exploit natural resources; and political and ethnocultural conflict. Border conflicts range from the self-contained and domestic to issues of

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1 Introduction Border conflicts and territorial claims are inscribed into the history of almost every state; they have been and continue to be the most frequent cause of interstate conflict and the most common trigger for war. This book demonstrates that this problem still exists and continues to be relevant despite liberal buzzwords and notions such as the borderless world. The territorial dimension of the border is the point of departure for defining the extent of the state s sovereignty and for interacting with other political subjects defined by their territorial border. The functions of borders are always in flux due to the processes inherent to globalization, but their actual location changes rarely, especially in comparison to previous centuries. This also results from the changing nature of modern warfare. This book points out that there are many facets and dimensions of the border; borders often define the nature of the conflicts and disputes that surround them, while countries that enter these struggles strive to realize their political and economic goals. At the same time, this set of articles chisels out an image of the factors that cause modern-day border conflict and outlines a number of ways to resolve them. Many of these factors overlap in specific locations (i.e. the borderlands themselves), which renders the conflict or dispute more complex, more tangled and more enduring. The fusion of two perceptions on border conflict one geographic, the other deriving from international relations indicates the differences and similarities between them as well as a certain degree of convergence between the two areas in identifying pathways to conflict resolution in the borderlands. Of course, some studies are more in-depth in their approach while others draw a broad outline of the problem, allowing the reader space for reflection. In assembling the book, the editors were fully aware that the case studies presented in the book are but the tip of the iceberg, and that the number of border conflicts and disputes is much greater. The structure of the book goes some way in addressing this issue. Of the five chapters that comprise it, the first is a theoretical introduction to the question of border conflict; the three that follow are laid out according to geographic range; and the last is arranged by issue. The theoretical section allow us to examine the problem holistically, with several authors attempting to insert international conflict, border disputes and their preconditions into a systematic framework. A broad look at the book s contents delineates the fundamental causes of modern-day border conflict, including the disintegration of states and the rise of new autonomous actors on the playing field; economic factors related to the availability and the possibility to

2 8 exploit natural resources; and political and ethnocultural conflict. Border conflicts range from the self-contained and domestic to issues of international importance, and take place on either a bilateral or multilateral level and blending the two at times. Furthermore, the processes of globalization that crop up in the modern era facilitate the diffusion of the effects of conflict, including their range, level of intensity and a host of derivative processes that often destabilize states and regions. The editors, Anna Moraczewska and Wojciech Janicki, were also aware that much ink has been spilled on the topic of borders and border conflicts, but their goal in compiling this book was, first, to show that the issue is very much current and continues to generate the interest of researchers and academics from a whole spectrum of fields; second, to highlight the complementary nature of geography and international relations as starting points for analysis; and third, to bring together international perspectives representing the academic realm in different parts of the world (Poland, Ukraine, Italy, Germany, Sweden, USA, Canada, Israel). Moreover, although many discussions on conflict and border security have been held and their effects published in Western Europe (especially the Netherlands, Great Britain and Ireland) as well as the U.S., the books published on the matter in Poland are few and far between, particularly in a foreign language. This book, in its search for certain regularities and tendencies in border conflict, constitutes another piece of the academic puzzle surrounding state borders. Chapter 1 tackles the question of borders and border conflict primarily in its theoretical dimension, creating a foundation for further analysis. In this piece, Marek Pietraś meticulously analyzes the dynamics of the evolution of conflicts in international relations. He notes that although conflict is commonly considered to be a natural component of social life, the end of the Cold War and the forward march of globalization have triggered a clear change in their overall character. Interstate conflict seems to be on the wane in terms of both frequency and intensity, while the opposite is true of internal conflict, which is becoming both more widespread and more violent. Non-state actors are taking on increasingly important roles in internal conflicts, while the repercussions of the violence fall largely on the civilian population. Roman Szul posits that rapid transformations in the international system are leading towards a major shift from a unipolar world dominated by the United States to a multipolar one symbolized by a rising China. He also highlights that although current border conflicts and changes in the delineation of borders are not very intensive in comparison with those of the recent past, the present-day changes in the international political order may effectively shift borders due to concurrent changes in the balance of power and the rekindling of dormant, unresolved conflicts from the past. Gideon Biger outlines a geographic classification of state borders along which there are walls and fences that physically stymie attempts to cross over from one state to another. Their task is to prevent unwanted border crossings by the state s citizens or defend the state against potential aggression on the part of neighboring countries.

