This is a report on the history on the influx of Asian. surrounding areas beginning in the 1980s. The report

Transcription

1 Context, Origins, Resources, and Development of the Asian Community in Lawrence, Massachusetts and Surrounding Areas Abigail Sayre, December 2012 Merrimack College This is a report on the history on the influx of Asian immigrants into Lawrence, Massachusetts and surrounding areas beginning in the 1980s. The report will detail the circumstances in Asia that led to the outpouring of refugees and emigrants as well as the circumstances in the United States that drew them specifically to Massachusetts. Furthermore, this report will include a history of the Asian Center in Lawrence, Massachusetts which provided and continues to provide resources and support for the Asian population in this area. It will provide information on the International Institute of New England which serves as another invaluable resource for the Asian community. Finally, the report will provide current information regarding the Asian population (particularly those of Vietnamese and Cambodian background) in the area, including size, geographic location, and community involvement. Over the last thirty years, Lawrence, Massachusetts and the Merrimack Valley have incorporated many immigrants from Southeast Asia. This influx of Asian immigrants is important to identify as Asian immigrants have contributed to the diversification of Lawrence helping give the city its nickname of the Immigrant City.

2 Cambodian History and Historical Context Norodom Sihanouk (31 October October 2012) served as the King of Cambodia from 1941 to 1955 and as the country s effective ruler from 1953 to He faced extensive struggles in his position of power leading up to 1970: opposing right-wing military conservatives, rural communist groups, relations with the United States. These were all efforts of Sihanouk to remain neutral during the Vietnamese conflict. However, in March 1969, United States President Richard Nixon initiated Operation Breakfast, a devastating four-year assault on Cambodia. Between March 1969 and August 1973, Nixon dropped millions of tons of bombs on Cambodia in this secret attack, disguised to the world as an anti- Communist operation in Vietnam. This secret attack on Cambodia caused a major disruption in the neutrality Sihanouk had worked to preserve. Opposing groups plotted the overthrow of the country s leader to align the nation either with North Vietnam or with the United States. With the North Vietnamese in Cambodia, Cambodian vice premier Sisowath Sirik Matak was becoming increasingly angered and forced Lon Nol, Cambodian Prime Minister, into a coup d etat which would overthrow Sihanouk. On March 18, 1970 after Sihanouk was forced out of power, the Prime Minister established the Khmer Republic as the government of Cambodia and allied itself with the United States. In perpetuating his anger toward the North Vietnamese in Cambodia, Nol supported the United States bomb attacks. The war officially began when Nol sought help from the United States in fighting off communist opposition to the Cambodian government. One of the main groups that opposed the Lon Nol s Khmer Republic were the Khmer Rouge ( Red Khmers ). This group was led by Pol Pot, a man who initially did not receive

3 much support in Cambodia. However, as the Khmer government continued to support Nixon s bombing initiative, the Khmer Rouge gained increasing support by presenting themselves as advocates for peace, and they continued to fight the Cambodian and United States governments for five years. In 1975, the Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh, Cambodia s capital city. The entire population of Phnom Penh was forced out of the city and into camps in the rural countryside. The Khmer Rouge traveled all across the country forcing evacuations of residents into such camps. The goal of these camps was the Khmer Rouge s establishment of an agrarian society, one which was completely Communist and was void of money, education, or religion. The movement s leader, Pol Pot, had a goal to triple the agricultural production of Cambodia, and all members of Cambodian society were expected to effectively commit to this goal. The genocide consequently began. Any Cambodian who was a threat to this agrarian ideal was to be exterminated. The genocide particularly targeted Buddhists, businessmen and anyone educated, as well as foreigners. Cambodia s upper classes were virtually destroyed, and many thousands of people died in the camps from disease or starvation. Finally, the Vietnamese invaded in 1979 which sent the Khmer Rouge into the jungles and halted the genocide. The late 1970s were years of tremendous devastation for the Cambodian people. From 1975 to 1979, the Khmer Rouge killed almost two million Cambodians in their violent efforts to take over the country. The Khmer Rouge essentially destroyed Cambodia in a genocide from which the country is still suffering today. Around this time was when the efforts to resettle refugees in the United States was beginning. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the United States government approved

