time period had to survive on an average salary of between $3.00 and $12.00 weekly. CHILD LABOR: By 1900, more than two million children between the ages of 10 and 15 were employed. In 1910, 20% of those children under 15 were working full time. Most children who worked were forced into employment in order for families to make enough money to provide food and housing. LONG HOURS: The average worker labored 10 to 14 hours per day, six days per week. For steel workers, twelve-hour shifts with little or no break, seven days per week were not uncommon. In fact, with the exception of Christmas and July 4 th, many worked every day of the year. ANTI-UNION BUSINESS PRACTICES: Most business owners adamantly refused to allow workers to unionize. Because workers were forced to negotiate individually rather than collectively, wages remained very low and benefits were virtually nonexistent. When strikes occurred in order to achieve higher wages or win union recognition, strikers were sometimes killed. When violence occurred, national and state governments, fearing damage to property and disruption of production, often sided with business owners and used troops to put down strikes. POOR WORKING CONDITIONS: Thousands of workers were injured or killed every year as a result of extremely unsafe working conditions. In one year alone, 195 people were killed while working at various Pittsburgh iron and steel mills. And, because there were no compensation laws to protect workers, no money was paid to provide for the families of those injured or killed on the job. COMPANY TOWNS: Several corporations such as the Pullman Company set up model towns for its employees. Much of a worker s paycheck went towards paying for housing, food, and other essential items provided by the company. FARMERS OVERPRODUCTION: Increased cultivation of fertile land throughout the west, coupled with the introduction of machines such as the tractor, reaper, and combine, led to a dramatic increase in the output per acre of agricultural products. As production rose, the price for farm crops decreased dramatically. DEBTS: Farmers relied on bank loans to purchase more land and capital goods such as tractors, reapers, and combines. In addition, since they received no income until after the fall harvest, they borrowed funds to purchase supplies such as seed and fertilizer in the spring. HIGH COST OF SHIPPING: Railroad companies were able to charge extremely high rates to ship farmers products to markets in the east in a timely fashion since foodstuffs were perishable. MIDDLEMEN S PROFITS: Most grain farmers sold their full season s harvest to a middleman who stored the product and sold to the urban markets throughout the year. These grain operators often paid the farmer very little for his crop. SHARECROPPING: Sharecropping became the dominant form of farming in the south. Many African Americans and poor whites were forced to work for plantation owners who took substantial portions of their crops as payment for land use. The system of sharecropping forced poor African Americans and whiles to perpetually work the owner s land and keep them in a cycle of poverty.

55 P a g e 55 THE NATIONAL LABOR MOVEMENT As industry in the United States grew, so did the need for union. Unions tried to organize skilled and unskilled men and women from all types of industries although the numbers of unionized workers remained small. Throughout the late 1800 s and early 1900 s, national and state governments, fearing damage to property and disruption of production, often sided with business owners in labor disputes and strikes. NATIONAL LABOR UNIONS KNIGHTS OF LABOR: The Knights became the first national labor union in 1869 with both skilled and unskilled workers. Under the leadership of Terrence Powderly, the Knights grew steadily. It included workers within individual industries regardless of trade, gender, and race. The union called for higher wages, and eight-hour day, abolition of child labor, equal pay for equal work, safety codes for factories, and political reforms such as a graduated income tax. The Knights collapsed soon after being blamed for the deaths of seven policemen killed during the 1886 Haymarket Riot. AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR: Samuel Gompers founded the AFL in It combined national trade unions under a national organization for skilled workers. The AFL organized along occupational lines with goals specific to the workers within each trade. The AFL used strikes (refusal to work) and boycotts (refusal to buy certain goods) to fight for bread and butter reforms: an eight-hour work day, better working conditions, and higher wages. The AFL excluded unskilled workers, women, African Americans, and immigrants. By 1917, the AFL had 2.5 million members from over 27,000 local unions. OTHER UNIONS: The International Ladies Garment Workers Union was founded as an AFL affiliate in 1900 by Rose Schneiderman and other workers in the garment industry. By 1913, it was the largest AFL affiliate in part due to successful strikes of women workers between 1900 and It gradually lost support of working women as it withdrew from active union organizing in favor of legislative reform. Founded by socialists and unionists such as Big Bill Haywood and Eugene Debs in 1905, the Industrial Workers of the World sought to unite all workers along industrial lines. The union was known for violent strikes and militant practices. It included women, African Americans, new immigrants, and migratory workers who were often left out of the AFL. The IWW, or Wobblies, believed that workers, not owners, should control industry. During World War I, prosecution of union members and the jailing of its leaders for speaking against the war led to its ultimate decline. IMPORTANT STRIKES GREAT RAILWAY STRIKE (1877): Following several wage cuts, railway workers in several states decided to strike, causing a halt to train service. Violence spread from Pennsylvania to California resulting in over five million dollars in property damage. Governors in several states pleaded with the President to send federal troops. President Hayes sent troops and soon after the strike collapsed. In the end, railway workers were forced to return to work for even lower wages. HAYMARKET RIOT (1886): The Knights of Labor called for a nation-wide labor rally for an eight hour work day. Anarchists were speaking to the strikers in Chicago when police entered to break up the rally. A bomb went off and riot ensured. Eighteen people were killed, including seven policemen, and over sixty people were injured. The Knights of Labor was unfairly blamed for the riot and, as a result, lost much of its popularity. HOMESTEAD STRIKE (1892): When Carnegie Steel in Pennsylvania lowered wages, union members decided to strike. Sixteen people were killed when the striking steel workers attacked the Pinkerton guards who had been hired to protect the plant. The Pennsylvania National Guard was sent in by the governor to end the violence. In the end approximately 75% of the strikers lost their jobs. The rest were hired back and forced to accept pay cuts. PULLMAN STRIKE (1894): Workers protested the policies in the company-controlled town as well as wage cuts at the Pullman Palace Car Company by walking out. The American Railway Union, under the leadership of Eugene V. Debs, aided the strikers. Railway workers caused a virtual halt of railway traffic west of Chicago when they refused to work on any train with a Pullman car. President Cleveland sent in troops and the strike was over within a month. Eugene Debs was jailed for his actions in the strike.

56 P a g e 56 THE POPULIST MOVEMENT The Industrial Revolution changed agriculture from small family-owned to commercial ones. As new problems arose, organizations emerged in order to protect farmers, especially from railroad owners and middlemen. Farmers also attempted to cheapen or inflate money in order to help them in paying off loans. They reasoned that if inflation increased, they would be paid more for their goods but would still be paying off the same dollar amounts in their previous debts. The most important and powerful of these organizations was the Populist Party, a political party which united farmers and workers and campaigned in 1896 for free and unlimited coinage of silver. Although the Populist Party died out by 1900, many of its other reforms were passed by other political party leaders. EARLY FARM ORGANIZATIONS GRANGER MOVEMENT: The Granger Movement began in 1867 as a national organization of farmers. It was dedicated to education and socialization of the rural farmer. The Granger Movement grew in size and by 1877 had over one and one-half million members. It developed into a political organization which pushed for laws to limit the power of railroads. Granger Laws were passed as state legislators were elected in the mid-west who were sympathetic to the farm s needs. These state laws regulated railroad rates and grain storage rates. FARMER S ALLIANCES: Farmer s Alliances were established in the 1880 s. they demanded changes to alleviate many problems faced by farmers. With over four million members in 1890, they helped elect 53 members to the U.S. Congress and many hundreds more to state legislatures who were sympathetic to the problems and needs of the farmer. THE POPULIST PARTY/POPULISM BACKGROUND: Many people felt wealthy business owners and bankers controlled the Republican and Democratic Parties. Therefore, in 1891, the Farmer s Alliances created the Populist Party, a political party which represented farmers, laborers, and industrial workers. PLATFORM: The Populist Party platform tried to extend democracy and correct the social and economic injustices of the Industrial revolution. A few of its goals were: Free and unlimited coinage of silver. This would create cheap money causing farm prices to rise and real payments on loans to drop. The direct election of U.S. Senators in order to prevent the election of only wealthy and/or influential people. Government ownership of railroads, telegraphs, and telephones in order to control prices of these services. A graduated income tax. The wealthy would be taxed at higher rates in order to provide services for the poor. Restrictions on New immigration. This would result in more jobs for native-born or old immigrants. A shorter workday for factory workers to protect workers from unfair business practices. POPULIST ELECTIONS: In 1892, the Populist Party won five seats in the U.S. Senate and garnered over one million popular and twenty-two electoral votes for its Presidential candidate, James B. Weaver. In the 1894 Congressional elections, the Populists picked up even more state and national seats. Hopes for the Presidential election of 1896 rose when Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan, who campaigned for an increase in the coinage of silver. The Populist Party also nominated Bryan as its Presidential candidate. However, Republican William McKinley won the election. The Populist Party died out by Its ideas were generally absorbed by the Democratic Party. FEDERAL GOVERNMENT S INFLUENCE THE SUPREME COURT: In the case of Munn v. Illinois in 1877, the Supreme Court ruled an Illinois law which regulated railroad and grain elevator rates was constitutional. This allowed state governments to regulate railroads to protect the farmers. However, in 1886, the Supreme Court ruled in Wabash v. Illinois, that states had no power to regulate railroads on any goods that were transported out of their state since the Constitution granted the federal government the power to regulate interstate commerce. This decision convinced many farmers of the need to organize politically in order to push for national laws to help farmers. CONGRESS: In response to the Supreme Court s decision in Wabash v. Illinois, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act in Congress established the Interstate Commerce Commission which required railroad rates to be posted publicly and that rate is reasonable and just. It also prohibited pools and rebates. This was the first instance of the federal government regulating business.

57 P a g e 57 Modern America Emerges Muckraking Progressive Reforms 17 th Amendment 19 th Amendment Age of Imperialism Roosevelt Corollary Open Door Policy The US in World War 1 Rejecting the League of Nations

58 P a g e 58 WORKING CONDITIONS AND THE REGULATION OF BUSINESS During the Gilded Age, strong, powerful businesses grew tremendously at the expense of workers, children, small businesses and consumers. Long hours, poor working conditions, low wages, and the use of unfair tactics to eliminate competition were all associated with business owners during the Gilded Age. Progressive reformers of the 1900 s became concerned with regulating and reforming business. State and national efforts were actually started before the Progressive Movement with the passage of the Interstate Commerce Act in But the period between 1900 and 1917 witnessed a tremendous increase of restrictions on industry. LEGISLATIVE ACTION FEDERAL LAWS TO LIMIT THE SIZE OF BUSINESS: The Sherman Anti-Trust Act, passed in 1890, made monopolies and trusts illegal. However, Supreme Court decisions limited its effectiveness. Therefore, other laws were passed to stop monopolies and trusts. The Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914) and Federal Trade Commission (1914) were better able to limit growth of corporations, monopolies, and resulting unfair business practices. FEDERAL LAWS TO LIMIT BUSINESS PRACTICES: Several laws were passed to strengthen the Interstate Commerce Act (passed in 1887) which prevented railroads from charging unfair rates. Subsequent laws, such as the Elkins Act (1903), Hepburn Act (1906), and Mann-Elkins Act (1910) were all designed to extend similar regulations on other industries including sleeping car companies, oil pipelines, ferries, bridges, railroad terminals, telephone, telegraph, and wireless companies. The Federal Reserve Act (1913) allowed the federal government to regulate the banking industry and the amount of money in circulation. The Pure Food and Drug Act (1905) and the Meat Inspection Act (1906) regulated the meat-packing and drug industries. STATE LAWS TO LIMIT BUSINESS PRACTICES: Numerous states passed laws limiting child labor, setting maximum hours and minimum wages for women, and protecting consumer purchases. Workmen s compensation laws were passed providing small payments to cover work-related injuries. EXECUTIVE ACTIONS PRESIDENT THEODORE ROOSEVELT: Roosevelt believed he had the right to take any action to aid the people of the U.S. as long as it was not prohibited specifically by the Constitution. His Square Deal policies included use of Sherman Anti-Trust Act to destroy bad trusts (those that acted against the public interest). In 1902, he fought Northern Securities Company, a holding company with a monopoly on railroads in the Pacific Northwest. Roosevelt also succeeded in busting John D. Rockefeller s Standard Oil after the Supreme Court found his actions unconstitutional in Standard Oil Company v. U.S. in Roosevelt also used his power and influence to help conserve natural resources. PRESIDENT WOODROW WILSON: Wilson s New Freedom programs brought businesses under federal control and weakened monopolies. His main concern was the Triple Wall of Privilege : tariffs, trusts, and the banking system. During his administration, Congress passed the Underwood Tariff (1913) which lowered tariffs by over twenty-five percent. The Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914), and the Federal Trade Commission (1914), were also passed in order to stop the actions of trusts and monopolies. STATE GOVERNORS: Robert LaFollette, Republican Governor from Wisconsin from , was responsible for reform measures which taxed railroads the same as other business, regulated public utilities, conserved natural resources, and instituted direct primaries. Other progressive governors included Hiram Johnson of California and Charles Evans Hughes of New York. JUDICIAL ACTIONS SUPREME COURT CASES WHICH HAMPERED GOVERNMENT REGULATION: Many state and federal laws were found unconstitutional as the Supreme Court applied a narrow interpretation of commerce and the due process clause of the 14 th Amendment. Cases such as U.S. v E.C. Knight Co. (1895), Lochner v. N.Y. (1905) and Manner v. Dagenhart (1918) limited the scope of federal control of interstate commerce and police power of states in regards to trusts, working hours, wages, and child labor. SUPREME COURT CASES WHICH HELPED GOVERNMENT REGULATION: The Supreme Court eventually overturned several previous decisions. Without such reversals the Progressive Movement would not have achieved major reform goals. In Northern Securities Co. v. U.S. (1904), Swift and Co. v. U.S. (1905) and Standard Oil v. U.S. (1911) the Court s decisions dramatically increased the power of the federal government to take action against trusts and ensure fair competition. In Muller v. Oregon (1908) states were allowed to legislate special conditions for women such as minimum work days.

59 P a g e 59 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF LIFE AND SOCIAL REFORMS Many of the goals of the progressive movement involved the quality of life for all people. Numerous social reform efforts attempted to provide assistance, education, protection and resources to those who needed it. Workers, immigrants, children, women and families benefitted from various types of reforms aimed at solving their particular problems. SOCIAL REFORM EFFORTS AND ORGANIZATIONS MUCKRAKERS: Coined by Theodore Roosevelt who complained about their activities, the term muckrakers referred to writers, journalists, artists and photographers who tried to expose the evils of big business and government corruption. Ray Standard Baker s Follow the Color Line, for example, revealed conditions endured by African Americans and exposed the grim circumstances faced by many during a time when other were celebrating the Gilded Age. By revealing the ugly side of the time period, many became crucial voices in the call for reform in the United States. Other influential muckrakers included Frank Norris (The Octopus) who wrote about the railroad s power over farmers living in California; Jacob Riis (How the Other Half Lives) who exposed the horrendous living conditions of the poor living and working in New York City; Upton Sinclair (The Jungle) who described the unsanitary conditions in Chicago s meat-packing industry; Lincoln Stevens (The Shame of the Cities ) who wrote of city government corruption; and Ida Tarbell (History of Standard Oil) who exposed the ruthless tactics John D. Rockefeller employed to build his oil empire. COMMUNITY EFFORTS: Jane Addams led efforts to help immigrant and poor populations in the cities through settlement houses. Her Hull House in Chicago, and Lillian Wald s Henry Street Settlement in New York City provided English classes, child-care, and medical assistance. By the 1880 s, virtually every town had a woman s club involved in education, health care, and conservation. By 1914, most also supported women s suffrage. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLES: The NAACP was founded by W.E.B. DuBois in order to achieve equality for African Americans especially in the racially segregated south. TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT: Evolved from reform efforts of the 1870 s, the Woman s Christian Temperance Union worked to prohibit liquor and curb alcoholism which they claimed reduced take-home pay and increased other problems that adversely affected families. Under the leadership of Frances Willard, the WCTU adopted the Home Protection campaign calling first for prohibition and second for women s suffrage. They sought passage of prohibition laws through women s votes. Carrie Nation s Anti-Saloon League was legendary for attacks on saloons - - effectively putting them out of business. LEGISLATIVE EFFORTS TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF LIFE GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF THE CONSUMER AND WORKER: Many state and federal laws which regulated big business also protected consumers and workers. For example, minimum wage and maximum hour laws were designed in part to raise the standard of living. In addition, laws like the Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) and the Meat Inspection Act (1906) made the sale, manufacture and transportation of adulterated or mislabeled goods or drugs illegal and allowed the government to inspect meat packing companies. INCREASE OF DEMOCRACY: During this period, state and federal voting reforms increased the common person s involvement in government. The passage of the 17 th Amendment in (direct election of senators) and the 19 th Amendment in 1920 (women s right to vote) were culmination s of organized reform efforts. GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT: Under leaders such as Theodore Roosevelt and John Muir, state and federal actions were taken to protect national resources. 16 TH AMENDMENT - - INCOME TAX (1913): The 16 th Amendment (1913) authorized Congress to tax both personal and corporate income. It attempted to have taxes paid by those most able to afford them and to use the money to provide programs for those in need. 18 th AMENDMENT - - PROHIBITION (1919): Prohibition made the sale, manufacture, and distribution of alcohol illegal. Prohibition was widely ignored by the public. The 21 st Amendment (1933) ended the prohibition experiment citing the tremendous public disregard for the law and the increased crime activity resulting from prohibition.