3 Introduction 9 The resulting typology is illustrated using specific examples of walls and fences that have existed in the past as well as others that are being raised to this day. Anna Moraczewska takes on the role of state borders in the modern world. She points out their multifunctional character while reminding the reader that states continue to treat their borders as the most self-evident way of defending themselves from external threats. The growing need to boost the security of borders is often misaligned with the threats of today, which are eternally in flux. Wealthy countries defend themselves from external threats by strengthening border security and protection, but often violate the inviolable by moving on the borders of other countries while pursuing their own interests. Moraczewska brings out the duality in her analysis of the state border as a place that is constantly under threat, but that at the same time symbolizes and solidifies the security of the territory and citizens of a country. She poses the question of whether the border is a place of risk or one of security. Valerie Zawilski examines transformations in the shatterbelt and gateway regions in the times of the New World Order. She highlights that the intersecting processes of globalization and cosmopolitanization have generated increased interest in the situation of the civilian population in these regions, which at the same time have become the setting for disputes between the political powers of the world. These areas are the scene of conflicts that stem from the abundance of natural resources or the strategic location of the territories a fire whose flames are fanned by a continuously changing geopolitical reality. Chapter 2 is composed of five articles that take us into specific conflict regions. Three of them directly address the state of affairs in the youngest political entity in modern-day Europe Kosovo. Wojciech Janicki compares the political situations of Kosovo and South Ossetia, confronting the rule of state territorial integrity and the concept of the self-determination of nations. He remarks on the significant similarities between the areas in question as well as the evident inconsistency of the international community, which has been relatively generous in endorsing Kosovo s statehood while refusing to do the same for South Ossetia. Konrad Pawłowski scrupulously breaks down the circumstances in which Kosovo was established as a sovereign political entity and takes a close look at the debate surrounding the status of Kosovo in the international arena. He points to the still very relevant discrepancy between the position of Serbia, which considers Kosovo an integral part of its territory, and that of most of the citizens of Kosovo, in addition to a considerable part of the international community. He pays particular attention to the situation in the north of Kosovo formally part of Kosovo s territory, but dominated by a Serb population in practice. Antonio Violante enumerates the arguments in favor of the conclusion that Kosovo does not fulfill the criteria for statehood under international law; moreover, it does not in full, actual control over the entirety of its territory. He notes that the U.N. Security Council did not grant Kosovo the status of an independent state, but rather extensive administrative autonomy. He discusses the option of Serbia and