4 hundreds of people from Southeast Asia to enter the U.S. as refugees. The International Institute in Massachusetts was instrumental in aiding these refugees in their resettlement in places such as Lawrence. Lawrence had an abundance of manufacturing jobs which required essentially no English language skills, and as an Immigrant City, it was understood that there would be affordable housing and opportunity for the Cambodian and Vietnamese refugees. Cambodian Settlement in Massachusetts: Lawrence, Massachusetts and Surrounding Areas There have been virtually no significant studies pertaining to the Cambodian population as it specifically exists in Lawrence, MA. In 2000, the census determined that only 1% of the population of Lawrence was Cambodian; the Asian population is extremely small compared with the numbers of Hispanic/Latino groups (such as Dominican, Puerto Rican) in the city. At the time of this report, Lawrence did not have any organizations that focused on providing resources or support for its Cambodian population, except for the Asian Center (which will be discussed below). Fortunately, the nearby city of Lowell has a relative abundance of resources for the Cambodian population, such as the Cambodian Mutual Assistance Association. A record of Cambodian-owned businesses could not be found. As far as goods and foods imported from Asia and sold in Lawrence, there is an Asian store/market in Lawrence on South Union Street which sells items such as cooking ingredients and newspapers in Asian languages. There is a Buddhist temple (Lam Ty Ni) located at 79 Margin Street in Lawrence

5 which caters largely to the Cambodian/Khmer population. Leakhena Nou, Ph.D. recently worked as a visiting professor at the University of Massachusetts-Boston for the Institute of Asian American Studies. She performed a study on adjustment of Khmer refugees in Massachusetts, concentrating on Lowell, Lynn, and Revere. This study determined interesting information regarding the Cambodian/Khmer population in these cities and throughout Massachusetts, particularly of first generation immigrants and refugees. In her study, Nou discusses the stressors that affect refugees both before and after their resettlement. She discusses the trauma-related stressors that affect people prior to their move, including violation of human rights, loss of loved ones, and torture and violence. She also discusses the post-migration stressors that are associated with settling in a new society, such as cultural adjustment and socio-economic deprivations. Many Cambodians faced racial animosity and a loss of status upon their move to Massachusetts. In many places of resettlement, such as Lawrence, there was no substantial pre-existing Cambodian population to offer support or cultural homogeneity. A recent study determined that one-third to one-half of Cambodians who lived through the Khmer Rouge era suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). After studying Nou s report and studying the circumstances that Cambodians and other refugees faced throughout their move from Southeast Asia to New England, it is understandable why there is little research that exists on Lawrence s Cambodian population. The people faced trauma before their move and fear and isolation once arriving in Massachusetts. Reports like Nou s suggest that the Cambodian community took several years to establish itself into the community of cities like Lawrence. For this reason, the Asian Center was established as an effort to help these struggling refugees (discussed below).

6 Today, the Cambodian/Khmer population is still very small, especially compared with the size of other ethnic and immigrant groups. Furthermore, the population is still relatively new to the Lawrence area, as the influx of refugees only began years ago. Larger Cambodian communities can be found in Lowell, MA and in the Greater Boston area. The Lawrence Khmer community proved to be a difficult one to study, but it still remains an important and culturally vibrant contribution to Lawrence as a city. For Cambodians seeking economic, educational, or emotional support or assistance, there are helpful organizations listed at the end of this report. Vietnamese History and Historical Context In order to understand why such a large number of Vietnamese emigrated to the United States in the second half of the twentieth century, it is necessary to examine the circumstances that existed in Vietnam at the time. Most, if not all, of the Vietnamese who settled in Lawrence in the 1970s and 1980s were refugees fleeing the horrific aftermath of the Vietnam War. The war that ended in 1975 involved the death of up to three million Vietnamese soldiers and civilians, a horrifying statistic. The Vietnam War was caused by complicated circumstances that emerged after World War II. At the conclusion of World War II, the Japanese, who had previously occupied Indochina (which included Vietnam), surrendered. The French tried to reclaim their previous colony, but the Viet Minh Vietnamese army, led by Ho Chi Minh, defended against the French. The communist Viet Minh came to govern North Vietnam after signing the Geneva Peace Accord in South Vietnam, on the other hand, was governed by the South

