Comparison of Traits on Empowerment and Development of Women in Three East African Countries

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1 Comparison of Traits on Empowerment and Development of Women in Three East African Countries Diana Focus Kimario (M.A), Senior Planner, Ministry of Water United Republic of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Rocky R.J. Akarro (Ph.D), Professor, Department of Statistics University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania akarror@gmail.com Abstract Three East African countries namely Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda are compared with regards to women empowerment and development gap. The factors considered in the comparisons are both demographic and socio economic. Secondary data were obtained from the IPUMS database which employed Tanzania Household Budget survey 2002/200, Rwanda Household Budget survey 2002/200 and Uganda Household budget survey 2002/200. A same year data base was used for consistency in the comparisons. The data on responses from these surveys provided a set of representative population based estimates of social indicators by 2002/200. Results show that in terms of education, a large proportion of Tanzania women were more educated than their counterparts in Uganda and Rwanda. Thus a Tanzania woman was considerably more empowered. As for the access to water supply and energy as facets of development both of these were limited, the limitation being more pronounced among women in rural areas. Key Words Women, Empowerment, Development, East African Countries Introduction Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda are among developing countries implementing several programs aimed at empowering women of which government and Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are implementing bodies. The past three decades have witnessed a steadily increasing awareness of the importance of women empowerment through different measures as economic, political participation, broader access to fundamental human rights, improvements in nutrition, basic health and education. The expectation of these programs is to give women new skills and extend their ability to make informed choices, and bring significant changes to the ways women perceive themselves and their responsibilities at large within home. However, on the other hand the empowerment will act like a catalyst on women's development. Woman empowerment is a multi-dimensional process which intersects the woman s personal, family, social, cultural, economic and political space. Empowering women have become a frequently cited goal of development interventions. Development on the other hand refers to the adoption of new technologies, transition from agriculture-based industry-based economy, and general improvement in living standards. The Human Development Report (UNDP, 99) has consistently defined the basic objective of the Development as enlarging people's choices at the heart of the essential components, the equality of opportunity for all people in society; sustainability of such opportunities from one generation to the next and empowerment of people so that they participate in-and benefit fromdevelopment processes. When posing women development we refer as being managed to empower themselves and break through customs and norms having an income to which it supports the family at large. If development is meant to widen opportunities for all people, then continuing exclusion of women from many opportunities of life totally twists the process of development > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 66

2 Moreover the Human Development Index (HDI) measures three indicators, life expectancy signifying long and health life; education attainment representing knowledge and lastly GDP which represents standard of living. According to United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 200 ) the HDI below 0. is said to be the minimum level of development and these three countries are falling under that level. From 2002 to 200 the HDIs for Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda was as shown in the Table below. Factors contributing to these measures are the ones that are going to be adopted for comparisons. Table Human Development Indices from 2002/200 Country Rwanda Tanzania Uganda Source UNDP 200 With reference to women development one might say gender equity and empowerment are one and the same thing. However gender equality and empowerment are two different things such that equality has to be between men and women (on gender basis) while empowerment has to give those with less power a chance to make an advantageous progress. However, we cannot talk about development without poverty since these two go hand in hand. Poverty is a gendered related phenomenon, and that women are disproportionately more numbered among those in extreme poverty. The World Bank (992) has identified empowerment as one of the key constituent elements of poverty reduction, and as a primary development assistance goal. The Bank has also made gender mainstreaming a priority in development assistance, and is in the process of implementing an ambitious strategy to this effect. Hence for Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda being among developing countries looking upon their women development will be on advantageous position since it will be directly touching household level. Gender Equality and Development Strategies In recognition of the importance of establishing gender equality around the world, the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) was established as a separate fund within the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in 94. There are only a few years remaining for implementation of the third ( rd ) goal among the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) concerning women s empowerment and gender equality whereby the target is 20 for Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda countries to encourage some enhancement on women s economic and political empowerment, education and training in these countries. However, these countries have initiated programs concerning gender and women in their countries and they each have a ministry which deals directly on women's issues. Some of the achievements on gender empowerment have been made where these governments have made commitments, at different levels, to address gender imbalances and community development concerns such that various legal, policy instruments and programmes have been developed individually. For example, currently, Tanzania is implementing the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) which started in 200/06 and has to a large extent addressed gender issues. In Uganda Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP) was first prepared in 997 and recognizes that gender equality between women and men should be addressed on equal opportunities in all spheres of life, and hence good economics and essential for development. In Rwanda, a National Gender Policy (NGP) which is a framework for the orientation of interventions for the promotion of gender equality and equity has been developed. This study intends to compare women of Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda on their development gap taking into account their demographic and socio-economic characteristics. > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 67