4 10 Kosovo acceding to the European Union as a potentially effective remedy for the ills that afflict the countries of the Balkan Peninsula. Bartosz Bojarczyk offers the reader a close-up of the situation in the Persian Gulf. This is a region of key importance to the world economy, hence the need to ensure stability and security in the area. However, even the constant presence of foreign powers in the Gulf is no guarantee of the decline of border conflicts based on individual countries desire for access to the richest possible deposits of natural resources. The disputes have, in the past, led to two wars and several drawn-out conflicts, and interstate agreements on the location of the border often possess a temporary quality. This is due in part to the colonial legacy of the region and the questionable delineation of many borders, as outlined by the British; in the future, this can lead to conflicts whose ramifications are yet to be discovered and difficult to be fathomed. Justyna Misiągiewicz presents the situation in the Caspian Sea basin. Her perspectives frames the conflict as one of the most important unresolved geopolitical problems inherited from the Soviet Union. Due to an abundance of energy resources, the region generates heightened interest on the part of the oil and gas markets. However, harnessing the potential of the region will continue to be problematic as long as the existing border disputes are not settled and the final placement of the borders is not determined. Currently, all of the countries of the region continue to make claims to the areas containing the oil and gas deposits in the hope of securing export profits for themselves. Chapters 3 and 4 shift their focus to selected disputes and border conflicts in Europe and beyond. Thomas Lundén goes back in time to present the near past of the Scandinavian countries, which today are considered models of peace and security. In reality, border disputes in Scandinavia existed well into the 20th century, even if they were of relatively low intensity compared to other disputes in continental Europe. Their nature evolved from traditional disputes on the delineation of the border to economic and ecological struggles that resulted from the desire of various parties to gain control of hunting grounds, pastures or resources. Ivan Rovenchak analyzes the state of affairs in Transnistria, a breakaway state that continues to be unrecognized on the international stage. For Ukraine, it is one of the most important geopolitical problems that still have not reached a denouement. In light of the numerous unsuccessful attempts to resolve the problem, Rovenchak contemplates the exchange of equal-sized territory between Ukraine and Moldova as the best way to bring the dispute to a close. He posits the incorporation of Transnistria into Ukraine in exchange for Budjak, which would become part of Moldova; this plan would have several benefits for all parties involved. Alessandro Vitale details the impact of European integration on the situation on the Estonian-Russian border. Although the processes of integration have led to a clear attenuation of border conflicts within the European Union, the strengthening of the EU s external border a natural consequence of integration has driven up tensions on the local political scene, simultaneously rekindling old territorial

5 Introduction 11 conflicts and grievances. European integration has also adversely affected the smoothness of transnational trade relations with partners outside the Union. Conny Petzold examines the European Union s strategy of shifting the burden of dealing with transnational migration beyond the borders of the Union. Exterritorializing responsibility for migration has had a particularly strong impact on Ukraine, as that is where many temporary detention centers are located. These centers are not only present in the western borderlands, and have started to crop up around the Ukrainian-Russian border as well. There is therefore a conflict of interest inherent in perceiving international migration as a threat. Given that it is related to the strengthening of the functions of the EU s external border, in a way, it has taken on the characteristics of a border conflict. Roman Lozynsky and Victoria Pantyley undertake a systematic analysis of the disputes and border conflicts between Ukraine and each of its neighbors. To a large extent, these cases have to do with the recent history of Ukraine and the legacy of the Soviet Union. Some of the tension is also due to internal problems of the country as well as the lack of experience on an international level in resolving this kind of disputes. There is no universal cure-all for border problems, as each has its specific nature and requires an individualized approach. Michał Łuszczuk immerses the reader in the border dispute between Russia and Norway on Barents Sea, setting it against a background of territorial claims on the part of five states that directly border the Arctic Ocean. He emphasizes that the process of reaching an agreement has very likely been expedited by improved access to the Arctic due to the gradual melting of the ice sheet. He also notes that an agreement between Norway and Russia could be a model to replicate in other cases, which would facilitate the resolution of the other border conflicts in the Arctic. Agata Ziętek describes the political situation in the South China Sea. She stresses the complexity of the situation, which involves six nations directly and a further seven indirectly. The main cause of the conflict lies in two relatively small archipelagos that are surrounded by valuable deposits of energy resources. Control over the islands means control over the deposits as well as the trade route that connects the Far East with the Indian Ocean and the Middle East. The actors in the region employ a variety of strategies in an effort to resolve the situation, from peaceful methods to a policy of fait accompli. David Jervis delves into the complexities of the U.S.-Mexico border. Although the geographical position of the border is not currently a source of dispute for the neighboring countries (as it was in the 19th century), the very existence of the border poses a considerable challenge to the national security of the United States. This is connected to international migration (largely illegal), drug smuggling and the ineffectiveness of the tactics employed by the state in battling the drug trade. A side effect of these actions is a significant rise in crime rates. It appears that one of the most effective ways to decrease the intensity of the problems affecting the southern border of the U.S. is boosting the quality of life in Mexico by means of international cooperation through NAFTA.