7 Vietnam anti-communist government. The conflict was complicated by the South Vietnamese opposition to the Viet Cong, a communist political party that was based in South Vietnam but was politically aligned with North Vietnam. The United States supported the anti-communist government in the South, and the Northern Vietnamese communists provided support for the southern Viet Cong. The war escalated to horrific violence. Bombing left both North and South Vietnam in complete ruins. In addition to the tremendous death toll, tens of thousands were brutally wounded. Vietnamese faced and continue to face terrible health concerns due to chemicals used during the war. Because of these devastating conditions in which the country was left, thousands of Vietnamese fled the country in the 1970s and 1980s to seek refuge elsewhere. Many came to the United States and were settled in New England, like Lawrence, MA, where they found employment, housing, and assistance from organizations like the International Institute and the Asian Center. Vietnamese Settlement in Massachusetts: Lawrence, Massachusetts and Surrounding Areas Vietnamese Americans are the third largest subgroup currently living in the state of

8 Massachusetts. As recently as the 2010 census, the population of Vietnamese Americans in the state had increased by almost 30% over the last decade. The 2010 census determined the population to be at 47,636. The largest concentrations of Vietnamese Americans in Massachusetts are in Boston and Worcester, though over the last several years populations in Quincy, Braintree, Randolph, and Weymouth have been growing. In Lawrence, between 2000 and 2010 there was actually a decrease in the Vietnamese American population: in 2000 the population numbered 779 and in 2010 at 702. The change was not remarkable, but may likely be due to job prospects arising in other nearby Massachusetts towns. The people who were likely present during the state s initiatives to settle immigrants in Lawrence are elderly now, and younger generations may be finding opportunity elsewhere due to the state s decreasing efforts to provide resources for them in Lawrence. The decrease in the Vietnamese American population in Lawrence may also be attributed to increasing Vietnamese populations in other Massachusetts towns. Churches and stores in particular that cater to the Vietnamese provide a draw for the population to settle there. In nearby Lowell, for instance, the population rose by 16.3% over the ten year period. In Randolph, the population increased by 182.2%. While numbers and businesses demonstrate that Vietnamese are beginning to make their homes elsewhere in Massachusetts, research has shown that the population is not assimilating well into the communities. In Lawrence, MA, however, the Vietnamese population has clearly assimilated quite well. The successful integration of the Vietnamese population is largely due to efforts by the Asian Center of Merrimack Valley. However, assimilation can be observed elsewhere in the city. The St. Patrick Parish, located on Salem Street, has sermons given in Vietnamese weekly by a Vietnamese pastor. There is a Vietnamese restaurant (T and N Restaurant), a

9 Vietnamese-run laundromat and an Asian market store. The Asian Times newspaper is available two days a week in Lawrence as well. A Buddhist temple on Margin Street has monk chanting every weekend as well as social lunches on Saturdays and Sundays. These opportunities that target the Vietnamese population demonstrate the community s efforts to assimilate into various aspects of city life. The large wave of Vietnamese Americans into the Lawrence area came in the late. 1970s and early 1980s in the aftermath of the Vietnam War. Most of them came as refugees escaping distressing circumstances in Vietnam due to the war. Additionally, as Vietnamese communities became established in Massachusetts, other Vietnamese Americans joined from other states seeking economic and housing opportunities. Vietnamese shops, churches, and restaurants became more common. The research conducted for this report indicates that while there was a relatively large influx of Vietnamese American immigrants into Lawrence over the past three decades and the community has begun to establish itself through businesses and services, assimilation of the population has still been overshadowed by enormous immigration of Dominican, Puerto Rican, other Hispanic/Latino, Irish, and Italian groups. There are still relatively few businesses owned by Vietnamese people compared with other ethnic groups or the Vietnamese American populations in other Massachusetts towns. Organizations, businesses, and institutions that specifically cater to the Vietnamese population are much more prominent and successful in nearby Lowell where the population is larger and it makes more sense to establish such organizations. The Asian Center of Merrimack Valley has been a tremendously valuable resource to the community, particularly in providing resources which can contribute to better assimilation