3 The objective The general objective of this paper is to compare women development gap in Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda on the basis of demographic and non economic characteristics (sex, age, number of children in a HH and availability of sanitation facilities eg. toilets) and socio-economic characteristics (level of education, main economic activity, accessibility to socio-economic facilities, health and well being, income and locality and rural/ urban status). Conceptual Framework for Empowerment and Development The concept of this study is to show to what extent the women in these three countries (Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda) have managed to climb the ladder of development through empowerment as shown in Figure. Empowerment is an ongoing process as it has been clearly defined by Kabeer (200) that it is the expansion in people s ability to make strategic life in context. However it is important to acknowledge that women empowerment encompasses some unique additional elements. First, women are not just one group amongst several disempowered subsets of society (the poor, ethnic minorities, etc); they are a cross-cutting category of individuals that overlaps with all these other groups. Second, the household and inter-familial relations are a central locus of women disempowerment in a way that is not true for other disadvantaged groups. This means that efforts at empowering women must be especially cognizant of the implications of broader policy action at the household level. Several factors have contributed in women development but it is not necessarily true that these factors are equal or the same in all of the three countries namely Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda. That means if Tanzanian women are affected more by certain factors it does not necessarily imply that the same factors also affect women similarly in the other two countries. The main issue for women to have access to education is to help to reduce the level of illiteracy and aid in achieving more development. Moreover access to social economic facilities such as education, hospitals, bank loans etc can be posed to check how far these have helped to contribute towards women development. This is to say that a country with higher number of women who are more educated than others at different levels of education from primary to higher level of education then such a country will be said to have women who are developed. Furthermore the higher education level attained by woman the higher the probability for her to compete in the labour market which results to increase in earnings or income and hence become financially capable be in a good position to help her family economically. Moreover as far as health and well being, the lower the maternal and child death results or leads to great achievement for women development. This has nothing to do with the distance from home to health care centre but it measures the survival of the mother and the child during giving birth and postnatal period and the well being of them. This is to say that the expansion of any nation depends on women since the survival of the mother and child is not only beneficial to the community but to the family as well. To successfully empower women, both gender and empowerment concerns should be integrated into every service provider area. Moreover, they should be incorporated in the economic, political and social spheres as well as at the individual, household and community levels in order to overcome gender inequality. Jejeebhoy (2000) identifies social institutions as highly influential in shaping a woman s independence. However these institutions should provide comprehensive, direct and contextspecific strategies to empower women. These strategies include creating gender consciousness, enabling women to mobilize community resources and public services, providing support to the challenges of traditional norms and providing access to vocational and life skills to increase a women s access to and control over economic resources. > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 6

4 Figure Conceptual Framework for Empowerment and Development Literature Review Empowerment in General Different frameworks by various authors suggest that women s empowerment needs to occur along the following magnitude: economic, socio-cultural, family/interpersonal, legal, political, and psychological. In reality women are not helpless in the face of existing challenges around the world when they are decision-makers for themselves, their families, villages, businesses, and governments. In societies where this is not the case, people articulate of the need for women s empowerment. With recognition of this problem there appears to be well-intentioned people who want to give power to women. The barriers preventing women s empowerment extend beyond individuals. There are institutional and systemic reasons why women in some societies cannot play a positive role or part freely. To break down these barriers, individuals have to work together to reform the laws, social norms, or whichever institutions are inhibiting women s productivity. Societies must also acknowledge the potential for growth and success that can be achieved when women are included. Thus economic, social, cultural and political status of women in society have been identified as a major determinant of the poverty status of a country. Appreciation of their role and empowering them is critical to poverty alleviation at the household level and overall national development. However women in Africa experience greater challenges in accessing decent jobs than men. Women s share of employment in the formal sector is still lower relative to men and their pay is on average lower than men s pay for the same work. The difference between female and male employment-to-population ratios were 22.7 percentage points in 997 (ILO, 997). Due to that African countries have responded to the global commitments, whereby so far, Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda were among out of African > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 69

