The creation of new occupational patterns for cultural minorities: The Gypsy case

Transcription

1 The creation of new occupational patterns for cultural minorities: The Gypsy case WORKALÓ Project HPSE-ct Comparative report with other ethnic reports after WP4 results Project Supported by the European Commission Directorate General for Research Framework Programme

2 Introduction This report is based on the research previously carried out in the Workaló project: The creation of new occupational patterns for cultural minorities: The Gypsy case. It is outlined in the workpackages aimed at responding to the hypothesis that establishes the following: the existence of barriers and exclusionary dimensions that prevent the skills of the Romà from being considered equal to those demanded by the labor market in the Knowledge Society, which gives rise to their subsequent exclusion. In this case, this report compares the obtained results with the situation of other minority ethnic groups. The proposal of this report is to identify common tendencies in the situation of the Romà and other ethnic minorities on a European level, that allow us to identify the processes that generate exclusion. On the other hand, the aim is also to identify those processes that contribute to providing guidelines for future jobs focused on the inclusion of ethnic minorities, in the plan for European social cohesion. 2

3 Discrimination versus collective change Negative repercussions of exclusionary practices The difficulties encountered by people from different cultural groups to live together increase given the presence of discrimination against minority groups. Social cohesion requires norms that are recognized and legitimized collectively. It is important that the different groups that make up society feel like members of the society, and are seen, recognized and included in these norms. For this to happen, it is vital to favor the exchanges that are already occurring between different entities and to overcome the static and closed conceptualizations of their own and other people s cultures. As an example of a transformative tendency, we wanted to indicate those initiatives that facilitate intercultural coexistence and social cohesion which call on a dynamic vision of culture. Through the processes of reflection, cultures redefine themselves through interactions with others. On the contrary, when barriers are socially constructed that make these exchanges difficult they slow down the process of attaining intercultural coexistence. People find it difficult to understand each other and to define guidelines for coexistence, if they, themselves, do not feel respected by others. Although there are claims to equal rights for all regardless of ethnic origin, sex or religion, we encounter many serious situations of discrimination legitamized by the current legislation and regulations in Europe today. For example, there are regulations in the work and/or social field that discriminate against ethnic minorities. Business managers may encounter added difficulties when contracting immigrant workers. Because of existing prejudices, people find it hard to have academic qualifications obtained in their own country recognized.they have to follow highly bureaucratic processes in order to obtain the equivalency or official approval of their qualifications. We can say that the waves of racism and xenophobia in Europe are having serious consequences on the attainment of the community s objective of social cohesion. The indirect or direct rejection that people face in different sectors of society are expressions of this racism. Immigrants are one of the groups, belonging to ethnic minorities, that suffer these situations most in the receiving societies. Immigrants are used to working in unqualified and badly paid jobs in the labor market, experiencing situations of exclusion in schools and education centers or suffering the consequences of racism in the current legislation. The laws that regulate migration for example, are stricter despite indications from the UN that the wealthiest regions are going to continue 3

4 receiving an immigrant population. (United Nations ) In fact, as a consequence of the low birth-rate levels in rich countries, migration will play an important demographic and economic role in the future. l The measures directed at slowing down those processes are not reaching their aim. Instead they are accentuating situations of social injustice. For example, the number of people who risk and lose their lives trying to cross the borders into other countries. The search for improved living conditions is a process that is difficult to slow down. On the other hand, as a consequence of the racism of the recipient societies, these people are not recognized as citizens with full rights. They do not have legal status, do not have papers and cannot benefit from the improved social situations that full citizens have. In this way, their persecution and expulsion is legitimized. Transformations arising from solidarity initiatives In response to the barriers, social initiatives are emerging that allow the identification of trends towards transformation. To confront racism, people are organizing and generating dialogic practices in which cultural differences and different cultural backgrounds are not obstacles, but a basis on which to establish bridges of contact. They also serve for the identification of solutions to the precarious or marginalized situations that ethnic minorities have to tolerate. There are many initiatives that demonstrate that these groups advocate for participating in and enriching the societies in which they live, and that they are looking for the means available to do this. The networks of solidarity and support that they generate, for example between people of different ethnic origins are informal networks. They provide help with many difficulties that arise, for example, finding a job on which they can subsist. These networks identify alternatives in the community or neighborhood, as the points of reference. Local contexts are the framework for the articulation of these initiatives that end up having global consequences. Therefore, they are creating spaces where people meet, chat, affirm and reformulate their own identities, at the same time they create new means of intercultural coexistence. For example, intercultural groups, is an initiative led by FACEPA that is occurring in different countries where people from different backgrounds meet to talk and discuss issues that affect their lives: education, human rights, the labor market, the way immigration is addressed in the media, legislation in different countries and others. One of the group objectives is to create channels to express the voices of the people so that they can access the public debate about subjects related to intercultural coexistence. 1 United Nations World Population Prospects. The 2000 Revision. Highlights. New York: United Nations. Consulate 4/2/02 at: 4