10 into the Lawrence community. The vast majority of the visitors to the Asian Center are Vietnamese. The Center s activities are detailed below. Asian Center of Merrimack Valley: History and Activity The Asian Center of Merrimack Valley was organized in The Center was founded by the Sisters of Charity as an effort to assist the Asian refugee and immigrant populations settling in Lawrence, Massachusetts and surrounding areas. The Center was started by two nuns from the Sisters of Charity, a Sister Barbara and Sister Helen O Leary. Because of their often disadvantaged situation, many Asian immigrants and refugees struggled to assimilate and accustom to life in Greater Lawrence. There were extensive unmet needs and obstacles, including language barrier, culture shock, illiteracy, and more. The nuns began their initiative by traveling door to door trying to help Asian immigrants and refugees with whatever they needed. One of their more important initiatives was their English tutoring. They taught English informally in their homes as an effort to help the newcomers find jobs. Eventually the nuns created the St. Elizabeth Ann Seton Center in 1987 which would go on to become the Asian Center of Merrimack Valley. The St. Elizabeth Ann Seton Asian Center was extraordinarily important to Asian refugees and immigrants in Lawrence and the surrounding towns. The Center provided immigrants with whatever resources they needed, including food, clothing, medical care, translators, shelter, English language lessons, emotional counseling, legal services, transportation, and more. After Kaori Kelts replaced Sister Elana as the director of the Asian Center, Kelts noticed some disturbing trends among the Asian population in Lawrence,

11 including gang involvement, dropping out of school, and an increase in involvement in drugs and prostitution. In the late 1990s, Kaori Kelts and the Center began an initiative called Bridging Cultures as an effort to educate, encourage, and support parents so that their children would be more likely to succeed in school and society. The idea behind the initiative was to support parents who were having a more difficult time adjusting to American language and culture by providing communication support and language training. The Center hoped if the parents had a better understanding of American language and culture and could better communicate with their children, parents might serve as a deterrent from wayward behavior. The Asian Center was formed to help meet the critical needs of Lawrence s Asian population. The Center is dedicated to the growth and development of the Asian community and culture in the Merrimack Valley. They provide a wealth of educational resources and support to the population. Betsy Leeman has since taken over as Executive Director of the Asian Center, and the Center now works with a $280, a year budget. The Center continues to provide an abundance of wonderful programs, classes, and activities to support and assist the Asian community in the Merrimack Valley as well as other non-asian immigrants requiring support. The Center runs a summer program/camp annually in July. The program is designed for children and adolescents and has four age groups. The groups study English, work on reading skills, participate in art projects, and practice math and science which they will need to know in school. Every week, the program has a new theme, and each age group participates in activities and trips that pertain to the weekly theme. The themes are culturally related as well to help the children learn about important places around where they live and to help them become more familiar with American culture and society. For instance, this past

12 summer one of the themes was Fenway Park. The program participants went on a field trip to Fenway Park and studied related topics. Younger groups studied the ABCs of Fenway while the older groups incorporated baseball statistics into their math studies. Also over the summer, the Asian Center has a six week writing program for middle school students. The program is geared toward children of immigrants, usually first or second generation. The students practice the writing process to help them express their creativity, work on their English skills, prepare for school, and remain connected to their culture. They work through the writing process based on cultural subjects such as myths and Chinese literature. At the end of the summer, their work is published at the Center. Likely the most valuable resource provided by the Asian Center is their English language program. Approximately 100 students participate each year and range in ages from 18 to 85. There are three levels of English instruction, and all of the students are immigrants. The classes range from introductory level to conversation, and students practice speaking, reading, writing, and grammar. The English language classes are tremendously important in helping the students comprehension in everyday life, such as in reading mail, paying bills, and general everyday communication. The English classes are also vital to the students confidence. Particularly in Lawrence where there is only a very small minority of Asian immigrants, it can be intimidating and stressful being a minority disadvantaged by a language barrier. The Asian Center provides wonderful support in its English classes to help immigrants ease the stress that can be caused by language barriers. Once a month, all of the English classes come together for an integrated conversation class. This allows interaction with students from other levels to encourage verbal communication and practice, and it is especially important for students in the lower levels who are wishing to advance to the