5 Member States who already have ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Despite worldwide evidence of the low levels of female involvement in social, educational, economic and political spheres, there is still a tendency to see it as a real problem only in a limited number of countries. However, as noted above, the reality is that no country in the world, no matter how advanced, has managed to achieve true gender equality. On the other hand since empowerment is a process it also requires a personal initiative. We can trail development of an individual or group as measured by comparable decision making power, opportunity for education and advancement, including equal participation and status in all walks of human venture. In the three East African countries namely Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda women s roles do not differ much thus giving a rise to the need of a comparison among them. Materials and Methods Types of Data The study used secondary data from Integrated Public Use Micro-data Series, (IPUMS) International by employing Tanzania Household Budget Survey 2002/0; Rwanda Household Budget Survey 2002/0 and Uganda Household Budget Survey 2002/0. Both surveys provided a set of representative, population-based estimates of social indicators by 2002/0 with an exception of Uganda s survey which had comprised the agriculture module. Sampling Design and Sampling Unit The ultimate sampling unit for 2002/0 Surveys from Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda is the household/dwelling. However, the questionnaires were administered to one among the household members who was considered to be eligible in providing the required information. Study Population The study population of interest used in these surveys is the normal one used for all household based surveys which are the households. Therefore, the sampling frame of 2002/0 Tanzania Household Budget Survey contains a list of all households that were present in Tanzania mainland when the survey was done. With different population size where the sample size (person records) were,72,7; IPUMS drew a systematic two-third sub-sample to reduce the original dataset from % to 0% in Tanzania. Also the system provides data from the 2002 Uganda Population and Housing Census (with agricultural module). A 0% systematic sample of questionnaire records (households and institutions) was taken with sample size (person records) of 2,497,449. Rwanda census was IIIème Recensement Général de la Population et de l Habitat, 6-0 août A systematic sample of every 0th dwelling with a random start was drawn from the Minnesota Population Center with sample size (person records) of 4,92. Sampling Procedure The sampling procedure which was used to select the households was a stratified multi-stage cluster sampling with probability proportional to size. Stratification was done according to districts and rural-urban location and then two stages were employed for selecting units which were enumeration areas in the first stage and households in the second stage. Enumeration areas were selected with probability proportional to size while households were selected systematically within each selected enumeration area. For the details of the data collection procedures visit htpp:// Definitions of In this study the variables to be used are listed and defined in the Table 2 below. The choice and categorization of these variables were based on past studies by other scholars such as (Sen and Grown, 97); (Johan, 99) and (Kumar, 99). The variables were found to be significant in explaining empowerment and development of the women. > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 70

6 Table 2 Used in the Study for Comparisons Indicators for Empowerment Education: Level of literacy age + : ability to read and write. 2 Educational attainment: women aged + who completed different levels of education (primary, secondary and university/college completed). Health: Number of children : number of own children in household 4 Age : women above age Living conditions: Urban : women who live in urban or rural areas 6 Water supply: having access to piped water 7 Electricity: women with household having electricity connections Toilet: household with improved sanitation (flush toilets or other type of toilet) 9 Number of rooms: counting numbers of rooms in the household 0 Employment status: women who are employed/unemployed with salary Empowerment Perception of Development Education: the country with higher rate of women who are educated then are more empowered 2 Health : satisfaction with well being of women, having a small number of children in a family Living condition: satisfaction with living conditions. Data Analysis Data analysis has been done using SPSS whereby descriptive and cross tabulation techniques were used to analyze data from IPUMS. Results and Discussion Profile of Respondents The target population was Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda. A total of 07 Tanzanian, 62 Ugandan and Rwandan women were interviewed. Literacy Results show that in 2002 level of illiteracy was 47.9 percent for Rwanda, 42. percent in Uganda and 6 percent for Tanzania. Literate rate level was led by Tanzania with 64 percent, 7.7 percent in Uganda and the last one Rwanda with 2. percent as shown in Table The results show Rwanda had higher percentages of illiterate women than the rest of the other countries. The higher rate of illiteracy among the Rwandese was perhaps a manifestation of the 994 civil war upon which the country was recovering from the 994 genocide while a higher literacy rate for Tanzania was perhaps due to the government s policy of education to all and the peaceful environment of governance However, the same remark might be observed in Uganda as the consequences of the Lord Resistance Army (LRA) which is a militant group operating in Northern Uganda. The LRA has been accused of widespread human rights violations including forcing children to participate in hostilities. The outcome of the war affected the education system for these two countries thus leaving Tanzania leading in women who are literate with higher percentages. Table Literacy Levels Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Literacy No, illiterate Yes, literate > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 7