5 Many of the people that meet in these spaces are in unstable economic situations, and are marginalized, but in these spaces they find conditions in which they are able to express themselves. The intercultural relationships which are formed, thus, allow forms of egalitarian participation to emerge for ethnic minorities groups and the creation of solidarity networks as mentioned earlier. It is necessary to articulate new communication channels between minorities and political decision-makers at a local, national and European level. It is necessary to channel their voices, organized in groups and associations or as individual expressions, in order to reduce social exclusion or marginalization in wide sectors of the European population. All in all, the cultural minorities in European societies are organizing and coordinating new forms of participation. They are demanding improved levels of social, political and economic autonomy, at the same time creating egalitarian social conditions to be able to express their different cultures. Cultural identities in education: a new challenge in educational practice Situations of inequalities of cultural groups in schools The proposal by educational systems in todays society is to guarantee a compulsory basic education for all. However, certain groups continue to experience inequalities regarding access to a quality education. Ethnic minorities that have immigrated as well as those that are natives, are the groups that suffer most. The promotion of egalitarian education for all students has, oftentimes, covered up a homogenizing perspective that has not considered other cultures. With the aim of providing the same educational content for all students, the cultural identities of students have been ignored. Furthermore, the need for the school to respond to different cultural identities and be enriched by their diversity has not been considered. As cultural diversity in European society has increased, the education system has made modifications in response to the changing situation. However, many of the responses have ended up once again segregating ethnic minorities. Attempting to respond to homogenization by proposing adaptions to the diversity in schools, but forgetting the objective of equality for all, ends up once again legitimizing inequalities among people that are different. Another educational problem today as a result of diverse identities living together in the same territory is the language. The education systems are organized to attempt to face this reality. Nevertheless, many of the adopted 5

6 means to address this reality end up segregating the students who do not speak the native language in the classroom. As a result of this, these students do not take part in the same classes as the others, and are deprived of receiving the same forms of knowledge. Many of the compensatory means that have been recognized and defended as solutions to failure and conflict in the classroom also generate educational inequality. The Informe europeo sobre la calidad de la educación: dieciséis indicadores de calidad (May 2000) [European report on the quality of education: 16 indicators of quality] existing initiatives in France, Germany, Low Countries, Spain and the U.K. about Second Chance projects are collected. The education system legitimizes compensatory education systems that aim to alleviate the deficits of ethnic minorities. Many of the compensatory means look for a solution to conflict in what we call the currículum of happiness, which does not give priority to maximizing learning or successful access to the labor market for all students. Instead the focus is centered on the establishment of conditions that avoid conflict between certain groups of students. Therefore, on many occasions, multiculturalism is still dealt with in the education system through means that do not guarantee educational success for all, (both children and adults). In the schools and educational institutions of our society, there continue to be many situations of inequality that affect individuals because they belong to an ethnic minority group. This inequality is present not only in the discriminatory attitudes of some people in the institutions and educational community but also in the perspectives that orient the reformulations in educational policies. It is necessary to continue working to overcome these situations in the educational sector, given that access to a quality education is a key element in the process of overcoming cultural inequalities and the achievement of social cohesion. Dropout and absenteeism of minorities in the educational system: As a consequence of what? School dropout of different ethnic minorities is defined by absenteeism, premature abandonment of school, low academic results and scarce or no access to high academic levels. The causes that can explain this dropout are varied. In many occasions, they are attributed to the disinterest in education of the people belonging to these minority groups. However, based on a) the fact that education is not the heritage of a single culture, but it is a right of each and every person and b) the contributions made by cultural groups that deny their supposed rejection of education, and actually question certain aspects of the educational institution, we can identify a range of causes that are separate from the cultural characteristics linked to the educational inequalities of the ethnic minorities. They are as follows: 6