13 conversation level class. The multi-level conversation class meets once a month in the morning and again in the evening to encourage attendance. The goal of the highest level English class, the conversation level, is to try to move students on to more advanced English language programs in the area. The Asian Center encourages its students to continue study at nearby Cambridge College or Northern Essex Community College. The Elder Program works with other elder organizations in the surrounding area to provide resources to Cambodian, Chinese, and Vietnamese elders. The program meets every month with a nurse for routine health checks, including blood pressure, blood sugar, cholesterol, weight, and more. The Elder Program celebrates cultural holidays, such as Vietnamese New Year and Cambodian New Year, as well as Christmas, and they go on cultural field trips regularly. Elder Program meetings include socializing and meals. Muoi Lam works as the main contact for the elders at the Asian Center. She is an extremely important part of the community because of her work with homebound elders. Muoi does home visits as they are needed to help people with their insurance, Medicare, bills, and any mail they may need help understanding. Muoi helps anyone unable to get transportation to the Center as she is needed. The Asian Center also has a Citizenship Program. The program has about 50 students a year who participate in classes as well as about 50 people a year who get help with applications. The Asian Center assists with the N400 application to become a United States citizen. The classes teach the United States history component for the test. Additionally, the Center provides one-on-one interview preparation and reviews all of the questions on the application. They help with the swearing in ceremonies to help people register to vote. Once people have become citizens, the Citizenship Program helps them get their families to the

14 U.S. as well, and the Center provides additional support for those who have become citizens. Most of these services are for Asians, but the Center will help any immigrants who need assistance. Becoming a citizen of the United States can be a very intimidating and challenging process, and the resources the Asian Center provide are invaluable to so many people. Finally, the Asian Center of Merrimack Valley has a program for toddlers and young children. It is a licensed preschool and has up to 17 children each year. The classes are a mix of Vietnamese, Cambodian, Korean, Indian, and Chinese children, and most of them do not speak English. The preschool is an English immersion experience. It is a wonderful opportunity for children to gain English language experience prior to going to school. The Asian Center tries to prepare the preschoolers for entrance into kindergarten. The Asian Center of Merrimack Valley, formerly the St. Elizabeth Ann Seton Asian Center, is undeniably an extraordinary resource for the immigrant, refugee, and Asian population of the Greater Lawrence area. Although there are many other resources in nearby cities to assist immigrant and refugee populations, there are really no other organizations in Lawrence that provide the resources the Asian Center does. Its tremendous support for people of all ages is truly wonderful and will hopefully remain as prominent in the community for years to come. International Institute of New England The International Institute was an important organization in the original large influx of Asian immigrants in the 1970s and 1980s. Primarily, they were involved with the Vietnamese

15 migrants during this time. Many people the International Institute worked with were families that the United States government approved for resettlement in the U.S. The Institute aided many of these Vietnamese refugee families in settling in the Greater Lawrence area. The International Institute of New England currently has offices in Boston and Lowell, Massachusetts and in Manchester, New Hampshire. There is also an International Institute based in Lawrence, MA that has been involved with refugee and immigrant settlement in the Lawrence area. The International Institute serves as an employment assistance organization for immigrants and refugees seeking work in the area. The International Institute of New England has an abundance of resources for refugee and immigrant populations that are based out of their Boston and Lowell offices. The International Institute of New England is a non-profit organization that aims to help refugees and immigrants become actively involved in the social, political, and economic life in the United States. Its employees speak over a dozen different languages. The Institute offers resettlement assistance, workforce training and support, and business services to help immigrants succeed economically. Resettlement assistance includes help finding affordable housing, cultural orientation, and help understanding and utilizing services offered by the organization and other institutions. The Institute also offers English classes and helps prepare immigrants for job-related situations. They offer interview training as well as preparation for the workplace. One program that is particularly beneficial is the Hospitality Training Program which helps people prepare for jobs in places like hotels. The workforce programs teach relevant business English which can be supplemented by the other English as a Second Language classes offered by the International Institute. The Institute prides itself on providing safety to people who come from traumatic