7 Educational Attainment As for the higher education attainment, Table 4 shows that 0.4 percent of women had a university education level for Tanzania and Uganda, while in Rwanda it was 0. percent. For secondary education level, Tanzania lead by 4. percent, Uganda with.7 percent and Rwanda was.7 percent. Further, primary completion had Tanzania lead with 49. percent followed by Uganda with.6 percent and Rwanda 2. percent. Women who had less than primary completion were highest in Rwanda with 77. percent followed by Uganda with 62. percent and Tanzania with 4. percent. The aftermath of Rwanda genocide can be seen in education attainment levels whereby it had higher population of those who had less than primary completion. Most women were left as widows and had to support the family in all aspects of life including education. Table 2 Educational Attainment Frequen cy Perce nt Frequen cy Perce nt Frequen cy Perce nt Educationattain Less than primary ment completed Primary completed Secondary completed University completed Age The distribution of women in the age swap to 20 years shows that Rwanda had the highest number with 27.6 percent, followed by Uganda with 26. percent and then Tanzania with 22.9 percent. The distribution for non reproductive age that is above 0 years show that Tanzania had 6.0 percent followed by Rwanda 4. percent and Uganda 4.0 percent as shown in Table. Figure 2a shows the age distribution of women in Tanzania which clearly exhibits right skewness the lower end is dominated by women with young age and the upper end women with big age. The average age was found to be 4 years and the median age being years. The positive skewness indicates that a large number of women had ages towards the lower end of the scale. Figure b illustrates a similar distribution for Uganda. The average woman age in Uganda is years and the median is 2 years. The lower end of the scale represented women with lower age and the upper end women with higher age. The positive skewness indicates that a large number of women have ages towards the lower end of the scale. Figure c shows the age distribution for Rwanda. Here the average age is years and the median age is years. The lower end of the scale represented women with lower age and the upper end women with higher age. There was positive skew with large number of women having ages towards the lower end of the scale. Demographically, all these figures show that a broad low aged population structure thus giving a broad aged population pyramid typical of developing countries of Africa. Table : Women Age Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Age > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 72

8 Figure 2a Women of Tanzania Age Distribution Figure 2b Women of Uganda Age Distribution Figure 2c Women of Rwanda Age Distribution Urban Rural Status Results about population residence show that most of the women resided in rural areas, with Uganda having 6.0 percent, followed by Rwanda.6 percent and Tanzania had.0 percent rural based women based populations. The Urban population of women in Tanzania was 42.0 percent, 6.4 percent for Rwanda and 4.0 percent for Uganda as shown in Table 6. > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 7

9 Table 6 Urban-rural Status Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Urban-rural status Rural Urban Water Supply Results on women with access to piped water show that Tanzania had 7. percent, Rwanda 24.0 percent and Uganda.2 percent as shown in Table. Apart from Tanzania slightly, most women did not have access to piped water thus a clear gap is seen with regards to piped water. Water is important for development such that easy availability of a source of water will serve as an indicator of the quality time that these women would have to go and do some other activities for their development. Table 7 Water Supply Frequenc y Percen t Frequenc y Percen t Frequenc y Percen t Water Have access to piped suppl y water No piped water Electricity Results about houses where women live and had access to electricity show that Tanzania had.0 percent, Uganda.4 percent and Rwanda had. percent as shown in Table. The leading country with women who had no access to electricity in their houses is Rwanda with 9. percent, Uganda 9.6 percent and Tanzania 9.0 percent. Here the gap is small as women in these countries did not differ significantly from energy acquisition. Electricity as a source of energy is a central to many economic, social and environmental concerns facing the women in these countries. Problems of health and gender inequity among women had been perpetuated due to lack of reliable and affordable source of energy. Electricity is one of the key factors for development yet its availability seemed to be a challenge to all these countries as more than half of their women population had no access to electricity. Table : Electricity Supply Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Electricity Yes No Toilet Facilities The leading country with women living in the houses with no toilet was Uganda with 7. percent, followed by Tanzania. percent and Rwanda 2.4 percent. The houses with flush toilets were 4.0 percent for Tanzania, Uganda 2.2 percent and Rwanda 0.6 percent. However, there are those houses with non-flush latrine where Rwanda had 97.0 percent, Tanzania 7.2 percent and Uganda 0.0 percent as shown in Table 9. Proper toilet facilities are the driver of good health and human development. Women were disproportionately affected by poor toilet facilities, impacting their health, dignity or decency in life and opportunities for education. > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 74