7 Absence of social policies and specific actions: In different European countries the lack of specific educational actions for the inclusion of the diverse cultural groups has been evident. In UK, for example, it was not until the end of the 60s that the concern towards educational issues related to the traveller population appeared, many of which are Romà. In the last decades, more measures regarding these issues have begun to be developed. Segregation: When the educational answer given to cultural diversity is characterized by segregation and opposed to the objective of equality, school dropout becomes highly likely. It provokes a rejection of the school institution by ethnic minorities, since they feel discriminated against and realize that they are not acquiring useful knowledge for their social inclusion. This rejection often leads to a lack of motivation at school and, sometimes, to conflicts. Disconnection between culture and school: Another important element is the lack of connection between the cultural characteristics of ethnic minorities and the contents and ways of organizing the educational system. The lack of cultural references in the educational and curricular materials, and the exclusion of the minorities voices in the different spaces and in the organization of the school makes the success of the learning processes difficult. Racist attitudes and prejudices against minorities: the existence of prejudices against certain cultural differences in educational institutions and other social spheres is still nowadays a noticeable reality in many European regions. In the school, these attitudes appear as differences in the treatment of people, scornful comments towards people because of their cultural features, prejudices about certain families for being different. It is taken for granted that they do not want to get involved in the school center, and so they are excluded from its management. Transformative practices: the inclusion of diversity in school However, in the last decades, the EU is working towards attaining the educational inclusion of all individuals, without any kind of discrimination. They are defining social, cultural and economic objectives in order to offer and guarantee lifelong quality learning processes. These should provide the necessary elements for seeing vital improvements. The White Paper on Education and Training. Teaching and Learning (1995) emphasizes the importance of training as a way of inclusion and highlights the importance of attention payed to discriminated groups. The Summit of Lisbon (2000), identifies a range of excluded groups, among which we find ethnic minorities, and recognizes education as a tool for their inclusion. We can see that the proposals from ethnic minorities for an education based on equality and quality are closely linked to the elements characterizing successful educational experiences in multicultural contexts. Some elements to be considered for educational inclusion in these environments are: 7

8 Creation of specific actions: In order to promote the educational inclusion of people belonging to ethnic minority groups, initiatives oriented towards the creation of specific measures for those groups in a situation of greater disadvantage prove to be especially relevant. These measures can be defined as individualized attention or more resources for these groups. Some countries, for example, carry out measures of affirmative action: they create scholarships or reserve seats in educational centers for the people of these groups. Equality of differences: The approach of equality of differences in education implies respecting cultural differences while ensuring an quality education for everybody. Making the school more flexible by answering the needs and demands of ethnic minorities: A successful education should answer to the real needs of the people to whom it is directed and to their demands, not to their supposed deficits. The rigid structures of the school institution, anchored in obsolete approaches, should be made flexible to the new multicultural realities as well in their contents, organization and functioning. Involving families and other members of the educational community: when the whole educational community and mainly when the members of the families get involved in school, means a step towards the school success for all students. The fact that people belonging to ethnic minorities take part in the school activities or that members of the families get training in the school itself has a very positive impact in the educational processes. Equality of results: When the objectives for equality are reduced to equal opportunities, overcoming social inequalities is not ensured. Obviously, the equal opportunities has a potentially positive effect. However, when we simultaneously seek the equal results in the learning process, we are headed towards real equality. Instrumental learning linked to solidarity: Traditionally, learning linked to competitiveness has been opposed to an education based on solidarity. Nevertheless, the Knowledge Society requires that people acquire a range of instrumental skills in order not to be excluded from the labor market. In addition, it is also necessary to foster not only the value of solidarity but also its practice. An education of quality can not be grounded only in competitive instrumental learning that excludes the most disadvantaged groups, such as ethnic minorities. It can not only aim to have a peaceful and harmonious relationship among pupils, without giving priority to the learning of academic knowledge for 8