60 P a g e 60 THE EXTENSION OF DEMOCRACY AND GOVERNMENT REFORM Progressive reformers tried to end the corruption in government, make it more responsive to the needs of the people, and extend democracy. Reforms were made at all levels of government. States were instrumental in the reform of the political process bringing many new rights to voters. In fact, many of the important political reforms adopted by the federal government began in states with progressive leaders. Wisconsin, under the leadership of Governor Robert LaFollette, became a leader in state reform. THE EXTENSION OF DEMOCRACY 17 TH AMENDMENT THE DIRECT ELECTION OF U.S. SENATORS (1913): In the original Constitution, U.S. Senators were chosen by the state legislatures. The election by state legislatures caused several abuses. Some wealthy men who were unfit for office were able to secure seats by buying votes. Several millionaire Senators were more responsive to the needs of big business than to those of the people. The 17 th Amendment allowed the people to vote directly for United States Senators in their state. 19 TH AMENDMENT WOMEN S SUFFRAGE: Since only four western states allowed women to vote in national elections by 1900, gaining suffrage in all states was a major issue of progressive reformers. Organizations such as the national Women s Suffrage Association lobbied at both state and national levels for voting rights. Continued pressure from reforms and women s contributions during World War I, helped the passage of the 19 th Amendment (1920) which gave women the right to vote in all national and state elections. STATE REFORMS: Many progressive laws were started at the state level. They included direct primaries (allowed voters of each political party to choose their party s ticket in the upcoming election), initiatives (enabled voters to introduce bills to state legislators), and referendums (enabled people to vote directly for or against proposed laws.) The secret ballot was also enacted. GOVERNMENT REFORMS PENDLETON ACT: The first national reform happened before the Progressive Era began. The Pendleton Act (1883) was passed because of the scandals associated with President Grant s years in office and to curb the use of the spoils system, the practice of filling government positions with loyal party followers. Competitive exams were now required for many government positions to ensure they would be filled by qualified people. MUNICIPAL REFORMS: Major efforts in cities centered on reforming political machines such as Tammany Hall in New York City which used government for its own profit. New systems were implemented to promote honesty and integrity among city politicians. For example, many municipalities adopted the City Commissioner Plan (cities were run by a group of commissioners rather than a mayor and a city council.) Commissioners were popularly elected, made policy, and carried out the administrative duties. Under the City Manager Plan the City Council hired a professional manager specially trained to run city governments. The City Manager had power to hire and fire officials. More than one-third of all large cities today use the City Manager Plan. Also, several large cities took ownership of utilities such as water, gas, and electricity, in order to provide necessary services to citizens at fair and reasonable prices.

61 P a g e 61 ISOLATION VS. IMPERIALISM Staying true to the edicts of President Washington (Farewell Address) and the Monroe (Monroe Doctrine), the United States remained basically isolated in foreign affairs through During that period American s attention was on industrialization and expansion within the United States. As U.S. industry led to increased trade, some Americans sought to acquire lands to build a canal to link the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and islands in the Pacific to use as refueling stations. The United States gained colonies in the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico as a result of their victory in the Spanish American War. These actions resulted in the U.S. foreign policy changing from isolation to imperialism in the 1890 s. ARGUMENTS FOR ISOLATION WASHINGTON AND MONROE: President Washington s Farewell Address in 1796, warned against foreign entanglements and laid the foundation for a policy of isolation. Many Americans were concerned that getting involved in foreign affairs could involve the U.S. in unwanted Wars. Also the Monroe Doctrine (1823) effectively isolated the United States and the Western Hemisphere from the rest of the world. OTHER REASONS FOR ISOLATION: Much of the people and government s time was devoted to recovering from the destruction of the Civil War and the bitterness of Reconstruction. Also, the U.S. was involved in a series of Indian Wars in order to gain new lands in the west. ARGUMENTS FOR IMPERIALISM BUSINESS INTERESTS: Due to the industrial revolution, U.S. businesses began to produce surplus consumer goods. Business owners wanted additional markets for their finished products as well as places to obtain inexpensive raw materials. CLOSING THE FRONTIER: Until the Civil War, the U.S. was gaining new lands in the west. In the late 1800 s, however, the frontier was closed and the U.S. had to look outside the continental U.S. for new lands to conquer. EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM: Great Britain, France, Germany, and other European nations were colonizing Africa, the Indian sub-continent, and Asia. Many Americans felt the U.S. must pursue similar imperialistic policies in order to establish and maintain itself as a world power. MISSIONARY SPIRIT: Some Americans felt the U.S. should spread democracy and Christianity to the less civilized peoples of the world. While, in some cases, missionary zeal was fueled by humanitarian desires, this philosophy generally became an excuse to influence the affairs of weaker nations. NAVAL POWER: U.S. exports increased from $450 million in 1870 to over $1.5 billion in With this increase in trade came the need for a strong navy to protect U.S. shipping interests. Captain Alfred Mahan, in his treatise, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, theorized that a nation s strength and power came from a strong navy. Since ships were powered by coal, refueling stations in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans were needed. SOCIAL DARWINISM: Charles Darwin s survival of the fittest theory about species was conveniently misapplied by industrial nations to justify its control or rule over weaker nations. ARGUMENTS AGAINST IMPERIALISM THE U.S. REVOLUTION AND DEMOCRACY: Anti-imperialists argued it was immoral for the U.S. to rule weaker colonies when American colonists overthrew British colonial rule in 1776 to set up a democracy. DOES THE U.S. CONSTITUTION FOLLOW THE FLAG? : Many feared that the constitutional rights enjoyed by Americans would be extended to the foreign people of the new colonies ruled by the U.S. Since the colonies would be very distant from the U.S., it would be extremely difficult to assimilate new peoples with vastly different customs and beliefs.

62 P a g e 62 U.S. FOREIGN POLICY IN LATIN AMERICA The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 was a clear signal to the world of U.S. intentions to keep Latin America free of European influence or control. After the Spanish-American War, however, the United States role of protector evolved into that of policeman of the Latin American countries. As U.S. intervention continued, many Latin American countries began to resent the policies of the United States. SPANISH AMERICAN WAR: A WAR OF IMPERIALISM CAUSES: The United States sided with Cuba in 1895 in its attempt to forcibly revolt against its colonial ruler, Spain. Many Americans remembered the successful American Revolution in 1775 and were sympathetic to Cuba s attempt to overthrow a colonial ruler. U.S. businessmen invested over fifty million dollars in Cuba and enjoyed an annual trade worth over one hundred million dollars. They were eager to stabilize Cuba in order to protect their investments. Additionally, as the revolution continued, Americans were horrified by exaggerated and distorted stories about Spain s cruel treatment of the Cuban people in newspapers such as the New York Journal. Known as Yellow Journalism, newspapers aroused public opinion against the Spanish government in an effort to increase circulation and sales. In 1898, the explosion of the battleship U.S.S. Maine stationed in Havana, Cuba resulted in 250 American deaths. Soon after President McKinley declared war against Spain. WAR EFFORT: The Spanish American War was fought on two front the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean and the Philippine Islands in the Pacific. The U.S. won every major battle of the four-month war. Most of the five thousand U.S. fatalities were caused by infection and disease, and not the enemy. CONSEQUENCES: Cuba became independent. Guam and Puerto Rico were ceded to the United States and the Philippines was purchased from Spain for twenty million dollars. In 1901, the U.S. forced Cuba to sign the Platt Amendment which gave the U.S. the right to send troops to Cuba to preserve order and allowed the U.S. to lease valuable naval bases. Between 1901 and 1932 the U.S. sent troops to Cuba four times to restore order. U.S. TERRITORIAL ACQUISITION IN LATIN AMERICA PUERTO RICO: Cede to the United States in 1898 as a result of the Spanish-American War. PANAMA CANAL: The U.S. wanted a canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Panama, which was then part of Colombia, was the ideal site for the canal. The U.S. offered Colombia ten million dollars and an annual fee of $250,000 for a ten mile strip of land. When Colombia refused, President Theodore Roosevelt helped rebels in Panama who wanted to set up an independent country. He sent the U.S. Navy to stop attempts by Columbia to put down the Panamanian rebellion. In 1903, the victorious Panamanians were recognized by the U.S. as a newly independent country. Panama gave the U.S. control of the land needed to build the canal for the price offered to Columbia. The Panama Canal was completed in VIRGIN ISLANDS: In an effort to gain more naval bases in the Atlantic, the U.S. forced Denmark to sell the Virgin Islands in 1918 for twenty-five million dollars. STAGES OF U.S. INVOLVEMENT IN LATIN AMERICA ROOSEVELT COROLLARY: In 1904, Venezuela and the Dominican Republic owed large sums of money to European nations. President Theodore Roosevelt feared they would use military force to collect the money owed to them. In 1904, President Roosevelt, hoping to keep the Western Hemisphere free of European interference, stated that the U.S. had the right to act as an international police power in Latin America. He pledged that the U.S. would oversee the repayment of Latin American debts owed to European nations. TAFT S DOLLAR DIPLOMACY: President Taft encouraged U.S. banks and businesses to invest in Latin America. Taft endorsed military and diplomatic efforts needed to help U.S. businesses prosper in the region. The U.S. supported oppressive Latin American political leaders in order to keep stable, economic conditions for U.S. businesses. NICARAGUA: The United States military occupied Nicaragua from 1912 through 1933 to make sure loans were paid back to U.S. banks. HAITI: United States troops were stationed in Haiti from after a revolution prevented Haiti from meeting its financial obligations. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: From , the U.S. military occupied the Dominican Republic after a revolution destroyed Dominican finances. WILSON CONTINUES THE POLICY OF INTERVENTION: President Wilson sent troops to the Dominican republic, Haiti and Nicaragua. He also encountered problems with Mexico. When Victoriano Huerta overthrew and killed the president of Mexico in 1913, President Wilson refused to recognize Huerta s government. Additionally, U.S. troops occupied the Mexican port of Vera Cruz in 1914 in order to blockade a German shipment of goods to Huerta s regime. In 1916, several Americans were killed during a rebellion against Huerta s government by Pancho Villa. President Wilson sent troops into Mexico but could not locate Villa. President Wilson removed the troops in 1917 as U.s. involvement in World War I became imminent.

63 U.S.FOREIGN POLICY IN THE PACIFIC AND ASIA P a g e 63 The United States became increasingly influential in the Pacific region after its victory in the Spanish-American War. By 1900, the U.S. had established itself as a power in this region. The result was increased trade with nations in the Pacific Rim and a more active role in political and economic affairs of many Asian countries, especially China and Japan. TERRITORIAL EXPANSION IN THE PACIFIC MIDWAY: The United States annexed the Midway Islands in 1867 to use as a refueling station and naval base. HAWAII: Many Americans immigrated to Hawaii in the mid-1800 s and built sugar and pineapple plantations. As American interests, influence, and control in this area increased, Queen Liliuokalani attempted to regain local control of Hawaii from the powerful American plantation owners. In January 1893, the planters, with the aid of the U.S. Marines, overthrew the Queen. They established a provisional government and asked to be annexed by the United States. Angered by the revolution, President Cleveland refused to annex Hawaii. President McKinley, giving in to popular sentiment, annexed Hawaii five years later. PHILIPPINES: The Filipinos, expecting that the defeat of Spain meant Filipino independence, fought side by side with Americans in the Spanish American War. After the Spanish American War, the United States had to decide whether to annex the Philippines. Anti-imperialists felt annexation violated self-determination of the people of this island nation. Imperialists argued it in the Senate won and the Philippines became a colony of the United States. A Filipino rebellion, led by Emilio Aquinaldo, began shortly thereafter but by 1902, the Filipino hopes for independence were quashed by the United States military. GUAM: The U.S. took control of Guam in 1898 after its victory in the Spanish American war. SAMOA: The United States, Germany, and England were all interested in acquiring Samoa as a naval base and refueling station. In 1899, a treaty was signed dividing Samoa between the United States and Germany. WAKE ISLAND: The United States annexed Wake Island in 1899 to use as a refueling station and a naval base. U.S. RELATIONS WITH JAPAN OPENING OF JAPAN: Isolationist Japan was forced to open to western trade in 1853 after U.S. gunships commanded by Commodore Matthew Perry landed at its shores. Subsequently, Japan became the first non-western country to industrialize and become an imperialistic nation. RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR: After Japan defeated Russia in 1905, President Theodore Roosevelt mediated a peace settlement, known as the Treaty of Portsmouth, between the two nations. President Roosevelt received the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts. GENTLEMEN S AGREEMENT: President Roosevelt halted the segregation of Japanese children in San Francisco s schools in 1907 in exchange for a promise by Japan to limit Japanese immigration to the United States. U.S. RELATIONS WITH CHINA OPEN DOOR POLICY: Many Americans hoped trade with China would increase as a result of the annexation of its neighbor, the Philippine Islands. However, Germany, France, Russia, Great Britain, and Japan were busily carving spheres of influence in China areas where each would control trade and industrial growth. Outraged by these imperialistic actions, Secretary of State John Hay, in 1899, announced the Open Door Policy, a U.S. edict guaranteeing equal trading rights between China and all foreign nations. BOXER REBELLION: A group of Chinese nationalists, known as Boxers, rebelled against imperialistic westerners and Asians who had carved up China. Three hundred foreigners were killed before a joint force of European, Japanese, and U.S. troops suppressed the rebellion and restored foreign dominance in China.

64 P a g e 64 CAUSES OF WORLD WAR I On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Because of alliances made between many nations, the conflict became a world war. World War I pitted the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey against the Allied Powers of Britain, France, Russia, Serbia, and others. Not a member of either alliance, the United States was Neutral when the war began. For many reasons, the United States was slowly brought into the war on the Allied side. The U.S. declared war against the Central Powers on April 4, 1917, eighteen months before the war ended. CAUSES OF EUROPEAN WARFARE ALLIANCES: In 1914, the Triple Alliance included Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey. The Triple Entente consisted of France, Great Britain, and Russia. Each nation in the alliance pledged to fight if any member was attacked. Therefore, any dispute involving one country threatened to involve all. IMPERIALISM: Disputes erupted among various European powers as they competed for colonies in Africa and Asia. Germany was at odds with Great Britain and France over colonies in Africa. Great Britain and turkey competed for control of colonies in the Middle East, and Austria-Hungary and Russia were fighting for control over the Baltics. MILITARISM: As competition over colonies in Asia and Africa escalated, an increase in military build up occurred. New weapons such as airplanes, submarines, and tanks were manufactured by those nations wanting military superiority over their rivals. NATIONALISM: France had lost Alsace and Lorraine from Germany in 1871 and hoped to regain the lost territories. Many Poles, Czechs, Serbs, and Croats hoped to gain independence from Austria-Hungary. ASSASSINATION OF ARCH DUKE FERDINARND: Arch Duke Ferdinand, next in line to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated by a Serbian terrorist in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary declared war in Serbia on July 29, Germany immediately backed Austria-Hungary and Russia backed Serbia. Germany then declared war on Russia and France. When Germany invaded Belgium to get to France, Great Britain declared war against Austria-Hungary and Germany. The assassination proved to be the spark which ignited the war. U.S. FOREIGN POLICY: NEUTRALITY REASONS FOR NEUTRALITY: Most Americans were against U.S. involvement in World War I. Progressive leaders felt U.S. entry into World War I would shift priority away from progressive reforms. People were also divided over whose side to join, especially immigrant populations living in the U.S. For almost three year, the U.S. avoided war, though it did not remain completely neutral throughout. CAUSES OF U.S. INVOLVEMENT AGAINST GERMANY SUBMARINE WARFARE: When the war began, Great Britain used its superior navy to blockade Germany and Austria-Hungary, thus preventing food and arms from reaching the Central Powers. Germany responded by deploying submarines to blockade goods reaching Great Britain. The German submarines sank many ships, included passenger and merchant ships passing through British water. The U.S. considered this a violation of freedom of the seas. On May 7, 1915 the British passenger liner, Lusitania, was sunk by a German submarine. 128 of the 1,000 people killed were American. After pressure from President Wilson, Germany issued the Sussex Pledge in 1916, guaranteeing it would not sink any unarmed ships without warning. ECONOMIC TIES: Great Britain s naval blockade successfully curtailed U.S. trade with Germany and Austria-Hungary. By 1915, U.S. businesses began to trade almost exclusively with Great Britain and France. When the Allied countries fell short of funds, U.S. businesses gave large loans to Allied countries. They were concerned that if the Allies lost the war, the loans would not be repaid and U.S. businesses would be adversely affected. CULTURAL TIES: German Americans and Irish Americans with anti-british sentiments sided with the Central Powers. The majority, though, backed the Allies since the U.S. had long-standing ties to Great Britain and France. RESUMPTION OF UNRESTRICTED SUMARINE WARFARE: In January, 1917, Germany announced a renewal of its policy of sinking all ships entering British waters. Although Germany felt this might cause the U.S. to enter the war on the Allied side, they were confident it could win the war before this occurred. ALLIED PROPAGANDA: The invasion of neutral Belgium coupled with the continued use of unrestricted submarine warfare led many Americans to shift their allegiance to the Allies. Additionally, France and Great Britain spread stories of German cruelties during the war which were printed in many U.S. newspapers. ZIMMERMANN TELEGRAM: In February, 1917, a telegram sent by a German foreign secretary to a German diplomat in Mexico was intercepted by Great Britain. The telegram implied that Germany would help Mexico regain territories lost to the United States during the 1840 s, if Mexico would declare war on the United States.