16 circumstances, such as war, genocide, political conflict, and human rights violations. Most of the Institute s clients live below the poverty line today, so they try to encourage selfsufficiency in the resources described above. They are an invaluable resource for the Asian population living in Lawrence particularly because of their prestigious reputation and connections throughout the state. The International Institute of New England offices are located in Boston, Lowell, and Manchester, NH. Boston Office: 1 Milk Street, 4th Floor Lowell Office: 144 Merrimack Street, Suite 302 New Hampshire Office: 315 Pine Street For those living in Lawrence, MA and surrounding areas, there are many organizations and institutions that can provide support, assistance, and information. The Asian American Civic Association (AACA) is a non-profit agency which began in 1967 to provide immigrants and economically disadvantaged people with support for economic self-sufficiency. Initiatives include education support, social services, and job training. The AACA is located at 87 Tyler Street in Boston, MA. The Asian Community Development Corporation (ACDC) is an organization that works in and outside of Boston to address the needs of the Asian American population. The ACDC works to develop affordable housing and promote economic development within Asian American communities. The ACDC is located at 38 Oak Street in Boston, MA. (617) The Cambodian Mutual Assistance Association of Greater Lowell, Inc. (CMAA) is a nonprofit organization which began in The CMAA is committed to improving the quality of life for Cambodian Americans and other minorities in the Lowell area through a variety of

17 educational programs. The Cambodian Mutual Assistance Association is located at 120 Cross Street in Lowell, MA. (980) The Immigrant Learning Center, Inc. (ILC) is a non-profit organization based in Malden, MA that provides service programs and public education, including free year-round English classes to immigrant and refugee adults. The ILC advocates for immigrants through the Public Education Institute which informs Americans about contributions in society by immigrants. The ILC is located at 442 Main Street in Malden, MA. (781) The Massachusetts Immigrant and Refugee Advocacy Coalition is the largest organization in New England promoting the rights and integration of immigrants and refugees. Over 140 organizations are active in the Coalition, such as health centers and hospitals, schools, refugee resettlement institutions, and law firms. The MIRA Coalition is located at 105 Chauncy Street, Suite 910 in Boston, MA. (617)

18 Sources and Additional Information Khmer Rouge. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition 1. Academic Search Premiere, EBSCOhost (accessed 21 October 2012). Brinkley, Joel. Cambodia s Curse: The Modern History of a Troubled Land. New York: Public Affairs, Cole, Donald B. Immigrant City: Lawrence, Massachusetts, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, De Walque, Damien. The socio-demographic legacy of the Khmer Rouge period in Cambodia Population Studies 60, no. 2: Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed October 5, 2012). Fletcher, Dan. A Brief History of the Khmer Rouge. Time Magazine. 17 February Lawrence, Mark Atwood. The Vietnam War: A Concise International History. New York: Oxford University Press, Lo, Shauna. Asian Americans in Massachusetts: A census profile. (2012). Institute for Asian American Studies Publications. Lo, Shauna. Vietnamese Americans in Massachusetts: Profiles of Asian American subgroups in Massachusetts. (2012). Institute for Asian American Studies Publications. Morris, Stephen J. Why Vietnam Invaded Cambodia: Political Culture and the Causes of War. Chicago: Stanford University Press, Nou, Leakhena. A qualitative examination of the psychosocial adjustment of Khmer refugees in three Massachusetts communities. (2006). Institute for Asian American Studies Publications. Paper 3. Rambach, Peggy, and But, Nhek. Under the Sugar Palm Trees: Memoirs of Cambodian Refugees Living in Lawrence, Massachusetts. Massachusetts Cultural Council, 2003.

19 Maps: Massachusetts Map: Cambodia Map: U.S. Department of State website: Vietnam Map: U.S. Department of State website: Thank you to the Lawrence History Center for the opportunity and their support on this research project.