9 everybody. In the first case, disadvantaged groups remain in their disenfranchized conditions. In the second case, the lack of useful knowledge finally generates conflicts in the classroom. The alternative consists in joining both: instrumental learning and solidarity. In this way it is possible to increase educational level and create social cohesion. Transforming and not adapting: In order to overcome social inequalities, it is important for education to aim to transform the social context. According to this aim, actors should transform the contexts in which they live, instead of adapting themselves to a marginal situation which is unfavorable for them. This objective is important for society and for people of ethnic minority groups that live in marginalized neighborhoods and do not have a quality education and/or access to precarious jobs. An education oriented towards the transformation of contexts will also make it possible for people from ethnic minority groups and others that interact with them to undertake processes of transformation in their lives. Transitions in the labor market: from exclusion to the labor inclusion of ethnic minorities. Approach to the situation of ethnic minorities in the labor market. Currently in most European countries there is a process of social exclusion and labor marginality is taking place. It is partly, caused by the overregulated structure of the labor market with regard to immigration quota policies, regulations that prioritize native people, etc. It is also due to the existence of policies leading to employability with scarce results for the most vulnerable groups 2. The majority of actions taken by countries of the European Union to confront the problems of employment that socially excluded groups encounter focus on means of deregulation of the work market. On top of this deregulation, it is important to indicate the nonexistence in some European countries of explicit rules against ethnic discrimination. This is found both when accessing a job as well as in the actual workplace. In the United States, it has been demonstrated that political guidelines can have important unfavorable social and work consequences, more than simply serving as a bridge to stable and quality jobs they are condemning wide sectors of the population to unemployment and occupation in unstable jobs. This situation is also beginning to occur in some countries in the European Union. In this way, an ethnic segmentation of the labor market is being created. In other words, the non-communitary workers are forming a 2 It must be remembered that in the early 1990 s, coinciding with the first phase of the Knowledge Society, inequality and situations of social exclusion that certain groups in society including ethnic minorities were experiencing had scarcely been referred to. However, in the European sector, and from the Summit in Luxembourg (1997), which was dedicated exclusively to employment, we see that the situation for ethnic minorities is not addressed. In the Lisbon Summit (2000) they began to establish economic reforms and establish how to avoid the exclusion of disadvantaged groups from the Knowledge Society. 9

10 specific segment of the labor market, characterized by the occupation of specific jobs that are unstable and badly paid. These specific work situations are based on ethnic background of the worker and not their educational level, training and prior work experiences. Therefore, we can observe how certain ethnic minorities are relegated to work in jobs in the informal economy- the bazaar economy, travelling sales,- (Kloosterman, R. y Rath, J. 2001) or in formal economic tasks that do not require qualifications, with little stability and poor pay. In this way, immigrants that arrive from countries, like, for example, Pakistan or Morocco among others, in some cases receive a salary inferior to the native people in the same job. The immigrant who does not have the same work permit or papers is defenseless when facing businesses, shown simply by the difference in the salaries that are earned. It is certain that exploitation at work occurs in many jobs, but it is also necessary to highlight that business managers, like immigrants, wish that the administrative and legal barriers did not exist when contracting people to work, that are in an illegal situation irregular situation. In relation to the structuring of the labor market, the strong exclusion of certain groups from the New Information jobs, stands out. On the one hand, the sectors of the population that do not have a high level of education or the necessary knowledge or skills to access them are in this situation. On the other hand, there are the people that, although, have sufficient knowledge, education and skills are excluded because they belong to an ethnic minority. In this sense, we can highlight that a doubly exclusionary barrier occurs for the people that do not have the required educational level, and also belong to an ethnic minority group. In spite of the fact that since 1995 their has been an effort to create an Information Society that is accessible for all, the majority of people from ethnic minorities are still not included equally. Thus, people who have the required educational levels are not seen to have valid technical, academic or cultural skills. They are therefore assigned to carrying out the most unstable activities, with no social recognition or options to overcome their situation. This is what is referred to when we talk about a process of descreasing social mobility 3 that occurs in the United States and in some European countries. The dimensions which influence social exclusion and segmentation of the labor market are caused, mostly, by the laws concerning foreigners that prevail in distinct countries. They are also caused by an economic system that does not consider the most vulnerable groups, and the racist and discriminatory attitudes that we continue to see in some professionals involved in the labor market. Although, as indicated by the data, these barriers exist, as we will see later- if ethnic minorities and immigration in general are considered, it can help Europe reach the objectives set out in Lisbon for the year Decreasing social mobility is produced when highly qualified immigrants access jobs in the recipient country that do not require qualifications. 10