65 P a g e 65 THE WAR EFFORT World War I, also called the Great War, was a type of hostile engagement never before witnessed in the history of warfare. It was the first world war-thirty countries from every habitable continent fought. The introduction of airplanes, artillery, machine guns, mustard and poison gas, submarines, and tanks led to a dramatic increase in fatalities and to both sides fighting a defensive war. In the end twenty million people, including ten million civilians, died in the Great War. TIME LINE SUMMARY 1914: Austria-Hungary invaded Serbia on July 28. Germany declared war on Russia and France in August. To effectively fight a two-front war, Germany developed the Schiefflen Plan which called for a speedy and decisive defeat of France followed by a massive assault on the slowly mobilizing Russian army. To accomplish this, Germany invaded Belgium on August 3 to bypass the strong French defenses. As a result of this invasion, Great Britain declared war on Germany. In early September, the German offensive into France came to a halt along the Marne Rive, thus ending Germany s plan for a quick, decisive victory. Both sides dug-in, fighting from trenches for the remainder of the war. 1915: The Battle of Gallipoli was fought in order for Great Britain to capture the Dardanelles, the strait connecting the Black and Mediterranean Seas. After a year of fighting, and heavy losses to both sides, Great Britain retreated. 1916: The battles of Somme and Verdun were characterized by extremely heavy casualties and little territorial gain for either side. At the Battle of Verdun alone, Germany lost 375,000 men while France lost over 300,000. The battle ended in a stalemate. 1917: On March 15, the Russian Revolution began while on the western front the Allied offenses began without success. On April 2, the United States declared war on Germany and sent the American Expeditionary Force (AEF), led by General John J. Pershing, to France. 1918: Russia left the war due to the communist revolution there virtually ending fighting on the eastern front. Germany responded with an all-out offensive on the western front. As the German armies neared Paris, France, United States soldiers arrived on European shores. The American Expeditionary Force (AEF) stopped the German advance by Chateau0Thierry and Belleau Wood. U.S. troops then waged an offensive and won important battles at Argonne and St Michiel Salient. By November, the German army retreated close to its borders. Finally, November 11, 1918, World War I ended in the defeat of the Central Powers. STRATEGY AND WARFARE TRENCH WARFARE: When the German offensive at the western front grounded to a halt in 1914, both the Allies and Germans began to use trenches. These trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss border, were separated by a no man s land, a narrow strip of land heavily mined and strung with barbed wire. Battles usually occurred when one side attempted to overtake the enemy s trench. Heavy artillery bombardment usually preceded a frontal attack and once the attack began, heavy casualties occurred as soldiers were struck down by mines, automatic weapons from the opposing trench, and friendly fire. Even when the attacks proved successful, little territory was gained. The enemy often retreated to trenches only a few hundred yards behind the trench just abandoned. WARFARE IN THE SEA: The U-Boat, or submarine, was used by Germany in World War I to counter the naval blockade by Great Britain on the Central Powers. Although the U-boat was extremely successful and sank many Allied ships (including U.S. ships), it was also partially responsible for United States involvement in World War I. WARFARE IN THE AIR: Airplanes were used for the first time as a new dimension to warfare. First used to spy on enemy positions, by the end of the war, dogfights in the air were common.

66 P a g e 66 THE HOME FRONT This first total war brought many short and long term changes for the U.S. The lives of the people were regulated on a daily basis by various government boards and commissions created to aid the war effort. Pacifist organizations such as the Women s Peace Party actively campaigned for peace. The United States free enterprise system was virtually put on hold for the duration of the U>S. involvement in the war. POLITICAL INCREASE IN PRESIDENTIAL POWERS: Congress gave President Wilson broad new powers that enabled him to direct the American economy and mobilize the necessary funds and supplies to conduct the war effort. For example, the Overmann Act gave President Wilson the ability to spend federal funds as he deemed necessary. PRESIDENT WILSON S FOURTEEN POINTS: In his State of the Union Address to Congress in January 1918, President Wilson discussed his war aims. Based on his Fourteen Points, or goals, President Wilson sought to provide a just and lasting peace. His plan for peace made him a hero among the European peoples when Germany surrendered in November LOSS OF FREEDOM OF SPEECH: the Espionage Act was passed in It made it illegal to interfere with the draft and gave the Postmaster General the right to prevent treasonous materials from being sent through the mail. The Sedition Act, passed in 1918, made it illegal to speak or publish anything disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive towards the government and the war effort. The government jailed over 1,500 Americans including Eugene V. Debs, a Socialist labor union leader. SCHENCK V. U.S.: Charles Schenck, the General Secretary of the Socialist Party, mailed over 15,000 leaflets telling draftees to oppose the law. Schenck was arrested and found guilty for violating the Espionage Act. He appealed the conviction, claiming his rights guaranteed by the 1 st Amendment (speech and press) were violated. In an unanimous decision, the Supreme Court upheld Schenck s conviction. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, speaking for the Court, stated that one s freedom of speech was not absolute. If freedom of speech caused a clear and present danger, that right could be limited or denied. The concept of clear and present danger became the yardstick for future cases involving 1 st Amendment issues. SOCIAL DRAFTEES: On May 28, 1917, the Selective Service Act required all male citizens between the ages of 21 and 31 to register for the draft. During World War I over four million men, including 400,000 African Americans (in segregated units) and 17,000 Native Americans, were part of the armed services of the United States. Also, more than 10,000 women enlisted and worked in offices and as nurses. SUFFRAGE: Women s suffrage associations continued to bring attention to the lack of voting rights for women. Alice Paul s National Women s Party protested the U.S. fighting for democracy in Europe when there was not full democracy in the U.S. ECONOMIC CHANGING LABOR FORCE: Many African Americans moved north to fill the factory jobs vacated by male workers who had been drafted. Over 300,000 African Americans left the south and moved to the northern cities in search of job opportunities between 1910 and Women also entered the work force to fill the jobs vacated by males. Women took over many jobs traditionally held by men including work in shipyards and factories. At the conclusion of the war, these workers were expected to give up their jobs to returning servicemen. THE WAR ECONOMY: The WAR INDUSTRIES BOARD decided what consumer goods to produce, in what quantities, and how much the goods cost. The WAR INDUSTRIES BOARD was essentially the economic dictator of the nation. The NATIONAL WAR LABOR BOARD was headed by Frank Walsh and William Hoard Taft. The board mediated labor disputes between owners and workers to help prevent work slowdowns and strikes. This assured a steady production of goods needed for the war effort. The FOOD ADMINISTRATION: was headed by Herbert Hoover. The agency distributed food to soldiers and civilians in Europe and the United States. By sponsoring meatless and wheatless days, the Food Administration encouraged Americans to consume less in order to provide additional food for U.S. soldiers in Europe. The U.S. RAILROAD ADMINISTRATION controlled railroads. Although day-to-day operations were still left to owners, the Railroad Administration ran them as an integrated system to meet the needs of the war effort.

67 P a g e 67 CONSEQUENCES OF WORLD WAR I Before the end of World War I, President Wilson revealed his Fourteen Points during a message to Congress. He called for a just and lasting peace and fair treatment to all combatants. As Allied forces neared German soil, Germany asked for peace on the basis of these Fourteen Points. However, Wilson s idealistic plan was not welcome at the peace conference by those who sought to punish Germany and gain advantages for their own countries. Wilson compromised on most points in order to guarantee the formation of a League of Nations. Ironically, the U.S. Senate, controlled by isolationist Republicans, blocked the ratification of the Treaty and prevented the U.S. from joining the League of Nations. HIGHLIGHTS OF WILSON S FOURTEEN POINTS Self-Determination-Each nationality or ethnic group would have a say in how it was governed or ruled. To achieve this European boundaries and boundaries of European colonies would be redrawn. Freedom of the Seas-Nations would travel the seas in peacetime and during war unobstructed. Removal of Trade Barriers-In order to guarantee equal trade for all nations, barriers would be removed. Open Diplomacy-Secret treaties would no longer be allowed. Reduction of Armaments-Nations would reduce military buildup in order to prevent future arms races. League of Nations-Nations would work together to ensure world peace. VERSAILLES TREATY LEADING FIGURES: Woodrow Wilson represented the United States and called for a just and fair peace. European leaders wanted to punish Germany, thereby sending a message to those who might wage war in the future. Great Britain, led by David Lloyd George, wanted to guarantee that it would continue as the world s naval and industrial power: France, led Georges Clemenceau, sought a guarantee against future German encroachments on French soil, while Vittoria Orlando of Italy hoped to expand that nation s territory and increase its colonial empire. PROVISIONS OF THE TREATY: Poland was created from German territory. Germany lost territory to France as well as all its colonies. The Germany navy was dismantled and the army reduced to 100,000 volunteers. The war guilt clause required Germany to accept full blame for starting the war. Germany was required to pay war reparations (payments) to the Allies for war damages. Austria-Hungary was dismantled and divided into smaller and consequently weaker nations. A League of Nations was created to prevent future aggressions. LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND U.S. REJECTION STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE: The League of Nations was designed to ensure world peace. To this end, the League included an Assembly which represented all member nations and a Council which included five permanent members: France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and the U.S. Each nation in the League agreed to world towards global disarmament and to act as one entity to halt future aggression. U.S. REJECTION OF THE LEAGUE: President Wilson needed a two-thirds majority vote of the Senate to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. Led by Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, opponents were concerned that if the United States joined the League it would be dragged into future European conflicts. In addition, many Congressmen felt that the League would circumvent their constitutional power to declare war. President Wilson s refusal to compromise on some key issues spelled defeat for the treaty. RESULTS AFTER WORLD WAR I AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: The once powerful empire was divided into new countries of Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Yugoslavia. FRANCE: France regained Alsace and Lorraine from Germany and territories in the Middle East. However, much of France s land was destroyed as a result of World War I. GERMANY: Germany lost much of its land and was forced to pay billions in war reparations. The collapse of the German economy and resentment for being blamed for World War I triggered the rise of Adolf Hitler. ITALY: Resentment over being denied the colonies it expected from the Treaty of Versailles helped lead to the rise of fascist dictator, Benito Mussolini. RUSSIA: A communist government replaced Czarist rule as a result of the 1917 Russian Revolution. Dictators like Lenin and Stalin solidified communist control in the U.S.S.R. during the 1920 s and 1930 s. UNITED STATES: The U.S. emerged from World War 1 a world power. However, its refusal to join the League of Nations was a sign that it sought to return to its policy of isolation.

68 P a g e 68 Prosperity and Depression Nativism and Intolerance Immigration Quotas Harlem Renaissance Model T and Installment Buying Stock Market Crash The Great Depression The New Deal FDR and Court Packing The Wagner Act

69 P a g e 69 ISOLATION AND LIMITED INVOLVEMENT In the 1920 s the United States was basically isolationist especially regarding involvement in European affairs. At the same time, U.S. economic influence became global in nature and the U.S. military intervened numerous times in Latin America. These actions exemplify how the United States retained its independence in actions regarding foreign policy while still being very active on a global scale. EXAMPLES OF ISOLATION REJECTION OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS: President Wilson needed a two-thirds majority vote of the Senate to ratify the Treaty of Versailles for the U.S. to become a member of the League of Nations. Congress refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. They were concerned that if the United States joined the League it would be dragged into future European conflicts. In addition, many congressmen felt that the League could circumvent their constitutional power to declare war. REFUSAL TO JOIN WORLD ORGANIZATIONS: The Senate also defeated United States membership in the World Court during President Harding and Coolidge s terms since they were afraid it would involve the United States in the problems of Europe. DOMESTIC POLICIES: The United States enacted a high protective tariff which effectively limited European goods sold in the U.S. It passed the Quota Acts which limited immigration (especially from Southern and Eastern Europe) to the United States. In addition, after 1929, United States policies and attention were directed towards the problems of the depression, not world events. GLOBAL INVOLVEMENT WASHINGTON NAVAL CONFERENCE (1921): The nations of France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and the United States agreed to limit the construction of battleships and stabilize the balance of power in the Far East. This was a first step towards arms control of the major powers. KELLOGG-BRIAND PACT (1928): The treaty, signed by 62 countries, condemned war as a solution of international controversies. Ideally, the treaty prevented nations from launching offensive attacks on other nations. However, because there was no means of enforcing the pact, it failed to guarantee the elimination of aggressive acts. WAR DEBTS FROM WORLD WAR I: Twenty-eight nations owned war debts totaling over $26 billion (half was owned to the United States.) Many Europeans hoped the United States would forgive the debts as a contribution to the war effort. However, the United States refused to cancel these debts. The Allies were hard-pressed to repay their loans once Germany began to default on their reparation payments of $33 billion. The United States began to lean million of dollars to Germany who made their reparation payments to the Allies. They, in return, repaid war debts to the U.S. This arrangement worked fairly well until the Great Depression of 1929 when the U.S. stopped loans to Germany. This caused the Allies to default on their loans. INTERVENTION IN LATIN AMERICA: The United States continued to intervene in the affairs of Latin American nations in order to restore order and protect the interests of U.S. businesses. The United States occupied Nicaragua from 1912 through 1925 and again from 1926 through Haiti was occupied from 1915 until United States sugar companies invested heavily in Cuba helping control affairs within Cuba.

70 P a g e 70 CONSTITUTIONAL CONFLICTS AND SHIFTING VALUES IN THE TWENTIES The 1920 s were known as the Roaring Twenties or Jazz Age. It was a decade of drastic changes in the lifestyle of millions of Americans. During this period, traditional cultural and social values collided with more progressive and modern beliefs. In addition, following World War I, concerns about the successful communist revolution in Russia caused many Americans to become fearful of groups in the United States such as communists, socialists, and anarchists (those opposed to any government). Both federal and state legislation was passed to restrict the rights of these groups in response to such fear and the belief that such laws were necessary to protect the rights of the majority. FEAR OF FOREIGN REVOLUTION AND GOVERNMENT CHAOS THE RED SCARE: In 1917, radical revolutionaries, led by Vladimir Lenin established a communist state in Russia. In 1919, strikes erupted in the U.S. as workers struggled for increased wages and better benefits. Many Americans, equating the strikes by the working class with Lenin s communist revolution, feared this was the first stage of a communist revolution in the United States. Over 500 immigrants suspected of engaging in radical activities were deported as a result of the Red Scare. SUPREME COURT DECISIONS: In Schenck v U.S., the Supreme Court held that the federal government had the authority to deny rights guaranteed to individuals by the Bill of Rights if their actions constituted a clear and present danger to society. In Gitlow v. N.Y. (1925) the Court found Benjamin Gitlow guilty of violating New York State s criminal anarchy law when he published and distributed copies of a communist document, Left Wing Manifesto. PALMER RAIDS: Between 1919 and 1920, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer authorized the arrest of more than 6,000 people suspected of radical activities. Many suspects were denied rights to a lawyer, reasonable bail, and trial by jury. SACCO AND VANZETTI TRIAL: Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, two Italian immigrants and professed anarchists, were arrested in 1920 for an alleged robbery and murder in order to obtain funds to support an anarchist revolt. Through the evidence against them was insufficient, both men were found guilty and executed. RACE RELATIONS AND NATIVISM KU KLUX KLAN: Although relatively dormant for many years, the Ku Klux Klan grew to five million members following World War 1 as nativist sentiment in America grew. The Klan spread bigotry and fear through violence of minorities including African Americans, foreigners, Catholics, and Jews. QUOTA ACTS: The acts limited the immigration of southern and eastern Europeans to the U.S. and allowed only 150,000 immigrants per year to enter the country. RESTRICTIONS ON SOCIAL BEHAVIORS AND CONFLICT OF VALUES PROHIBITION AND ORGANIZED CRIME: Many were convinced that alcohol was a major cause of evils such as poverty and crime. The 18 th Amendment was ratified in 1919 which made the manufacturing, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors illegal. Organized crime prospered throughout the prohibition period by illicitly selling beer and whiskey in the United States. Speakeasies (illegal night clubs selling alcohol) spring up in most cities. In 1933, the 21 st Amendment repealed prohibition. EDUCATION: Three Southern states passed laws forbidding the teaching of Darwin s theory of evolution because it contradicted the creation theory as depicted in the Bible. In 1925, John Scopes, a biology teacher in Tennessee, was arrested and after a much publicized trial, was found guilty of teaching his high school classes the forbidden evolution theory. 19 TH AMENDMENT AND CHANGING ROLES FOR WOMEN: In 1920, women obtained universal voting rights. By 1920, one of five women had entered the work force and by 1930, women made up over 25% o the work force. Most were limited to jobs in teaching, secretarial work, and retail sales. Still some were making strides in male dominated fields such as law and medicine. In the home, new appliances like the washing machine, refrigerator, vacuum cleaner, and iron reduced housework labor thus increasing leisure time. Flappers symobolized the new woman of the Twenties. Seizing new independence, some women began to wear less restrictive clothing and smoke and drink in public. HARLEM RENAISSANCE: African Americans who moved north during and after World War I faced discrimination. Harlem, a neighborhood in New York City, became the home of many. The Harlem Renaissance was an awakening of African-American pride and grew as a positive outlet for the frustrations felt over hostile treatment blacks encountered in the north. An artistically rich community emerged. Harlem was home of famous poets and writers including Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Countee Cullen. It is also where Josephine Baker gained fame as a singer and dancer at the Apollo Theater.