11 Racist dynamics and overcoming them In the fieldwork of Workaló, we have found that racism is one of the main barriers that interfere with access to the labor market and a successful professional development for ethnic minorities in general. Specifically, racism is a barrier to access the labor market for the Romà, above other indicators like economic or educational qualifications. These racist attitudes consist in attributing certain negative aspects to people from ethnic minority groups, which implies a rejection of these groups by employers, employees, as well as in public opinion. Currently, rejection of people from the labor market for belonging to an ethnic minority group is oftentimes stated or justified explicitly. For example, as we have been able to see in the research prior to this report, there are unwritten rules in the human resource departments for not hiring Arabs, Romà, Subsaharans, etc. Hiring a native person instead of an immigrant is considered to be a very widespread practice in the business world, given that there are attitudes of mistrust and racism against these groups. A manager expresses the following: if you find yourself with four candidates that, in addition are like a board game, one of each color and such, I think that today, there is the guideline of saying the one from here is first ( ), that isn t from Sierra Leon or Ecuador (E1,33,180). In research on an international level, we have also found the existence of prejudices in the corporate world in hiring people from the Romà or other ethnic minorities. In the labor market, one of the most rejected groups are the Muslim Arabs. The fact that immigrants continue practices related with their culture and religion, like for example islam and keeping Ramadan, can be considered by some employers as problematic in terms of work. They fear the consequences in terms of performance and profitability of the enterprise. Therefore, we see how the cultural differences of ethnic minorities are one of the arguments that are used by business people to avoid hiring them. For example: you get a Moroccan and then in the middle of Ramadan they tell you that they won t work and if they work they are fainting because they don t eat, because they have to pray, or in the middle of work they start praying in the kitchen, they have to wash their feet, and what not, or you accept that culture or it s better that you don t hire them to avoid problems. I think it s true for both the company and the worker (E3,36/44a,243). This racism associated to the conditions of the market clearly implies situations of discrimination. In fact, in the majority of countries of the European Union there are not any agreements between private business and the government in the implementation of policies of equal opportunities. 11

12 In the same sense, there are stereotypes relating these people with violence, citizen insecurity and delinquency. Some business people have associated these elements with the majority of immigrants. We see this expressed in the following idea: if you re at the site and you leave one day in the afternoon, you wrap up, and the following day a tool is missing, the first suspicion is of him, without a doubt (E2,41A,525). These situations of conflict that can arise in the workplace are also extrapolated into the social sphere when people argue that immigrants occupy jobs (self-employed or employed by others) that can be occupied by natives. Regarding gender, it is important to stress that the presence of immigration has not provoked a decline in the employment of women on a European level 4. Just the contrary, it has increased in the last ten years. Among workers there are also ideas about immigrants which contend that immigrants do not want to learn, or get promoted in the workplace. We see this in the following statement: he doesn t want to get into it, he doesn t look at how we do things, he doesn t want to learn, it s like this (T3,25,487). However, we see that in these cases they do not consider the elements that might be influencing in certain situations, like for example difficulties in access to training, the impossibility of accrediting knowledge and experience, the difficulty with the language, and other things that people face. Nevertheless, we do not want to explain the barriers and possibilities to the labor market solely on the basis of individual dimensions. It is evident that education, knowledge of the language and work experience are important dimensions that can explain occupational mobility and economic income, but they are not sufficient for fully explaining the economic inclusion of ethnic minorities. Chiswick and Portes point out, for example, the case of Mexican and Cuban immigrants in the U.S. They refute the explanation of human capital given that they tend to have a high educational level and know how to speak English. Portes, contends that besides these individual dimensions of human capital, there are also other dimensions, given that immigrants are not only perceived individually, but also as members of a group. That is, it is also necessary to take into account the effects of context and their interaction with others. In addition to these racist attitudes in access to the labor market being justified in an explicit manner, when Romàs and Arabs, among other minorities are not hired merely for belonging to these groups, these attitudes are also taking place implicitly. Some managers justify not hiring or firing Romàs and immigrants, alleging dimensions that are external to the management of the company, or dimensions that are innate to the person who shows up in response to a job offer. For example, in the fieldwork in Workaló, some managers affirm that one has to keep in mind the interests of the clients, who reject ethnic minorities, or that some 4 Source: Eurostat. Employment structural indicators: I.1.2: Employment rate - females - Employed women aged as a share of the total female population of the same age group 12