71 P a g e 71 U.S. RESPONSES TO IMMIGRATION The United States is a nation of immigrants. However, native-born Americans, called Nativists, believed that they were superior to foreigners and felt immigration should be curtailed. Congress passed the Quota Acts which included the Immigration Act of 1921; Immigration Act of 1924, and National Origins Act of The legislation placed restrictions against southern and eastern Europeans and Asians and limited all immigration for the first time in U.S. history. NATIVISM DEFINITION: a belief that Americans of certain descent were superior to others. REASONS FOR NATIVISM: Although nativism was an organized movement as early as the 1840 s when Irish Catholics began immigrating in large numbers to the United States, it was not a major political force until the early 1900 s. Reasons for the rise of nativism included: (a) a change in the existing pattern of immigration from northern and western Europe to southern and eastern Europe; (b) a belief that immigrants were taking jobs away from Americans and lowering the standard of living; (c) a belief that the new immigrants were mentally and physically inferior to the white, Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASP) who were already living in the United States; (d) a belief that the new immigrants could not easily assimilated into U.S. society since they had different religions, customs, and traditions. NATIVIST GROUPS: The Know Nothings in the 1840 s were one of the first Nativist groups. They sought to restrict immigration, especially Irish and German Catholics. The Ku Klux Klan which re-emerged in the early 1900 s, discriminated against immigrants, especially Catholics and Jews, as well as African Americans. The Workingmen s Party in California was against Chinese immigrants and Chinese Americans as a result of economic competition and racism. IMMIGRATION RESTRICTIONS CHINESE EXCLUSION ACT (1882): Once the railroads were completed and the Chinese began to compete with native workers for other jobs, resentment and riots broke out on the west coast. When Chinese immigration increased in 1882 to nearly 40,000, Congress passed legislation extended the act. GENTLEMEN S AGREEMENT (1907): Japan agreed to deny passports to Japanese intending to immigrate to the U.S. In return, the city of San Francisco agreed not to segregate Japanese children in public schools. LITERACT TEST (1917): As new immigrants continued to immigrate to the U.S. in large numbers, some Americans feared the lowering of the standard of living brought on by the uneducated immigrants. The act required all immigrants to be able to read and write in English or their native language. This was designed to prevent new immigrants from coming to the U.S. since most were too poor to afford an education. QUOTA ACTS (IMMIGRATION ACTS OF 1921, 1924, AND 1929): Following World War I, there was a fear of communism and a desire to return to isolation. Many Americans also wanted to limit new immigrants (those arriving from southern and eastern Europe and Asia) who were accused of taking American jobs and failing to assimilate. In general, the Quota Acts reduced immigration to 150,000 a year, prohibited Asian immigration, and drastically reduced southern and eastern Europeans immigration. An immigration quota of 2% was set for each nationality based on the numbers in the U.S. in Since very few new immigrants had arrived by 1890, southern and eastern European quotas were very low.

72 P a g e 72 THE ECONOMY OF THE TWENTIES Automobiles, radios, kitchen appliances, and airline travel, all introduced during the Progressive era, became available to most Americans during the 1920 s. However, concerns such as overproduction and consumer debt led many to ask whether the twenties was a decade of business boom or false prosperity. GOVERNMENT POLICIES FAVORING BIG BUSINESS RETURN TO A POLICY OF PROMOTING BUSINESS INTERESTS: Republican Presidents Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover did not carry on the progressive ideals of business regulation. They believed that government should interfere in business activities as little as possible. They put officials who favored business and did not want to regulate industries in charge of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). HIGH TARIFFS: The Fordney-McCumber Tariff of 1922 and the Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930 were the highest tariffs in U.S. history. Designed to protect U.S. industry, they were responsible, in part, for stifling world trade. REDUCTION OF TAXES ON OWNERS AND CORPORATION: Republicans believed that if business owners received tax breaks, they would invest the extra money in their business and create more jobs. In order to accomplish this, the tax burden on workers increased. REASONS FOR PROSPERITY OF THE TWENTIES HENRY FORD AND THE AUTOMOBILE: By far the most important factor in the prosperity of the 1920 s was the automobile. Henry Ford opened Ford Motor Company in 1903 and five years later introduced the Model T. In 1920, 8 million cars were registered in the U.S. By 1930, that figure increased to 25 million. This not only caused a boom for the auto industry but stimulated industries which provided materials to build the automobiles such as steel, rubber, glass, and upholstery. In addition, new industries such as roadside hotels, restaurants, gas stations, and repair shops grew. By mass producing the Model T, Ford was able to sell it at a price the average person could afford. The widespread sale of automobiles also led to the growth of suburbs as families moved outside the cities to areas within driving distances of their work. INCREASED PRODUCTION: The introduction of the assembly line by Henry Ford at Ford Motor Company revolutionized industry and increased productivity (the efficiency with which goods can be produced). The assembly line made each worker responsible for one specific assembly task which was completed many times throughout the work day as the automobile traveled by on a moving line. This enabled Ford Motor Company to produce one car every ten second in 1925 as compared to one car every 15 hours in Increased productivity saved time and cut costs, resulting in lower automobile prices. MASS CONSUMPTION: The introduction of the assembly line caused a dramatic increase in production of goods and services. Consequently, methods were derived to increase sales. The installment plan was created, allowing consumers to buy on credit. A small down-payment and subsequent monthly payments allowed consumers to purchase goods such as automobiles, refrigerators, and other household appliances they otherwise could not afford. Many consumers, purchasing more and more goods on credit, fell deeper into debt. NEW INDUSTRIES: The development of electricity caused the creation of a variety of new applicances such as the refrigerator, vacuum cleaner, stove, and toaster. The radio, used commercially for the first time in 1920, was found in virtually every household by 1930.

73 P a g e 73 CAUSES OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION The prosperity of the 1920 s was built on a precarious economic foundation which began to crumble after the stock market crash on October 29, Called Black Tuesday, the crash caused a chain reaction that triggered the start of the worst economic depression in U.S. history. GROWING PROBLEMS DURING THE 1920 S SPECULATION IN THE STOCK MARKET: Speculation, the practice of buying stocks in order to resell for a profit, reached its highest levels during the 1920 s. The increased speculation caused the price of stocks to rise and encouraged even more people to play the market. In fact, between 1900 and 1929, stock prices tripled. As speculation increased, many people began buying stocks on margin (paying only a small percentage of the stock s value and paying the rest in monthly installments). When the stock market plummeted in October, 1929, most people who bought stock on margin did not have the money to cover their losses. OVER-PRODUCTION/UNDER-CONSUMPTION: New production techniques, such as the assembly line, caused production to increase dramatically. In the early 1920 s, installment buying (placing a small down payment and then monthly installments) allowed consumers to keep pace with production. As consumption eventually slowed, businesses began to stockpile merchandise that was not being sold; finally, businesses were forced to lay off workers. UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH: In the 1920 s, over 40% of all families in the United States, many of them farmers and minorities, lived below the poverty line. As the disparity between the rich and poor grew, many consumers were unable to afford to buy consumer goods. The decrease in sales caused hardship for businesses. HIGH TARIFFS: The federal government passed high tariffs to protect U.S. industries. Many countries retaliated with high tariffs on U.S. made products. International trade came to a virtual standstill as tariff walls grew. Loss of overseas trade dramatically decreased the demand for products produced by U.S. businesses. UNSOUND BANKING PRACTICES: Without effective regulations, many banks invested their deposits during the 1920 s in unsound ventures including buying stocks on margin. Almost 5,000 banks failed in the year following the stock market crash at a loss of $3.25 billion to uninsured American depositors. IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION STOCK MARKET CRASH: Stock prices began to decline in September and October of Finally on October 29 (aptly called Black Tuesday ) the stock market crashed with stock prices falling over $14 billion. By December, stockholders had lost $40 billion as stocks continued to decline. In December, for example, stock in U.S. Steel sold for only $62 a share as compared to $262 only three months earlier. THE CHAIN REACTION CAUSED BY THE STOCK MARKET CRASH: Corporations laid off workers as stock prices fell. Banks failed when investors were unable to repay loans. Many people, faced with the loss of their life-savings, stopped buying consumer goods. As demand decreased, factory owners were forced to lay off more workers and/or shut down completely. This negative cycle, or downward spiral, continued, causing more business and bank failures, and increased unemployment.

74 P a g e 74 THE GREAT DEPRESSION Herbert Hoover had been President less than one year when the stock market crashed on October 29, From November of 1929 until Franklin Roosevelt took office in March 1933, the depression grew steadily worse. Thousands of factories, banks, and farms went bankrupt while unemployment reached a staggering 25%. The presidential election of 1932 centered on the role government would take in piloting the nation out of the depression. With the election of Franklin Roosevelt in 1932, the government took an active role in helping the U.S. economy recover. ECONOMIC WOES INDUSTRY AND TRADE: Lack of spending and surplus goods led to reduced prices and profits. Thousands of factories closed their doors and/or laid off workers. By 1932, factories in the U.S. were producing only one-half of the goods they produced in World trade was also curtailed as the U.S. and many of the industrial nations placed high tariffs on foreign goods. SMALL BUSINESS: Small businesses were hardest hit and had the most difficult time recovering from the Great Depression. Many family-owned businesses collapsed due to bank losses. Others were affected by the rapid decrease in consumer spending. BANKING: Due to poor investments and the run on banks by depositors, over 5,000 banks had closed by 1932 HUMAN MISERY FARMERS: Farmers of the Great Plain s faced several years of drought during the early 1930 s. Dust storms swept across the plains removing much needed topsoil. Many Okies, or migrant farmers, moved westward to find work. Such hardships were depicted in John Steinbeck s novel, The Grapes of Wrath. Due to problems such as the Dust Bowl and surplus food stuffs, over one-half million farmers lost their farms during the Great Depression. WORKERS: By 1932, twelve million people, or 25% of the labor force, were unemployed. Those workers who kept their jobs were forced to work for low wages. Many of the unemployed lived in Hoovervilles, or rundown towns, whose makeshift houses were made of cardboard and tin collected from dumps. For millions of Americans, soup kitchens offered their only meals. MINORITIES: African Americans and women were extremely hard hit by the depression since they were the first to lose their jobs. Both lost jobs at a more rapid rate than white males. In fact, the unemployment rate for them was twice that of whites. BONUS ARMY: In the summer of 1932, thousands of World War I veterans, many of whom were unemployed, marched to Washington, D.C. They set up camp and vowed to stay until they received their war service bonuses due to be paid to them in When a bill in Congress to provide early payment was defeated, all but 2,000 of the veterans grudgingly left the Capital. President Hoover sent in the U.S. Army to forcibly remove the remaining veterans. PRESIDENTIAL RESPONSE HERBERT HOOVER: A Republican, President Hoover believed the economy would repair itself and did not want to implement government remedies to cure it. As the depression worsened, Hoover began to take actions to increase business profits, believing business prosperity would trickle down to the average American by way of employment and increased income. To accomplish this, he cut taxes and created the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. The Corporation gave $2 billion in loans to banks, railroads, and large corporations. However, many Americans felt that President Hoover s actions were too little, too late. He was soundly defeated by Franklin D. Roosevelt in the presidential election of FRANKLIN ROOSEVELT: A Democrat, President Roosevelt felt the federal government should guide the country of the depression. He created a Relief, Recover, and Reform program which called for a tremendous increase in taxes and the use of deficit financing in order to create millions of jobs for the unemployed. Called pump priming, Roosevelt wanted to increase employment and create new programs to aid the poor. Roosevelt hoped this would lead to increased consumer spending and in turn help businesses prosper as sales increased.

75 P a g e 75 PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT S NEW DEAL PROGRAMS Franklin Roosevelt had three goals upon entering office in March, President Roosevelt s first goal was to provide much needed relief for those suffering. His measures were specifically designed to feed the hungry and provide employment for those out of work. The second goal of the New Deal was to aid in the recovery of the economy. Roosevelt was especially interested in aiding industry, agriculture, and housing efforts. Reform legislation, his third goal, was enacted to correct the flaws in the United States economy in an attempt to prevent future economic depressions. Many of the laws pertaining to his relief and recovery programs were passed during the First Hundred Days of his presidency. Many of the reform measures he advocated were passed in 1935 and 1936, during what has become known as the Second Hundred Days. RELIEF - stop the economy from getting worse EMERGENCY BANKING RELIEF ACT: Immediately following Roosevelt s inauguration, Congress was asked to enact a bank holiday, which closed banks indefinitely and prevented a continued run on banks by worried depositors. On March 9, Congress granted the President regulatory power over the banking industry. He reopened good banks a week later. The run on banks by depositors subsided as public confidence was restored in the banking industry. FEDERAL EMERGENCY RELIEF ACT: Passed on May 12, 1933, this act allocated over $3 billion to help the poor and unemployed. The Civil works Administration (CWA), a branch of the Federal Emergency Relief Association, provided temporary jobs for over three million people. UNEMPLOYMENT PROGRAMS: Established in June of 1933, the Public Works Administration (PWA) attempted but failed to provide an adequate number of jobs for the unemployed. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) was established in 1935 to replace the PWA. It allocated over $11 billion to create some nine million jobs for unemployed Americans. Countless roads and bridges were constructed by WPS-sponsored workers. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) employed 2.5 million young men to clear public parks, build dams, and plant trees. RECOVER-help the economy improve NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL RECOVERY ACT: Established June 16, 1933, the Act set voluntary codes for businesses such as maximum hours, minimum wages, and the setting of prices for goods and services. It was hoped these codes would revive sales and increase employment. AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT: The first agricultural act passed in May 1933 was designed to raise prices of farm products, and increase the farmers income. Farmers who agreed not to plant on designated areas of their land would be given relief payments by the federal government. It was believed this decrease in agricultural output would lead to higher prices for those goods and thus an increase in income. In 1936, two years after the Supreme Court declared the AAA unconstitutional, Congress passed the Second AAA. This act enabled the federal government to store excess farm products and release them when supply was low. HOME OWNERS LOAN ASSOCIATION: Begun in June, 1933, the Home Owners Loan Corporation issued more than $1 billion in low interest loans in its first year of operation. The HOLC saved more than one million families from losing their homes and helped stimulate the construction industry by providing low cost loans for new home mortgages. REFORM prevent future depressions FEDERAL DEPOSIT INSURANCE CORPORATION: The Glass-Steagall Act, passed in 1933, created the FDIC which insured all savings bank deposits up to $2,500. (This amount, which rises periodically, is currently $100,000 per savings bank deposit.) SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION: The SEC, created in 1933, was empowered to license and regulate stock exchanges as well as regulate the investment banking industry. SOCIAL SECURITY ADMINISTRATION: Passed in August 1935, the act created an unemployment insurance fund as well as a fund to provide for the elderly and their dependents. These programs were funded by placing a tax on those people who were working. NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD: Also known as the Wagner Act, the NLRB guaranteed workers the right to unionize and bargain collectively. In addition, it investigated businesses trying to destroy labor unions. TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY: Established in May 1933, the TVA constructed 21 large dams during a six year period within the Tennessee River Valley region in an effort to revitalize this economically depressed area. Although the project provided cheap electrical power, employed thousands of workers, and created a flood-control system, critics argued that the project enabled the federal government to monopolize electrical power at the expense of competing electrical companies.

76 P a g e 76 THE NEW DEAL ON TRIAL When Franklin Roosevelt s New Deal programs began to positively affect many business owners, workers, farmers, unemployed people, and the elderly, his popularity soared. The political banking of the Democratic Solid South, new immigrants, workers, urban dwellers, African Americans (who left the Republican party in large numbers) and the elderly gave Roosevelt tremendous political power. However, as the economic recovery stalled, many began to question Roosevelt s leadership and his popularity wavered. NEW DEAL LAWS UNCONSTITUTIONAL SCHECHTER POULTRY v. U.S. (1935): In a unanimous decision, the Supreme Court found the National Industrial Recovery Administration unconstitutional. The Court ruled the act gave unwarranted legislative powers to the President, thus violating separation of powers. The Court also ruled the NIRA gave Congress control over intra-state commerce, a power reserved to the states by the Constitution. U.S. v. BUTLER (1936): In a 6-3 decision the Supreme Court held that the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 was unconstitutional. The Court ruled that because agriculture was a local problem, governmental action with respect to agriculture could only be taken by individual states. Many, including Roosevelt, feared such narrow interpretations of the commerce clause would put a halt to the New Deal programs enacted. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SEPARATION OF POWERS PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT CONTROLS CONGRESS: President Roosevelt asked Congress and the American people for powers which had been previously granted to the Executive branch only during wartime. Congress responded by enacting, in record time, much of President Roosevelt s New Deal program. In fact the Emergency Banking Act was passed by Congress only eight hours after Roosevelt assumed the Presidency. Many New Deal laws gave Roosevelt authority in areas previously controlled only by Congress. ROOSEVELT S COURT PACKING PLAN: Roosevelt, fresh from a victory in the election of 1936, believed he had a mandate from the American people regarding his New Deal. Fearing the Supreme Court would continue to rule an increasing number of his New Deal programs unconstitutional, Roosevelt petitioned Congress for the power to appoint a new Supreme Court Justice for every Justice over 70 years old. Since six of the Justices were over 70 at that time, the President would have been able to appoint six additional Justices. Congress was outraged and saw this as a threat to the separation of powers. They voted overwhelmingly against the proposal. However, within two years, two justices retired allowing Roosevelt to nominate justices sympathetic to his views. Consequently, the Court took a more liberal approach to the constitutionality of New Deal programs. ROOSEVELT BREAKS TWO TERMS TRADITION: Many Americans, already uncomfortable with Roosevelt s growing power, became nervous when Roosevelt, broke the two-term tradition and was election to a third and fourth term as President. (In 1951, the 22 nd Amendment limited the President to two terms or ten years.) CRITICISM OF THE NEW DEAL TOO CONSERVATIVE: Many people insisted that Roosevelt had not gone far enough to reform the capitalist system. Both the Communist party and the Socialist party wanted the government to take control of all major industries in the U.S. Huey Long, a Senator from Louisiana, proposed the Share Our Wealth Plan which promised every family an income of at least $5,000. According to his plan, this would be achieved by increasing taxes on the rich. Father Coughlin, a Catholic Priest with a national radio show that reached over 40 million listeners, campaigned for the nationalization of banks and utility companies and blamed big business owners, especially Jewish ones, for the continued economic problems of the U.S. Coughlin eventually lost much of his support because his views were perceived as anti-semitic. TOO LIBERAL: Big business owners felt Roosevelt s programs, especially the NIRA, gave him virtual dictatorial powers. They attacked the use of deficit spending and feared the U.S. was becoming too socialistic. Groups such as the American Liberty League felt that programs like Social Security and the Tennessee Valley Authority dangerously undermined the free enterprise system and encouraged people to use the government as a provider.

77 P a g e 77 WORKERS AND THE NEW DEAL The status of workers improved dramatically during the New Deal period. Laws passed by Congress guaranteed the right of unions to exist established minimum wage and maximum hours for workers. The passage of these laws led to the formation of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) which protected unskilled as well as skilled workers. For the first time unskilled workers, on a mass scale, were represented an able to collectively bargain for increased pay and better working conditions. LAWS PASSED TO HELP WORKERS WAGNER ACT: The Wagner Act of 1935 guaranteed the right of workers to unionize and collectively bargain. The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) possessed the power to compel owners to bargain with whichever union was chosen by the majority of workers. It also made it illegal to fire anyone for joining a union. Between 1935 and 1940, an influx of five million new members led to the doubling of union membership in the United States. FAIR LABOR STANDARDS ACT: Passed in 1938, the law set minimum wage (at 40 cents per hour to start) and set maximum hours of work at 40 hours per week. It also made it illegal to employ children under the age of 16 if the business was engaged in interstate commerce. CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS (CIO) BACKGROUND: John L. Lewis founded the CIO in 1937 after the pro-union stance by the federal government during the New Deal opened the door for the unionizing of unskilled workers. The CIO membership, which reached five million members by 1950, organized according to industry and included women, African Americans, and new immigrants who were both skilled and unskilled. The goals of the CIO were similar to the AFL: higher wages, a shorter work day, and better working conditions. DIFFERENCES FROM THE AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR: The CIO organized entire industries such as the automobile or steel industry rather than workers in individual crafts. It was open to most workers and worked to guarantee benefits to unskilled workers in the mass production industries instead of just representing skilled workers. SIT DOWN STRIKES: Sit down strikes were first used in the automobile industry at the General Motors plant in Flint, Michigan. Rather than picketing outside the plant, strikers would sit down at their machines inside the plant. This made it much more difficult for owners to hire replacement workers. They helped the CIO win sole bargaining rights for the employees of General Motors. Upon threat of sit down strikes at U.S. Steel, the company voluntarily gave the CIO the right to unionize within the industry. However, strikes did occur when several smaller steel companies refused to negotiate. In 1937, steel workers in South Chicago were killed and wounded when police fired upon those picketing the steel mill. This became known as the Memorial Day Massacre.

78 P a g e 78 World War II and Its Aftermath Aggressors on the March Challenges to Neutrality Attack on Pearl Harbor Wartime Mobilization Women and the War Effort The Double V Campaign Wartime Civil Liberties The Atomic Bomb The United Nations

79 P a g e 79 FOREIGN POLICY LEADING TO WORLD WAR II As dictators came to power in Germany and Japan in the 1930 s the U.S. concentrated on domestic difficulties triggered by the Great Depression. Even when Germany, Italy, and Japan began to conquer new territories, the people of the U.S. remained steadfast about staying out of European concerns. The U.S., however, became more concerned about European affairs after Germany s invasion of Poland in However by 1941, the U.S. was the preeminent armaments supplier of the free world. PROBLEMS LEADING TO WWII U.S. REMAINS NEUTRAL DEPRESSION AND DICTATORSHIP: The world wide depression in the early 1930 s and problems created by the Treaty of Versailles following World War I led to the rise of dictators Adolf Hitler (Germany) and Benito Mussolini (Italy). AGGRESSION AND THE FAILURE OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS: Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles in 1933 by re-arming Germany, occupying the Rhineland in 1936, and annexing Austria in Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935 and Albania in 1939 while Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and China in The League of Nations was powerless to halt the aggressive acts since major powers such as the U.S. and the Soviet Union never joined. APPEASEMENT: As Germany, Italy, and Japan continued to acquire territory forcibly, nations such as Great Britain and France gave in to their demands in order to avoid world war. At the Munich Conference (1938) Great Britain and France yielded to Hitler s demands for German control of the Sudetenland (a portion of Czechoslovakia) in exchange for a guarantee of no further aggression. Six months later, Hitler occupied all of Czechoslovakia. Ironically, the policy of appeasement (or making concessions in order to preserve peace) actually enhanced the chances of war. THE U.S. MAINTAINS NEUTRALITY: After Japan invaded Manchuria, the U.S. issued the Stimson Doctrine. The U.S. refused to take strong action against Japan but warned that the U.S. would not recognize any changes brought about by force. The U.S. solidified its commitment to isolation after Italy invaded Ethiopia by passing the Neutrality Act of The act required an embargo on all armaments to nations at war and prohibited travel of U.S. citizens on ships of countries at war. The Neutrality Act of 1936 prohibited American loans to countries at war. WORLD WAR II BEGINS LIMITED AID TO THE ALLIES GERMANY INVADES POLAND: After signing a Non-Aggression Treaty with the Soviet Union to ensure its neutrality, Germany invaded Poland on September 1, Great Britain and France declared war on Germany soon after. LIMITED AID TO THE ALLIES: After the German invasion of Poland, the Neutrality Act of 1939 was passed by the U.S. Congress. This cash and carry policy allowed the U.S. to sell supplies to countries at war if the nation paid cash and carried the supplies on their own ships. In 1940 President Roosevelt negotiated the destroyer for Naval Bases Agreement. The U.S. sent 50 destroyers to Great Britain in exchange for strategic naval and air bases. GREAT BRITAIN STANDS ALONE ALL OUT AID TO ALLIES EARLY VICTORIES BY THE AXIS POWERS: By 1940, Germany achieved victories in Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France. Great Britain stood alone to fight the Axis powers and stop complete domination of Europe. By 1941, Japan controlled northern China and the islands of Indonesia. The French colonies of Indochina (modern day Vietnam, Laos, and Kampuchea) were also taken by Japan. TOTAL AID: After the fall of France left Great Britain to fight Germany and Italy alone, the U.S. passed the Lend-Lease Act (1941). It empowered the President to sell, exchange, or lease war material to the Allies. As a result of the Lend-Lease Act, the U.S. became the arsenal of democracy for the free world, supplying war goods to the allied nations. ATLANTIC CHARTER: Prior to U.S. involvement in World War II, President Roosevelt met with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and formulated common war aims. They included: the right of people to choose their own government; an agreement that neither Great Britain or the U.S. would seek to gain territory through means of war; the defeat of the Axis nations; and a permanent system to guarantee the general security of people.

80 P a g e 80 CAUSES OF WORLD WAR II World War II began on September 1, 1939 when Germany invaded Poland. The underlying cause of the war was the aggression of Germany, Italy, and Japan, and the failure of the democracies to protect the freedom of nations placed in peril. Even before the war began, the United States had enacted several neutrality acts in order to keep the United States from being dragged into another war. However, President Roosevelt, who favored aiding the allies in the fight against Germany, Italy, and Japan, slowly brought the United States closer and closer to war. By 1941, when Great Britain was left alone to fight Germany, the United States had become the arsenal of democracy and was supplying Great Britain with all the war materials needed to continue their fight. Still, the United States did not declare war until December 8, 1941, a day after the Japanese sneak attack on Pearl Harbor. CAUSES OF EUROPEAN WARFARE RISE OF DICTATORS: The Great Depression in the 1930 s helped cause totalitarian leaders in Germany (Hitler) and Italy (Mussolini) to take control. AGGRESSIVE ACTIONS AND THE FAILURE OF THE LEAGUE: Germany, Italy, and Japan began conquering countries in Europe, Africa, and Asia respectively. The League of Nations, designed to stop future wars through the use of collective security, was unable to stop the aggressor nations since the United States and the Soviet Union had not joined the League of Nations. APPEASEMENT: Used at the Munich Conference in 1938, appeasement is when one country agrees to the demands of a possible enemy hoping to keep peace and avoid war. Hitler had demanded the Sudetenland (of Czechoslovakia) be given to Germany. The Sudetenland was well armed and ready to resist, however, Great Britain and France gave into Hitler and allowed him to occupy the Sudetenland. In return, Hitler promised he would make no more territorial demands. Although Neville Chamberlain returned to Great Britain claiming peace in our time, Germany occupied all of Czechoslovakia within six months and soon turned his attentions toward Poland. GERMAN INVASION OF POLAND: Germany signed a Non-Aggression Pact with the Soviet Union in 1939 which guaranteed the Soviet Union could not enter the war when Germany attacked Poland. In return, Germany and the Soviet Union would split Poland. When Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, Great Britain and France declared war on Germany beginning World War II. THE UNITED STATES MOVES FROM NEUTRALITY TO WAR BEFORE WORLD WAR II BEGAN-COMPLETE NEUTRALITY: The United States with its policy of isolation, did not involve itself in the events in Europe during the 1930 s. The United States solidified its commitment to isolation after Italy invaded Ethiopia by passing the Neutrality Act of The act required an embargo on all armaments to nations at war and prohibited travel of U.S. citizens on ships of countries at war. The Neutrality Act of 1936 prohibited American loans to countries at war. THE BEGINNING OF WORLD WAR II-LIMITED AID TO THE ALLIES: After the German invasion of Poland, the Neutrality Act of 1939 was passed by the U.S. Congress. This cash and carry, act allowed the U.S. to sell supplies to countries at war provided the nation paid cash and carried the supplies on its destroyers to Great Britain in exchange for strategic naval and air bases. AFTER DECISIVE VICTORIES BY THE AXIS-TOTAL AID: In 1940, President Franklin Roosevelt traded 50 over-aged destroyers to Great Britain and received military bases in the Western Hemisphere. After the fall of France left Great Britain to fight the Axis powers of Germany and Italy alone, the U.S. passed the Lend-Lease Act in It allowed the President to sell, exchange, or lease war material to the Allies. The United States, as a result of the Lend-Lease Act, became the arsenal of democracy for the free world supplying over $50 billion in supplies, especially to Great Britain and the Soviet Union. JAPAN ATTACKS PEARL HARBOR-THE UNITED STATES GOES TO WAR: Japan planned to attack Indonesia. Japanese leaders felt this attack would bring the United States into the war and therefore began to plan a surprise attack against the United States. They hoped this would cripple the United States Navy and assure the Japanese of victory in the Pacific. To this end, on December 7, 1941, the Japanese carried out a highly successful sneak attack on the United States Navy stationed at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. On the following day, December 8, 1941, President Franklin Roosevelt asked for and received a declaration of war against Japan. Germany and Italy declared war against the United States on December 12, 1941.

81 P a g e 81 THE WAR EFFORT The aggression of Nazi Germany and the other Axis nations during the 1930 s, which caused World War II, can be blamed on the democracies policy of appeasement. They gave in to Hitler s demands due to their unwillingness to fight to protect the smaller countries of Europe. By 1939, when World War II officially began, Germany occupied the Rhineland (1936), Austria (1938), and Czechoslovakia (1938). Japan had invaded Manchuria (1931) and China (1937) while Italy had invaded Ethiopia (1935) and Albania (1939). World War II was fought by more men with greater loss of life and destruction of property, than any other war. Over seventy million solders took part with sixteen million killed. THE NATIONS AT WAR ALLIES: The Allies consisted of Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, France, Great Britain, Greece, Mexico, Netherlands, U.S.S.R. (1941) and the United States (1941). There were 40 other countries from Latin America, Europe, Asia, and Africa on the Allied side. TIME LINE SUMMARY 1939: On August 23, Germany and the U.S.S.R. signed the Non-Aggression Pact. On September 1, Germany invaded Poland. World War II officially began on September 3, when Great Britain and France declared war on Germany. 1940: Germany occupied the neutral countries of Norway and Denmark, Holland, Belgium, and Luxemburg were conquered when German troops bypassed the Maginot Line (a defensive line of fortifications between France and Germany). In June, France surrendered to German forces leaving Great Britain alone to fight Germany. The first turning point for the Allies was the Battle of Britain in August. The Royal Air Force repulsed the German Luftwaffe, and saved Britain from attack. In November, Romania and Hungary joined the Axis alliance. 1941: On June 22 nd, Hitler broke the Non-Aggression Pact and invaded the Soviet Union. On December 7, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor bringing the U.S. into World War II. Japan simultaneously invaded Wake Island, Guam, British Malasia, Singapore, Dutch East Indies, Burma, Thailand, and the Philippines. In November, General Dwight Eisenhower landed in Africa and took Casablanca, Oran, and the Algiers. 1942: On June 3-6, the Battle of Midway took place in the Pacific. Japan lost four aircraft carriers and about 275 planes. This was the turning point in the Pacific War for the U.S. Soviet troops stopped the Nazi offensive at Stalingrad in the fall. Over 300,000 German troops were captured and Soviet troops began an offensive which lasted until 1945 when Soviet troops invaded German soil. 1943: Over 250,000 Axis troops surrendered on May 13 bringing the North Africa campaign to a close. On July 9, the Allies invaded Italy on the island of Sicily. Mussolini was overthrown on July : General Eisenhower was made Supreme Commander of Allied troops in June. On June 6, D-Day, Allied troops successfully invaded Europe by crossing the English Channel opening up a second front against Nazi Germany. By September, American troops were on German soil. In the Pacific war, the Philippines fell to the United States. 1945: In the Pacific War, the 74 day battle at Iwo Jima ended in a costly victory for the U.S. VE Day (Victory in Europe) came on May 8 when Germany surrendered. On August 6, the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima killing 260,000 people. A second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9. Five days later, Japan surrendered (VJ Day) ending World War II. STRATEGY AND WARFARE BLITZKRIEG: The Nazis used a new type of mechanized warfare when they attacked Poland. Thousands of tanks and supplies vehicles were used for a lightning warfare. Thousands of dive bombers and fighter planes supported the divisions from the air. Massive amounts of land were taken in a very short time. NAVAL FIGHTING: The naval war in the Pacific was dominated by the air craft carrier. In fact, the Battle of Coral Sea, on May 3-9, 1942, was the first naval war with surface ships not exchanging any shots. American carrier-based planes sank or disabled more than 25 Japanese war ships. ATOMIC BOMB: The Manhattan Project was responsible for developing the atomic bomb for the U.S. On July 16, 1945, the first atomic bomb was detonated in the desert of New Mexico. Three weeks later, on August 6, the U.S. dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan and three days later on Nagasaki, Japan. Japan officially surrendered on August 14 th.