13 people do not have the same availability to work as others. This racism that is normally not recognized as such by people that express it, is based on the presupposition that people who belong to ethnic minority groups have inferior abilities. There are studies on a European level that demonstrate that ethnic minorities have to face this type of discrimination. For example, a study promoted by the OIT shows how business practices with regard to the Moroccan male labor force in the non-agricultural sector, tend to favor native workers, who have three times as much of a chance to be hired by employers than immigrants. Recognizing economic and social contributions of immigration. In a progressively internationalized economy, advanced societies face a demographic problem (with a low birth rate and increasingly elevated age), which makes it necessary to have immigrants who occupy unskilled jobs and those that nationals do not want (Abad, 2000) 5. In these societies people are increasingly more educated on an academic level, thus,workers want to have positions that correspond to their academic specialization. In the European debate about immigration, precariety in the labor market is associated with the arrival of immigrants. This affirmation is based on racist attitudes given that it has not been demonstrated empirically, out of all the dimensions that influence the economic structure, that immigration is the main cause of the precarious labor situation of many native workers. These labor situations include an increase in unemployment, a general decrease in salaries and so forth. Immigration from outside of the community does have effects on the social stratification in our societies, given that there are new groups of people from countries with a low gross national income that find themselves in situations of social exclusion and marginalization. According to Borjas (2001), from this perspective of exploitation and illegality, immigration creates losses in the receiving country through a decrease in salaries and the costs implied by the use of a series of services by these groups. But it does not always happen this way. For example, a study by the Generalitat in Catalonia demonstrates the cost-benefits of immigration in Catalonia, concluding that immigration is economically beneficial for this region given that, once the public expenditures on and contributions generated by this group is viewed, immigrants contribute more than 10 times what they spend (Generalitat of Catalonia, 1999). In order to overcome the inequalities and labor exclusion that many immigrant groups face today, we have to break with racist and individualistic tendencies that lead to competitive and segregational attitudes. For example, we see how cultural diversity within the labor 5 Abad, L Globalización, demografía y migrantes. II Congreso de la inmigración. Madrid: October

14 market can also favor intercultural coexistence in this sphere and as a consequence, create and put into practice values like equality, tolerance and solidarity between people at work: there is equality between men and women, countries are also very diverse because there are Spaniards, also South Americans, there are mates from Greece, and the nationalities are always diverse and do not provoke any clashes, nor any inequalities (T4,45,106). 14

15 Conclusion One of the most important goals that is set out for European society is to attain social cohesion. In view of this, one of the aspects that must be given more attention is the inclusion of groups that, for various reasons, are currently excluded. This is the case with certain ethnic minority groups like the Romà and immigrants from Third world countries. In this report we made reference to a series of dimensions that complicate the inclusion of these groups. On the other hand, we pointed to other dimensions that favor inclusion of said groups and promote social cohesion. In conclusion, in this last point of the report we include these dimensions that we refer to: Dimensions that complicate social cohesion The static vision of culture complicates coexistence between different cultures. It presents dialogue and consensus between cultures, in order to establish norms for coexistence, as impossible. The promotion of educational practices that are egalitarian and homogenizing on the one hand, and practices that do not have the equality of results as an objective, create inequalities between different cultures. Some of these are the segregation of certain groups, the disconnection between culture and school, etc. The existence of excessively rigid policies, or that do not take into account cultural differences, as well as racist attitudes create phenomenon like ethnic segmentation in the labor market or the exclusion of certain groups from this sphere. Dimensions that promote social cohesion Processes of reflexivity favor a dynamic vision of cultures promoting coexistence and social inclusion. Thanks to the establishment of networks of solidarity between people of different cultures, the identity of each group is reinforced. Access to quality education based on the equality of differences promotes everyone s inclusion. This is possible thanks to inclusive and transformative practices that promote the participation of the whole community. The contributions and benefits of immigration to countries that receive them, are much greater than the costs that it presents. 15

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