82 P a g e 82 THE HOME FRONT World War II was fought at home as well as on the battlefields. In fact, by 1942, the industrial capacity of the U.S. was equal to the three Axis nations combined and by 1944, it had doubled. Rationing was common-place as the production of war goods took precedence over consumer products. As in World War I, women and African Americans took factory jobs previously held by males and rights were taken away as well. Japanese-Americans living on the West Coast were forced to relocate to detention camps for the duration of the war. PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT INCREASES HIS POWERS COMMANDER IN CHIEF: Like Abraham Lincoln during the Civil war and Woodrow Wilson during World war II, President Roosevelt used his constitutional powers as Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces to increase the power of the Presidency. Roosevelt negotiated the Destroyer for Naval Bases Agreement with Great Britain helping equip them in their fight against Germany. DOMESTIC POWERS USED TO HELP THE WAR EFFORT: Roosevelt was given broad powers which enabled him to direct the American economy and mobilize the necessary money and supplies for the war effort. Roosevelt also issued Executive Order 8802 which made the discrimination of African Americans illegal in factories producing war goods and in government positions. Executive Order 9066 was also issued which transferred the authority for the security of the West Coast to the Army. This allowed the internment of Japanese Americans into detention camps LOSS OF RIGHTS SEGREGATION OF THE ARMED FORCES: A larger proportion of African Americans enlisted in World War II than white males. However, African Americans were not allowed into the Air Corps or the Marine Corps and were segregated in the Army. The Army used African American units as laborers and servants. Only after great pressure was mounted on President Roosevelt were African Americans allowed to organize into combat units and a few black officers were commissioned in the Air Force. CURTAILMENT OF JAPANESE-AMERICANS CIVIL LIBERTIES: After the sneak attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese, many Americans feared the Japanese-Americans living on the West Coast might help sabotage American defenses to support the Japanese war effort. President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 transferring authority for the security of the west Coast to the U.S. Army. Shortly thereafter, Lt. General John DeWitt ordered the relocation of over 150,000 Japanese Americans from the West Coast to detention camps in the southwest and mid-west. Over two-thirds of the people who were relocated were Nisei (American-born citizens of Japanese ancestry.) KOREMATSU V. U.S. (1944): Fred Korematsu was an American-born citizen of Japanese descent. Korematsu refused to obey the Executive order requiring all Japanese-Americans to leave their homes and be placed in detention camps. When Korematsu was arrested, he brought suit to federal court. Korematsu claimed that he was being denied his 14 th Amendment rights (all citizens must be treated equally under the law) while the federal government claimed that the constitutional power to make war outweighed individual rights. In a 6-3 decision, the Supreme Court ruled against Korematsu. The Court stated that the 14 th Amendment did not apply since we were at war and our national security demanded such measures. The Supreme Court stated that national security was more important that the protection of individual rights when we are at war. ECONOMIC THE CHANGING LABOR FORCE: Over three million women entered the work force to replace males drafted into the war effort. Also over one half million African Americans moved from the South into cities of the northeast to work in factories. President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 making discrimination in the defense industries illegal. GOVERNMENT CONTROL OF THE ECONOMY: The WAR PRODUCTIONS BOARD controlled the products that each industry would produce. War goods were produced rather than consumer goods. The WAR LABOR BOARD was a labor mediation board. Its purpose was to settle problems between workers and owners in order to prevent strikes and keep war production high. The FAIR EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES COMMITTEE tried to curb the racial and religious discrimination within the work place. The OFFICE OF PRICE ADMINISTRATION had to job of rationing materials that were needed for the war effort. To this end, items such as sugar, meat, and gasoline were not readily available to the American public. Rationing books were used to reduce demand on these products. PAYING FOR THE WAR: For the first time, the federal government began taxing lower income people. The number of taxpaying workers rose from only 8 million to 55 million during the war. Also, federal taxes were withheld each week from workers paychecks. This gave the federal government working capital throughout the fiscal year.

83 P a g e 83 CONSEQUENCES OF WORLD WAR II Casualties were extremely high with over 40 million soldiers and civilians killed. Much of Europe, Asia, and Africa were destroyed by the war and had to be rebuilt in the years following the war. In addition, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. emerged from this world conflict as superpowers. The mutual distrust of the two superpowers resulted in the Cold War. POLITICAL CREATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS: The United Nations, a brainchild of President Franklin Roosevelt was established in Similar to the League of Nations, the United Nations consisted of over 50 nations with the goal maintaining international peace and security. GERMANY IS DIVIDED: Germany was conquered by Great Britain, France, the U.S., and the U.S.S.R. Each country set up its own occupational zone. In 1949, Great Britain, France, and the U.S. combined their zones and created West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) as a democracy. The Soviet Union established East Germany (German democratic Republic) with a communist government. Berlin, the capital of Germany was also divided into West (democratic) and East (communist) Berlin. JAPAN IS OCCUPIED: The United States, headed by General Douglas MacArthur, occupied Japan until The U.S. helped create a democratic government in Japan by creating a constitution in 1946 which denied the emperor his former status as a divine ruler SOCIAL CASUALTIES: This was the costliest war in the history of the world. Over 15 million soldiers were killed including 400,000 Americans. Over 25 million civilians died, including at least six million Jews from the Nazi Holocaust. THE HOLOCAUST: German run concentration camps had used deadly gas and crematoriums to murder over six million Jews from all parts of Europe. The Final Solution s goal was the complete eradication of Jewish people from Europe. RELOCATED JAPANESE-AMERICANS: U.S. officials relocated over 100,000 Japanese-Americans who had committed no crimes, were sent to camps in the mid-western United States. The people relocated were virtual prisoners of the United States. WAR CRIMES: The U.S., Great Britain, France, and the U.S.S.R. conducted an international tribunal of Nazi leaders for crimes against humanity during the war. The Nuremberg Trials resulted in the conviction of 19 high ranking Nazi officials. Twelve men were given death sentences, and three were given life sentences. ECONOMIC EXPENDITURES: The Allies and Axis spent over $1.5 trillion in fighting World War II. The United States spent over $300 billion. END OF GREAT DEPRESSION: Although the New Deal had attempted to rid the United States of the Great Depression, it was not completely successful. Industry gearing up for World War II was responsible for the end of the depression.

84 P a g e 84 THE COLD WAR Immediately following World War II, the United States entered into a Cold War with the Soviet Union who proclaimed their desire for a world-wide communist revolution. The Cold War was a competition in diplomatic offensives, ideological conflicts, political battles, and armaments races including nuclear weapons. The U.S. and the U.S.S.R. never became involved in an all-out hot war since it could result in a nuclear war. The United States foreign policy during the Cold War was the containment of communism. The U.S. spent billions of dollars and sent troops throughout the world to stop the spread of communism. CAUSES OF THE COLD WAR BALANCE OF POWER: The pre-war balance of power was built around the major European powers of Great Britain, France, Germany, and the Soviet Union. Due to the devastation of World War II, the Soviet Union was the only real power left on the European continent. The other superpower was the United States, so it fell on the shoulders of the U.S. to protect the countries of Europe (and the rest of the world) from the Soviet influence. EXPANSION OF COMMUNISM IN EASTERN EUROPE: The Soviet Union setup communist governments in the eastern European countries its armies went through as it moved towards Germany during World War II. After the war, the Soviet Union maintained their troops in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania and made them satellites (countries dominated or controlled by the Soviet Union). FAILURE OF DIPLOMACY: At the Yalta Conference, Stalin had made it clear to Roosevelt and Churchill that the Soviet Union would set up friendly governments in the smaller countries neighboring them in order to protect their borders from future attacks. The U.S. interpreted this to mean that Stalin would allow elections in those countries once any threat of invasion had ended. At the Potsdam Conference, it became clear to President Truman that Stalin would not allow any elections in the satellite nations. U.S. POLICY DURING THE COLD WAR THE CONTAINMENT OF COMMUNISM: The United States set definite limits upon the Soviet program of extending its borders. Although the U.S. would not try to turn any communist country into a democratic one, the U.S. would do everything in its power to contain the Soviet Union from turning any new countries communist. THE DOMINO THEORY: The U.S. feared that if one country in an area of the world fell to communism, the others, like a row of dominoes, would also fall into communist hands. This doctrine played an important role in U.S. involvement in the Korean and Vietnam War as the U.S. feared the spread of communist influence in Asia. DETERRENCE: When the Soviet Union successfully exploded an atomic bomb on September 22, 1949 the U.S. created a policy of deterrence. The U.S. began to build up its nuclear stock piles to prevent the threat of attack by the Soviet Union. Both the U.S. and the USSR developed enough in their nuclear arsenals to destroy the populations and the economic infrastructure of its enemy. Finally, in the 190 s and 1980 s, the two nuclear powers agreed to dismantle many of their offensive nuclear warheads. GLOBAL AID PROGRAMS TO CONTAIN COMMUNISM THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE: When Greece and Turkey came under communist attack, President Truman issued the Truman Doctrine in The doctrine stated it must be the policy of the U.S. to support free peoples against direct and indirect communist aggression. Truman guaranteed money, weapons, or troops to any country threatened by communism. THE POINT FOUR PROGRAM: With the end of World War II came the end of many of the European colonial empires in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. New, undeveloped countries were formed in place of the colonial governments. The U.S. feared these new countries were especially vulnerable to communist influence and created the Point Four Program in 1949 to combat this problem. The program helped provide technical assistance for undeveloped countries. By 1960, the U.S. had spent over $70 million in aid to undeveloped nations. THE PEACE CORPS: Created by President Kennedy in 1961, the Peace Corps sent skilled and idealistic volunteers to undeveloped countries to live. They could then help the people in these countries with their daily problems including medical care, sanitation projects, increasing agricultural productivity, and providing educational opportunities.

85 P a g e 85 THE COLD WAR AT HOME Immediately following World War II, the United States entered into a Cold War with the Soviet Union. When the Soviet Union proclaimed a world-wide communist revolution, fear within the United States grew. Many Americans felt that the threat of communism within the U.S. was so great as to require limits on individual rights in the interest of national security. LEGISLATIVE ACTIONS SMITH ACT: Passed in 1940 just prior to U.S. involvement in World War II, the Smith Act made the teaching or advocating the forceful overthrow of the U.S. government illegal. Created to protect the U.S. during World War II, it was used during the 1950 s to jail communist leaders in the U.S. McCARRAN INTERNAL SECURITY ACT: Passed in 1950, the act authorized the government to round up and jail anyone who might endanger the security of the U.S. by committing acts of espionage or sabotage. It also required communist organizations to register with the Attorney General. McCARTHYISM: Between 1950 and 1954, Senator McCarthy and his Senate committee investigated communist infiltration into the U.S. government. Senator McCarthy became a house-hold name by declaring that there were more than 200 communist party members working for the state Department. (Investigations failed to prove this claim.) In 1952, his committee investigated communist influences in the State Department, the U.S. Army, and other government agencies. McCarthy ruined the careers of many patriotic Americans in government, colleges, the arts, and the media, by accusing them of having communist affiliations and charged them with treason and conspiracy. McCarthy s use of blacklisting (circulating incrimination information about someone to potential employers) destroyed careers of people who were never convicted of any crimes. EXECUTIVE ACTIONS TRUMAN LOYALTY OATHS: President Truman issued executive Order 9835 which established loyalty review boards for all federal employees. Truman ordered the dismissal of any federal employee whose loyalty was doubted on reasonable grounds. Loyalty oaths were also required for all federal employees. JUDICIAL ACTIONS DENNIS V. U.S. (1951): Eugene Dennis and other leading members of the Communist Party in the United States were charged with violating the Smith Act in Dennis claimed the Smith Act violated the free speech clause of the First Amendment and therefore was unconstitutional. The Supreme Court, in a 6-2 decision, found the Smith Act constitutional. The Court held that the dangers of communism in the U.s. constituted a clear and present danger allowing the government to deny individual rights when national security was threatened. WATKINS V. U.S. (1957): John Watkins was a labor union organizer who had been called to testify by the House Committee on Un-American Activities. Watkins answered questions about his own involvement in the Communist Party but refused to answer questions on other people within the Communist Party. Watkins was convicted of contempt of Congress and placed in jail. Watkins appealed to the Supreme Court claiming the constitutional rights guaranteed to those accused of a crime (by the 5 th and 6 th Amendments) had been denied by the Congressional committee. In an 8-1 decision the Supreme Court ruled for Watkins and denied the Committee the authority to punish uncooperative witnesses at will. This decision helped erode the power of the House and Senate un-american Activities committees.

86 P a g e 86 THE COLD WAR IN EUROPE During world War II, the Soviet Union began setting up communist governments in the eastern European countries bordering them. After the way, the Soviet Union maintained their troops in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania and made them satellites (countries dominated or controlled by the Soviet Union). The United States feared the Soviet Union would try to establish communist governments in western Europe following World War II. To combat this, the U.S. initiated programs to contain the Soviet Union. FOREIGN AID PROGRAMS MARSHALL PLAN: Immediately following World War II, the U.S. spent over $12 billion in economic aid for western Europe. The goal of the Marshall Plan was to avoid the spread of communism by helping Western Europe rebuild from the war. NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO): Created in 1949, NATO is a collective security agreement between Great Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Canada and the U.S. A collective security agreement meant that an attack on any one member nation was an attack on all. NATO was created to combat the potential Soviet aggression in Western Europe. By 1955, Greece, Turkey, and West Germany had also become members and a NATO army was created with members from all member nations. The Soviet Union countered with the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance between them and the Eastern European countries of Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. SPECIFIC PROBLEMS IN EUROPE BERLIN BLOCKADE AND AIRLIFT (1948): Following World War II, Germany and its capital, Berlin, was split into four zones of occupation. The democracies of France, Great Britain, and the U.S. formed a single democratic republic of Germany (called West Germany) and combined their territories in West Berlin as well. The Soviet Union felt it was in their self interest to keep Germany weak and refused to unite Germany. They set up a communist government in their sector (East Germany) as well as in their section of East Berlin. On June 24, 1948, the Soviet Union blockaded all roads, railroads, and canal routes into the city of West Berlin (West Berlin was completely surrounded by East Germany). They hoped to starve the city forcing the U.S., France, and Great Britain to leave. President Truman airlifted supplies into West Berlin for 300 days. The airlift kept the city of West Berlin supplied with all goods needed to survive until May 1949 when Premier Stalin of the Soviet Union lifted the blockade. Truman s actions helped keep West Berlin a democratic city. HUGARIAN REVOLUTION (1954): Hungary had become a satellite of the Soviet Union following World War II. In 1954, the leader of Hungary attempted to institute a democratic government in Hungary. Hungary demanded the removal of Soviet troops and full economic independence as well. Premier Krushchev (leader of the U.S.S.R.) brutally crushed the revolt by using tanks in the city of Budapest. Thousands of Hungarians were killed before the revolt ended in disaster for Hungary. The U.S. government and people were outraged with the brutality used by Soviet troops, but did virtually nothing to aid Hungarian revolutionaries. THE BERLIN WALL (1961): By 1960 many East Germans were entering West Berlin or immigrating to Western Europe and the U.S. Premier Khrushcev built the Berlin Wall completely surrounding the city of West Berlin and closed it off from the rest of the free world. President John F. Kennedy flew to West Berlin and guaranteed the U.S. would protect the city of West Berlin from any communist aggression. INVASION OF CZECHOSLOVAKIA (1968): When Alexander Dubcek became the leader of the Czechoslovakian communist party (a satellite of the Soviet Union), he tried to lessen the influence the Soviet Union had over his country. Dubcek allowed non-communist parties and stopped the censorship of radio, television, and the press. The Soviet Union sent troops to Czechoslovakia and occupied the country. Dubcek was replaced as the leader of Czechoslovakia. The U.S. condemned the actions of the Soviet Union but sent no aid or support. UNREST IN POLAND ( ): Lech Walesa became the leader of the Solidarity Movement in Poland which demanded the right to practice religion, join a labor union, and the right to strike in order to receive better wages and working conditions. General Jaruzelski, the leader of Poland acting on demands by the Soviet government, imposed martial law, crushed the Solidarity movement, arrested Lech Walesa, and governed Poland by military force. The U.S. condemned these actions but did very little to support the Solidarity movement.

87 P a g e 87 THE COLD WAR IN ASIA The U.S. has not been nearly as successful in the containment of communism in Asia as it was in Western Europe. A distrust of U.S. presence as well as public support for communism (especially among the peasants) proved very difficult for the U.S. Two major wars were fought by U.S. troops in Korea ( ) and Vietnam ( ). The U.S. was successful in containing the spread of communism in South Korea but lost in its efforts to stop the spread of communism throughout Vietnam. The Vietnamese War underscored the lack of support of the American people to send troops anywhere in the world to stop the spread of communism. FOREIGN AID PROGRAMS SOUTHEAST ASIAN TREATY ORGANIZATION (SEATO): Created in 1954, SEATO was a collective security agreement between Great Britain, France, Thailand, Pakistan, Philippines, and the U.S. Each country agreed that an attack on any member nation was considered an attack on all. The United States gave aid to South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia through SEATO as communism spread throughout Southeast Asia. However, SEATO was phased out in 1976 after the United States pulled out of the Vietnam War. NIXON DOCTRINE: Issued by President Nixon during the Vietnam War in 1969, the doctrine guaranteed that the United States would still honor its treaty organizations in Asia and would provide humanitarian, financial, and military aid to countries threatened by communism, but was not obliged to send U.S. troops. This was a direct result of the antiwar sentiments in the U.S. during the Vietnam War that American lives should not be sacrificed in order to stop the spread of communism throughout the world. BI-LATERAL MUTUAL DEFENSE TREATIES: The U.S. entered into individual treaties with Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, and the Philippines. The treaties stated if one country was attacked, the other must help defend that country from communist aggression. SPECIFIC PROBLEMS IN ASIA JAPAN AFTER WORLD WAR II (1945): Following the Japanese defeat in World War II, the United States occupied Japan until The U.S. occupation created a democracy and helped Japan build up its industry and stabilize its economy. Japan is still a democracy today and is a strong ally of the United States in Asia. COMMUNIZATION OF CHINA (1949): A civil war took place in China from 1945 and 1949 between the forces of Chiang Kai-shek (Chinese Nationalists) and those of Mao Tse-tung (Chinese Communists). The U.S. sent billions of dollars in aid to the Chinese Nationalists to keep them in power. However, the peasants supported Mao Tse-tung since the Chinese Nationalists supported the rich landowners. In 1949), the Chinese Communists won the revolutionary war and established the Republic of China (a communist nation.) The U.S. broke off diplomatic relations with Communist China and recognized Chiang Kai-shek s government which had fled to the island of Taiwan off the coast of China. KOREAN WAR ( ): Following World War II, Korea was divided into North Korea (communist) and South Korea (democratic). On June 25, 1950, communist North Korea invaded South Korea. President Truman brought the matter to United Nations which issued a resolution ordering North Korea to withdraw. When north Korea refused, UN and United States troops were sent to South Korea to drive the communist troops back across the border. UN troops successfully drove the North Koreans out of South Korea and then invaded North Korea. As UN troops approached communist China s border, Chinese troops entered the war. Fighting continued until July 27, 1953 when an armistice was reached established the border at the 38 th parallel, the previous boundary of the two Koreas. In 1954, the United States signed a treaty with South Korea which stationed U.S. troops in South Korea and guaranteed to aid them if they were ever attacked again. VIETNAM WAR ( ): Japan conquered Vietnam, a colony of France, during World War II. Following the war, France tried regain control, but communist nationalists, led by Ho Chi Minh drove France from Vietnam. In 1954, when Vietnam defeated France, Vietnam was split along the 17 th parallel into North Vietnam (communist) and South Vietnam (democratic.) When the government of South Vietnam refused to participate in elections to unify the country, Ho Chi Minh began to give support to the Viet Cong (those living in South Vietnam who favored reunification with North Vietnam.) President Eisenhower sent military supplies and advisors to South Vietnam to combat this aid. When the Viet Cong became a major threat to the South Vietnamese government, President Kennedy sent U.S. troops to protect the government. By 1968, President Johnson had increased U.S. forces to over 500,000. As U.S. military efforts struggled and opposition to the war at home increased, President Nixon signed a treaty in 1973 which called for the withdrawal of U.S. troops from South Vietnam. Soon after U.S. troops were removed, South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia became communist. OPENING OF COMMUNIST CHINA (1979): Following the Chinese Civil War, the U.S. refused to recognize communist China, and recognized the island of Taiwan as the official government of China. In 1972, President Nixon visited communist China for the first time and in 1979 President Carter opened full diplomatic relations with communist China and abandoned our recognition of Taiwan as the legitimate government of China. The treaty opened up new trade opportunities for U.S. businesses as well as providing a possible ally for the U.S. in its Cold war with the Soviet Union. TIENEMAN SQUARE (1989): Students protested for democratic reforms in Tieneman Square in the city of Beijing, China. The demonstrations were forcefully and brutally put down by the Chinese military with over 700 protesters killed. The U.S. strongly protested the government s action and stopped the sale of military equipment to China. Many Americans called for more stringent measures, but none were taken.

88 P a g e 88 THE KOREAN CONFLICT ( ) The Cold War became a hot war when communist North Korea invaded South Korea in For the first time in history, the United Nations sent troops to stop the aggression caused by North Korea. The United States sent the majority of troops in a war fought to a virtual stalemate. At war s end, the boundary set between North and South Korea was the same as when the war began. CAUSES DIVISION OF KOREA: After the United States dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan. Five days later, Japan officially surrendered. The peace treaty stripped Japan of all her colonies, including Korea, which had been a colony since before World War II. Since the Soviet Union had declared war on Japan, Korea was divided into occupational zones. The northern half was occupied by the Soviet Union and the southern half by the United States. Democratic elections were held in South Korea in 1947 and the United States withdrew its troops in The Soviet Union then created North Korea, a communist country. IMMEDIATE CAUSE: On June 25, 1950 communist, North Korean crossed the 38 (the line separating North and South Korea) and invaded South Korea. A NEW TYPE OF WAR A WAR FOUGHT BY THE UNITED NATIONS: Immediately following the attack on South Korea, the United States convened the Security Council of the United Nations requesting them to take action against North Korea. The Security Council voted unanimously (The Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council and could not veto the resolution) to send United Nation s troops to South Korea to combat North Korea s aggression. In all, 15 nations sent troops although the vast majority of troops were from the U.S. POLICE ACTION: President Truman did not wait for Congress to declare war before sending U.S. troops. By calling the conflict a police action, and not a war, he bypassed Congressional power to check the President s war-making powers. LIMITED WAR: When China sent troops to the aid of North Korea, General MacArthur wanted to invade communist China and return it to a democratic nation. President Truman, however, wanted to fight a limited war. He reasoned that a protracted battle with China would allow the Soviet Union to expand communism in Western Europe as well as possibly cause World War III. The United States also did not use its atomic weapons, even though North Korea had no atomic weapons, since he feared an atomic war with the Soviet Union. WAR EFFORT PHASES TO THE CONFLICT: Phase 1 lasted less than three months after the communist invasion of South Korea. North Korea had conquered all of South Korea except the extreme southern tip. Phase 2 began with the introduction of U.N. troops under the leadership of General Douglas MacArthur. MacArthur attacked behind enemy lines completely surprising the North Koreans who retreated north of the 38 th parallel. In Phase 3, MacArthur was given permission by President Truman to follow the North Korean Army into North Korea as long as communist China and the Soviet Union did not enter the war. As MacArthur s forces moved closer to China, they entered the war in November, With the influx of Chinese troops, Phase 4 began. It lasted until 1953 when an armistice was signed setting the 38 th parallel as the boundary between North and South Korea. (It was the previous boundary.) The U.S. has had troops stationed in South Korea ever since to guard against another sneak attack. TRUMAN FIRES MacARTHUR: As MacArthur began his counterattack on North Korea, he proposed driving north and attacking communist China and replacing the government with a democratic one. President Truman wanted to fight a limited war and refused to give MacArthur permission to invade China. When MacArthur went to Congress trying to convince them to override Truman s decision, President Truman relieved General MacArthur of his command. CONSEQUENCES CONTAINMENT OF COMMUNISM IS SUCCESSFUL: North Korean s expansion into South Korea was stopped. At the conclusion of the war the boundary was established at the 38 th parallel. INCREASE OF PRESIDENTIAL POWERS: Presidential powers were increased dramatically when President Truman sent troops to South Korea without a Congressional declaration of war. The President could no send troops anywhere in the world to stop the spread of communism. FIGHTING A LIMITED WAR: This was the first instance of the U.S. fighting a limited war with limited objectives. The U.S. could have ended the conflict much sooner, but did not use atomic weapons in fear of Soviet retaliation and an atomic war. War strategy was also decided in order to prevent a world war.

89 P a g e 89 THE VIETNAMESE CONFLICT ( ) Vietnam, a colony of France, initiated a Revolutionary War while France was occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II. The revolution was headed by Ho Chi Minh, a communist. Many of the non-communist groups of Vietnam joined with Ho Chi Minh to free themselves from French colonial rule. Following World War II, France sent troops to put down the revolution. Even with the aid of the United States, however, France lost the war in At the Geneva Conference, Vietnam was given its independence but was divided at the 17 th parallel. North Vietnam was controlled by the communists and South Vietnam was controlled by anticommunists. REASONS FOR U.S. INVOLVEMENT The containment of communism: It was the U.S. policy to provide money, weapons and/or troops to help stop the spread of communism. when North Vietnam began aiding the Viet Cong (communists living in South Vietnam), the U.S. first sent aid and then troops to stop South Vietnam from turning communist. The Domino Theory: Many government officials feared that if South Vietnam fell to communism, other Asian countries would also fall to communism like a row of dominoes. It was felt that the U.S. must stand up against communist aggression in order to stop it from spreading throughout Asia. Underestimation of the enemy: With superior armed forces and advanced technological and economic resources, military and government leaders felt it would be a short, easy war for the U.S. They underestimated the strength of Vietnamese nationalism and their willing to risk everything to unify the country. WAR EFFORT President Johnson Escalates the war: In 1964, President Johnson stated that American ships had been attacked by North Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin. Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which gave the President extraordinary military powers to act quickly against North Vietnam. President Johnson began bombing North Vietnamese cities and increased the amount of troops involved in the Vietnam War. By 1968, over 500,000 American soldiers were fighting in South Vietnam. The Tet Offensive: In 1968, North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops staged a massive attack and captured several important South Vietnamese cities. Although U.S. troops, over time, were able to win back the territory taken during the offensive, the successes of the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong showed the American public that winning in Vietnam was not a foregone conclusion. President Nixon continues the war: In the Presidential election of 1968, Richard Nixon campaigned on a promise of an early peace with honor. Nixon began a policy of Vietnamization, replacing American troops with South Vietnamese. This allowed the U.S. to gradually withdraw U.S. forces and reduce the number of soldiers in Vietnam. In 1973, President Nixon negotiated a cease-fire agreement with the North Vietnamese and withdrew all remaining U.S. soldiers. With the withdrawal of U.S. troops, the South Vietnamese government collapsed and Vietnam was reunified under a communist government. Reasons the U.S. could not win the war: Many factors combined to stop the U.S. from winning the Vietnam War. The jungles and dense forests provided ideal cover for the enemy s use of guerrilla warfare. The Viet Cong did not fight out in the open in conventional methods. They also hid among the South Vietnamese people making it very difficult for American troops to tell who the enemy was. Another problem faced by the U.S. was the large amounts of supplies, money, and support that Communist China and the Soviet Union provided to North Vietnam. The U.S. fought a limited war in Vietnam due to their fear of Chinese and/or Soviet intervention. THE HOME FRONT Increase in Presidential powers: Vietnam, like Korea, was a police action and not a war since Congress never declared war. By Congress passing the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, President Johnson was given unprecedented power to conduct the war as he saw fit. Discontent at Home: In the late 1960 s the U.S. was being divided between hawks (those supporting the war) and doves (those who felt the U.S. should withdraw from Vietnam. By 1970, as public opinion turned against the war, anti-war protests were held throughout the country. Draft cards were burned and college campuses were shut down as hundred of thousands protested U.S. involvement in Vietnam. New York Times V. U.S. (1971): The U.S. government tried to stop the publication of the Pentagon Papers which was a classified study on Vietnam War policy showing the government was lying to the American public. The government felt that it was permissible to limit freedom of the press since the nation s security was at risk. The Supreme Court refused to stop the publication of the book claiming that national security was not threatened by the release of the book. The Supreme Court held for freedom of the press even during wartime. CONSEQUENCES Impact on Southeast Asia: In 1975, North Vietnam defeated South Vietnam and unified Vietnam under communist control. The domino theory was proven true as Laos and Cambodia also turned communist. Impact on U.S.: The President s military power was curtailed by the War Power Act in The act required the President to inform Congress within 48 hours of sending troops into combat. Within 60 days Congress must decide whether or not to declare war. If they don t declare war, the President must remove combat troops within 30 days. U.S. power and prestige was also curtailed. The Nixon Doctrine stated the U.S. would continue to meet its treaty obligations but would not provide actual combat troops. SEATO was also phased out after the U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam.

90 P a g e 90 THE COLD WAR IN LATIN AMERICA Since the Monroe Doctrine was issued in 1823, the U.S. has maintained an intense interest in Latin America. Its close proximity and vast supply of natural resources has caused the U.S. to send troops into this area between 1898 and Since 1945, the U.S. has used political, economic, and military measures to contain communism in this region. Today, Cuba is the only communist country in the western hemisphere. FOREIGN AID PROGRAMS RIO-AMERICAN DEFENSE TREATY: Created in 1947, the Rio-American Defense Treaty is a collective security agreement between the countries of Latin America and the U.S. A collective security agreement meant that an attack on any one member nation was an attack on all. All American states guaranteed to provide assistance to any country in Latin America that was attacked or threatened by communist forces. ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES: The OAS was created in The organization agreed to cooperate in collective economic and social matters. The U.S. also guaranteed not to interfere in the internal affairs of Latin America unless it was needed to protect the security of the western hemisphere. The OAS is also an example of collective security since all members agreed to help if any member nation was attacked. ALLIANCE FOR PROGRESS: This program was created by President Kennedy in It gave billions of dollars to Latin American countries over a ten year period. The goals of the program were providing free school to all school-age children, ending disease, and breaking up of large estates in order to give land to the peasants. SPECIFIC PROBLEMS IN LATIN AMERICA COMMUNIZATION OF CUBA (1961): From 1952 through 1959, Juan Batista was the dictator of Cuba. He used terror and corruption to keep himself in power. Fidel Castro began to challenger Batista in 1956 promising to restore democracy to Cuba. In 1959, Castro took control of Cuba and turned it into a police state. He suspended individual rights and eliminated freedom of speech and press and canceled all national elections. Castro nationalized (when foreign owned businesses are taken over by the government) the industries of Cuba including many U.S. businesses. Finally, in 1961, Cuba became a communist country allied with the Soviet Union. The U.S. retaliated by stopping all exports to Cuba and President Eisenhower began planning an invasion of Cuba to restore democracy there. BAY OF PIGS INCIDENT (1961): When Fidel Castro turned Cuba into a communist nation allied with the Soviet Union, President Eisenhower began planning an invasion of Cuba. The plan called for training two thousand Cuban exiles who would invade Cuba and try to enlist the support of the people there to overthrow Fidel Castro. President Kennedy became President and actually ordered the Bay of Pigs invasion. The invasion failed miserably when the Cuban people did not support the exiles. The invasion and its failure caused the U.S. much embarrassment. CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS (1962): The Soviet Union, an ally of Cuba, began building military bases in Cuba and stocking them with nuclear missiles and offensive bombers which could be used against the U.S. President Kennedy blockaded all shipments to Cuba from the Soviet Union. Premier Khrushchev of the Soviet Union did not try to pass through the blockade and agreed to remove the missiles and offensive bombers from Cuba. In return, the U.S. agreed not to attempt any new invasions of Cuba. PANAMA CANAL TREATY (1977): President Theodore Roosevelt had acquired the land to build the canal from Panama in 1903 through rather questionable means. During the 1960 s and 1970 s, riots protesting the U.S. ownership of the canal occurred throughout Panama. President Carter signed a treaty which turned over the Panama Canal zone to Panama by the year The treaty gave the U.S. the right to intervene to preserve the canal s neutrality. EL SALVADOR ( ): El Salvador had been controlled by military dictators until 1979, Jose Napoleon Duarte began to write a new constitution. A civil war broke out as communist guerrillas fought for control of the government. Both sides were guilty of killing innocent people to gain control. President Reagan sent over $600 million dollars in military aid and military advisors to Duarte and the El Salvador government between 1984 and 1989 to stop communists from taking control of the government. Congress voted to stop aid to El Salvador as the civil war continued. Today, El Salvador has a non-communist government. NICARAGUA ( ): Between 1930 and 1979, the U.S. had supported the Somoza family as rulers of Nicaragua. The Somoza family was a military dictatorship which used violence and terror to stay in power. (The U.S. supported them because they were anti-communist.) In 1979, the Sandinistas, who were mainly communists, began a civil war to depose the Somoza s. In 1979, the Sandinistas won the war and created a communist government. The Contra-Sandinistas (anti-communist forces) began a rebellion to topple the Sandinista government. President Reagan sent million of dollars in military aid to support the contras in their civil war against the Sandinistas. The civil war ended in 1990 when the Sandinistas allowed free elections in Nicaragua. The Sandinistas lost the election and turned the government over to a moderately conservative leader. INVASION OF GRENDAD (1983): In 1983, communists took control of the government of Grenada. President Reagan immediately sent troops to protect American medical students on the island and stop the spread of communism into Latin America. The U.S. quickly defeated the communist troops and established a democracy. INVATION OF PANAMA (1989): Manuel Noriega, the dictator of Panama, was suspected by the U.S. of smuggling large quantities of drugs in the U.S. President Bush invaded Panama in order to remove Manuel Noriega. The U.S. restored Panama to a democracy and brought Noriega to the U.S. to face drug charges. INVASION OF HAITI (1993): Jean-Bertrand Aristide, the elected president of Haiti, was ousted by a military coup in President Clinton sent 20,000 troops in 1993 in a successful effort to bring Aristide back to power with no U.S. casualties.

91 P a g e 91 DEFINING THE U.S. ROLE AFTER THE COLD WAR The U.S. and the Soviet Union were involved in a Cold War since The United States spent billions of dollars and fought two war in its efforts to contain communism. By 1991, it became clear the United States had won the cold war as the Soviet Union broke up into many smaller republics. The downfall of the Soviet Union also allowed the Soviet dominated satellites in Eastern Europe to overthrow their communist governments and create new, non-communist ones. With the end of the Cold War, the U.S. is seeking to find its role in world affairs. The U.S. brought together a coalition of countries and use military force to stop Iraq s invasion of Kuwait. The U.S. has also sent troops, under U.S. auspices, into Somalia and Bosnia on peace-keeping missions. THE END OF THE COLD WAR THE SOVIET UNION: In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev began perestroika, the restructuring of the Soviet economy, and glasnost, a political openness in the Soviet Union. When Gorbachev began moving toward free elections, Boris Yeltsin emerged as the new Soviet leader. By December, 1991, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, taken by the Soviet Union during World War II, declared their independence. The Soviet republics of Belarus, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan became independent republics but joined in a loose Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). EASTERN EUROPE: The changing atmosphere in the Soviet Union helped the satellite nations of Eastern Europe gain total autonomy. On November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall was opened to allow free traffic between East and West Berlin. By New Year s Eve of 1989 the Berlin Wall was torn down and Germany became reunited. In Poland, Lech Walesa s ten year Solidarity movement won out over the communist government and established Walesa as leader of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and Albania overthrew their communist governments and established new governments. Problems arose in Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia as civil war broke out among the people in those countries U.S. ACTIONS FOLLOWING THE COLD WAR THE GULF WAR: In August 1990, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait capturing its vast oil wealth and increasing the size of Iraq. The United Nations placed an economic blockade on Iraq and gave him a deadline to remove his troops from Kuwait. President Bush created a coalition of countries united against Iraq. When Hussein refused to remove his troops, President Bush with U.N. coalition forces launched an air war against Iraq. The U.S. launched a very successful land invasion into Kuwait and Iraq. In February 1991, Hussein agreed to remove all Iraqi troops from Kuwait as well as pay war reparations. The war was a success for the U.S. military and technology, and heightened U.S. prestige throughout the world. SOMALIA: In August 1992, President Bush started a humanitarian airlift of food and supplies to millions in Somalia who were facing starvation. When local warlords began to steal and sell food shipments on the black market, President Bush, acting under a U.N. mandate, sent U.S. troops to Somalia. BOSNIA: Serbs and Bosnians in Bosnia-Heregovina were involved in a civil war. President Clinton and the United Nations called for a cease-fire and sent a peace-keeping force. In 1995, President Clinton sent troops to Bosnia to ensure the cease-fire and protect civilian lives.

92 P a g e 92 Toward Equality and Social Reform 1947 Robinson Breaks the Color Barrier Plessy (1896) is overturned Non Violent Protests Letter from a Birmingham Jail I have a dream LBJ and The Great Society Gideon vs. Wainright The Civil Rights Act of 1964 Poll Taxes eliminated

93 P a g e 93 MAJOR CIVIL RIGHTS EVENTS The Civil war and Congressional Reconstruction used federal troops to enforce laws which gave rights to southern blacks. However, when Reconstruction ended in 1877, African American rights eroded away with the passage of Jim Crow laws. Although African American leaders had been fighting for equality since the 19 th century, it was the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950 s and 1960 s which changed U.S. society. The Civil Rights Movement not only helped African Americans achieve equality, it helped women, ethnic minorities, and the disabled gain rights previously denied to them. THE EMERGING YEARS DESEGREGATION OF THE ARMED FORCES`: Over one million African Americans joined the military during World War II but were forced to fight in segregated units. In 1948, three years after the conclusion of World War II, President Truman ordered the desegregation of the Armed Forces. JACKIE ROBINSON: In 1947, Jackie Robinson signed a contract with the Brooklyn Dodgers. He was the first African American to break the color barrier and play major league baseball. BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION: The Supreme Court with the decision in Brown v. Board in 1954 opened the door for the Civil Rights Movement. Prior to this decision, the Court in Plessy v Ferguson had stated that segregation was constitutional as long as the facilities were separate but equal. This allowed southern states to segregate southern life and force African Americans to use inferior facilities. The Brown decision made segregation illegal and guaranteed that the equal protection clause of the 14 th Amendment would be followed MILESTONES OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT ( ): When Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give her seat to a white passenger; Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. used the incident to try to end segregation on public buses in the city. African Americans, under King s leadership, used a 13 month boycott of public buses to stop segregation of public buses in Montgomery. LITTLE ROCK (1957): Many southern states continually delayed the desegregating of public schools as ordered by Brown v. Board in When the Governor of Arkansas refused to protect the nine African Americans students chosen to enter Little Rock s white high school, President Eisenhower sent the U.S. Army to protect the African American students and guarantee integration of public schools in Little Rock. SIT-INS AND FREEDOM RIDES ( ): In 1960, students began sitting at the whites only lunch counters in the south. Other students throughout the south followed in order to end segregated facilities. Freedom Riders were inter-racial groups who rode buses in the south in They were used to provoke southern responses which allowed the federal government to intervene since segregated facilities for interstate passengers were unconstitutional. Many of the Freedom Riders were hurt and some were killed by southern whites opposed to integration. LETTER FROM BIRMINGHAM JAIL (1963): Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. led a march into Birmingham, Alabama in an effort to end segregation there. He was arrested and placed in jail. From his cell he wrote Letter From Birminham Jail. His letters explained to America why African Americans could not wait any longer for their rights while television coverage showed the brutality of southern police in breaking up the protest. As a result of King s work, downtown stores desegregated lunch counters and agreed to hire African Americans. MARCH ON WASHINGTON (1963): The march was called by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in support of the civil rights bill introduced to Congress by President Kennedy. Over 250,000 people at the march listened to King give his I Have A Dream speech which implored everyone, regardless of color, to live together in peace. CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1964: Congress used its power to regulate interstate commerce to prohibit discrimination in hotels, restaurants, and other facilities which did business with the federal government or were engaged in interstate commerce. It also cut off federal aid to school districts that were still segregated. MILLION MAN MARCH (1995): Hundreds of thousands of black African Americans came together in Washington, D.C. for a day of celebration and solidarity. They gathered to show the country that black men are self-reliant individuals who can and do make positive contribution to society. The march was marred with controversy because it was co-sponsored by Louis Farrahkan and excluded women. THE STRUGGLE TO ACHIEVE VOTING RIGHTS 24 TH AMANDENMENT: Passed in 1964, the amendment eliminated poll taxes in federal elections. VOTING RIGHTS ACT OF 1965: The act ended poll taxes and made literacy tests illegal if they were used to prevent African Americans from voting. JACKSON S RAINBOW COALITION: Jessie Jackson used his presidential bids in 1984 and 1988 to increase the number of registered voters among African Americans. He believed that power came from the ballot box and was responsible for the registration of tens of thousands of minority voters.

94 P a g e 94 CIVIL RIGHTS LEADERS AND GROUPS Dr. Martin Luther King., Jr. emerged as the leader of the Civil Rights Movement. A believer in non-violence, King was instrumental in many of the early gains made by African American. Despite the gains made by Dr. King, many young African Americans felt that changes were not happening at a fast enough pace. They felt that King s policy of cooperation with whites and the use of non-violence would never work in the U.S. Many preached the use of violence in an effort to gain racial equality. IMPORTANT CIVIL RIGHTS LEADERS ROSA PARKS: Parks was a seamstress and a member of the NAACP. She helped ignite the Civil Rights Movement when she was arrested for refusing to give up her seat on the bus to a white person. This began a successful, thirteen month boycott of Montgomery, Alabama bus system. By 1956, the city bus system was integrated. DR. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.: King, a disciple of Henry David Thoreau and Mohandas Gandhi, believed that non-violent refusal to obey unjust laws, to achieve civil rights. THURGOOD MARSHALL: While a lawyer for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored Peoples (NAACP), Marshall successfully argued the Brown case before the Supreme Court in In 1967, President Lyndon Johnson appointed Marshall to the United States Supreme Court. He was the first African American to sit on the Supreme Court. Marshall retired from the Court in 1991 due to ill health. MALCOLM X: Malcolm X did not agree with Dr. King s use of non-violence and felt that violence should be met with violence. He believed the enemy of African Americans was the white man and white supremacy. Malcolm X felt African Americans should control their own businesses, schools, and communities. He hoped for the creation of the Black Nation since he felt integration would never work. Malcolm X was assassinated in JESSIE JACKSON: Jackson is a devout follower of Martin Luther King, Jr. He heads the Rainbow Coalition, a group dedicated to social equality, affirmative action, and voter registration of minorities. As a candidate for the Democratic nomination for President in 1984 and 1988, he heightened awareness among both white and black voters that minorities have been denied political and social rights and that political change can be achieved if minorities band together. LOUIS FARRAHKAN: As head of the Nation of Islam, Farrahkan has called for a separation of the races in the U.S. The charismatic and controversial leader has stated that his mission in life is to point out the wrong and evils in society. Many of his statements have enraged many, including non-muslim religious groups. In 1996, his visit to outlaw nations Libya and Iran further upset mainstream America. Despite this, as co-sponsor of the Million Man March in 1995, Farrahkan proved that he is a formidable presence politically and his message about race relations in America has gained some acceptance, especially among African American males. MODERATE GROUPS The moderate groups followed Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. s belief in non-violent methods. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) began in A moderate group it used the state and federal courts, and legislative pressures to attempt to end racial injustices throughout the U.S. Their most important victory came in the Supreme Court decision of Brown v. Board which desegregated schools in the south. The Southern Christian Leadership Commission (SCLC) was formed by Dr. King in It used civil disobedience and the non-violent methods which were successful in the Montgomery Bus Protests to strive for equality throughout the south. RADICAL GROUPS As discrimination continued, even after the passage of laws which guaranteed equality to African Americans, many African Americans challenged the non-violent methods of King and others. The Black Power Movement began during the 1960 s and challenged the popularity of the more moderate groups. Young African Americans joined the Black Power Movement in ever increasing numbers. These new groups believed that violence must be met with violence. One of the first critics of non-violence was Malcolm X who believed the enemy of African Americans was the white man and hoped to create a Black Nation. In 1966 after beatings and jailings for peaceful protests, the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee, headed by Stokely Carmichael, changed the committee from non-violent group to a more radical one. He called on members to carry guns for self-defense and made the SNCC exclusively for African Americans. In the same year, African American militants created the Black Panthers, a new political party. The Panthers desired a revolution where all oppressed people, both black and white, would rise up and overthrow the government

95 P a g e 95 THE POOR AND THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT The role the federal government regarding the poor has been constantly debated since Roosevelt s New Deal programs were created. Many Democrats feel it is the role of the federal government to provide programs for the disadvantaged and provide equal opportunity for all. Many Republicans, on the other hand, feel that the best way to help the poor is to decrease taxes on the wealthy and business owners. They believe the extra revenue, if invested in their businesses, will create new jobs and stimulate the economy. This will allow the poor to obtain jobs and will decrease dependence on government programs. DISADVANTAGED GROUPS THE POOR: In 1993 there were 39 million individuals, or 15% of the population living in poverty. (The poverty level for a family of four in 1993 was approximately $15,000) A significant number of the poor are those living in single-parent families, minorities, and those living in very rural areas in the U.S. Discrimination and lack of education and job-training were cited as major causes of poverty. THE FARMER: Loans and operating expenses have increasingly affected small farm owners financially. Also affected are the more than one million farm owners who do not own their own farms. Migratory farm workers and share-croppers in the south, live far below the poverty line. SENIOR CITIZENS: Social Security (income for the elderly) and Medicare (medical coverage for the elderly) have helped ease the burden on senior citizens. But, inflation, and the drastic increases in health care, have affected senior citizens who live on fixed incomes. PRESIDENT S ACTIONS IN REDUCING POVERTY FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT: Roosevelt s NEW DEAL originated many of the programs designed to aid the poor. Many of the programs, originally used to help bring the U.S. out of the depression and provide a cushion for the poor are still in effect today. Social Security still provides income for retired people and unemployment insurance is available to those out of work. Roosevelt believed it was the government s responsibility to look out for and provide for the poor. Since then, Democratic Presidents have followed his example. JOHN F. KENNEDY: Kennedy s NEW FRONTIER tried to carry on the tradition of Roosevelt. The Area Redevelopment Act (1961) gave funds to industries willing to build in depressed areas, especially the cities. The Manpower Development and training Act (1962) funded programs for workers who had lost their jobs, and the Vocational Education Act (1963) provided funds for states to expand their vocational education. LYNDON JOHNSON: Johnson s GREAT SOCIETY declared war on poverty. He wanted to open up opportunities for all Americans and improve their quality of life. His programs were the most ambitious since the New Deal. The Economic Opportunity Act (1964) created Vista, Job Corps, and Project Head Start. Vista allowed Americans to volunteer their skills to help those living in poverty stricken areas in the U.S. Job Corps gave training to high school drop outs and unemployed youth. Project Head Start provided money to prepare underprivileged children for elementary school. Medicare (1965) was created to help pay for medical care for the elderly and Medicaid was created to provide the same care for those too poor to obtain proper care. The Elementary & Secondary Education Act (1965) gave over $1 billion for schools in disadvantaged areas as long as the schools no longer segregated students by race. President Johnson s Great Society was an ambitious program which fell victim to the increased spending caused by U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. RICHARD NIXON: Nixon s NEW FEDERALISM believed that federal spending on social programs was wasteful and inefficient. President Nixon began to slowly scale back the Great Society programs created by President Johnson. In place of federal welfare programs, he proposed revenue sharing to allow state and local governments to deliver the programs for the needy. Nixon also abolished the Office of Economic Opportunity and drastically reduced the money spent on urban renewal, job training, and education programs for the disadvantaged. RONALD REAGAN: Regan s NEW FEDERALISM program began to reverse the role of the federal government in the economy which had started during the New Deal. Reagan cut taxes on business owners and the wealthy, in order to stimulate production. He reduced spending on federal welfare programs, food stamps, education, school lunch programs, aid for low-income housing, and job training to finance the tax cut. BILL CLINTON: Clinton tried to change the direction taken by Presidents Reagan and Bush regarding the government s role for disadvantaged groups. He created a program of service for young Americans. They provide service in needed areas in exchange for federal support for their education. Clinton increased taxes on wealthy Americans and business owners and greatly increased tax credits for the working poor. Clinton has also pushed, although unsuccessfully, for health care reform which would guarantee every citizen health insurance.

96 P a g e 96 THE WARREN AND BURGER COURTS The Warren Court ( ) and the Burger Court ( ) made many landmark decisions which impacted American life. Persons accused of committing a crime guaranteed a lawyer and a protection of their constitutional rights. Segregation was ruled unconstitutional, thus making the Jim Craw laws, common in most southern states, illegal. During this period, the Supreme Court became known as a protector of minorities and the disadvantaged. RIGHTS OF THE ACCUSED GIDEON V. WAINWRIGHT (1963): Clarence Gideon was charged with burglary and tried in Florida State Court. Gideon could not afford his own lawyer and requested free legal counsel. He was refused a lawyer by the court. Without legal counsel, the barely literate Gideon, was found guilty and imprisoned. Gideon appealed his case claiming that the state must provide a lawyer for poor defendants as guaranteed in the 5 th Amendment (right to a lawyer) and 14 th Amendment (all citizens must be treated equally under the law.) The Supreme Court found that states must give legal counsel under the Fifth Amendment assistant of counsel clause. Gideon received a new trial and was acquitted. This case set the precedent that all defendants must have a lawyer. If the defendant cannot afford a lawyer, the state must provide one for them. ESCOBEDO V. ILLINOIS (1964): Danny Escobedo was arrested as a suspect in a murder case. Police convinced him there was an airtight case against him and subjected him to continual questioning. Escobedo continuously demanded to see his lawyer but police refused his request and never warned him of his right to remain silent. Escobedo finally made enough incriminating statements to prove his guilt in court. Escobedo appealed the decision claiming his Sixth Amendment s guarantee of a right to counsel was denied. The Supreme Court in a 5-4 decision reversed the lower court s decision claiming Escobedo had been denied his constitutional rights. This case guaranteed that accused person s would be guaranteed a lawyer during questioning. MIRANDA V. ARIZONA (1966): Ernesto Miranda was suspected in the kidnapping and assault of a young woman. He was picked up and placed in a police lineup and identified by the victim. Police questioned Miranda for two hours without a lawyer present. (Miranda never asked for a lawyer.) Miranda signed a confession and was found guilty in a court of law. A lawyer for Miranda later appealed the case to the Supreme Court claiming he was denied his right of self protection guaranteed by the 5 th Amendment. In a 5-4 decision, the Supreme Court overturned the lower court s decision and stated that a suspect, before any questioning can take place, must be informed of his constitutional rights to remain silent and right to legal counsel. Police must now read these Miranda rights before questioning any suspects. AFRICAN AMERICAN RIGHTS BROWN v. BOARD OF EDUCATION (1954): As a result of Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896, twenty southern states had segregated school by race. Linda Brown, an African American in Topeka, Kansas lived across the street from a white elementary school, but was bussed across town to the black school. Brown s father claimed the segregating children by race in public schools went against the 14 th Amendment s guarantee of equal protection under the law. In a 9-0 decision, the Supreme Court decided that segregating school children because of race was unconstitutional because it generated a feeling of inferiority among African American children. The Court also concluded that separate facilities for African Americans are inherently unequal. This decision forced the twenty southern states to stop the segregation of school children by race. It also led to the desegregation of other public facilities such as restaurants, busses, and trains. BAKKE V. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA (1978): Allan Bakke, a white student, was denied admission to Davis Medical School even though his medical aptitude test scores were higher than some minority group applicants. The university explained that 16 of the 100 openings were set aside for minority students in order to fulfill its affirmative action goals. Bakke took the university to court stating that he was being denied equal treatment under the law as guaranteed by the 14 th Amendment. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Bakke, claiming the university s approach to affirmative action was unconstitutional since it involved racial quotas. The Court went on to say that race could be one factor, but not the only factor, when deciding whom to admit to the university. The Court, therefore validated the use of quota systems. FREEDOM OF RELIGION ENGLE V. VITALE (1962): In 1962, the New York State Board of Regents recommended to all school districts that a nondenominational prayer be used on a voluntary basis each day to start the school day. The New Hyde Park Board of Education required the prayer to be said each day in every class with a teacher present. Parents of several students challenged the use of school prayer as a violation of the principle of separation of church and state as guaranteed in the 1 st Amendment. The Supreme Court declared that prayer in public schools was unconstitutional since it violated the 1 st Amendment guarantee of freedom of religion WOMEN S RIGHTS ROE V. WADE (1973): Jane Roe (a fictitious name) was a pregnant woman living in Texas where abortions were illegal. Roe went to court claiming that her constitutional rights to privacy under the 5 th Amendment were violated. The Supreme Court decided the Texas law was unconstitutional because it violated a woman s right to privacy. The Court ruled that a woman could choose whether or not to have an abortion during the first six months of pregnancy. The decision in Roe v. Wade made laws prohibiting abortion I any state illegal

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