10 Table 9: Toilets Facilities Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Toilet No toilet Flush toilet Non-flush, latrine Employment Status Women who were employed in Rwanda were 7.7 percent, Tanzania 66.9 percent and Uganda 4.7 percent. The women unemployed rate among women in these countries show that Uganda had. percent, Tanzania. percent and Rwanda 2. percent as shown in Table 0. Employment opportunity of women is important as it enhances their ability to take independent decisions and exercise freedom of choice and action. Women in paid and unpaid employments have significance for the development and the production of goods for the family and the population. Table 0: Employment Status Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Employment status Employed Unemployed Cross Tabulations and Chi-squared Test of the The cross tabulation table is the basic technique for examining the relationship between two categorical (nominal or ordinal) variables, possibly controlling for additional layering variables. The chi-square test measures the discrepancy between the observed cell counts and what you would expect if the rows and columns were independent. The test is useful for determining whether there is a relationship between the variables. However, it does not tell the strength of the relationship. Rural Urban Differentiation The cross tabulation for rural urban comparison for Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda show that there was an association between the women who live in rural-urban areas with the following variables water supply, electricity, toilet, number of rooms/bedroom and the employment status. This significance association is justified by the accompanying chi-square, p-values which are all less than 0.0. The results from Table illustrated that Tanzania, Rwanda and Uganda women who had access to piped water are those who reside in urban areas and that the majority who do not have access to piped water were from rural areas. In rural-urban traits it was clear that those women who live in urban areas were more favored compared to rural areas. Table : Cross Tabulation for Rural-urban Traits Tanzania Uganda Rwanda Urban - Rural Status Rural Urban Total Rural Urba Total Rural Urba Total n n Water supply, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) =0.000 Have access to piped water No piped water Pearson Chi-square Electricity, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) = Yes > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 7

11 Tanzania Uganda Rwanda Urban - Rural Status Rural Urban Total Rural Urba Total Rural Urba Total n n No Pearson Chi-square Toilet, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) = No toilet Flush toilet Non-flush, latrine Pearson Chi-square Number of rooms, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) = Pearson Chi-square Employment status, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) =0.000 Employed Unemployed Pearson Chi-square Education Attainment Differentiation The significance value of association tail test for education attainment for women in Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda against the variables literacy, age and employment status are all < 0.0. This shows that there is an association between the educational attained by the women with the variables mentioned as shown in Table 2, and 4. This has to be accepted because the chi square value is less than 0.0 or even 0.0 significant levels. The message from these tables is that most literate women were educated. As for age and education there were no women who completed university between the ages of to 20. Further for employment status the data shows that the majority number of women who were educated were also employed. Table 2: Cross Tabulation for Educational Attainment for Tanzania Tanzania Educational Attainment Less than primary Primary Secondary University Total completed completed completed completed Literacy, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) =0.000 No, illiterate Yes, literate Pearson Chi-square > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 76

12 Tanzania Educational Attainment Less than primary Primary Secondary University Total completed completed completed completed Age, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) = Pearson Chi-square Employment status, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) =0.000 Employed Unemployed Pearson Chi-square Table : Cross Tabulation for Educational Attainment for Uganda Uganda Educational Attainment Less than primary Primary Secondary University Total completed completed completed completed Literacy, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) =0.000 No, illiterate Yes, literate Pearson Chi-square 2660 Age, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) = Pearson Chi-square 7400 Employment status, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) =0.000 Employed Unemployed Pearson Chi-square 60 > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 77

13 Table 4: Cross Tabulation for Educational Attainment for Rwanda Rwanda Educational Attainment Less than primary completed Primary completed Secondary completed University completed Total Literacy, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) =0.000 No, illiterate Yes, literate Pearson Chi-square 000 Age, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) = Pearson Chi-square 220 Employment status, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) =0.000 Employed Unemployed Pearson Chi-square Number of Children in a Family Differentiation The significance value for the test of association between the number of children in a family with age of the woman and rural-urban status are Since the value is less than 0.0 it implies that there is a significance relationship between the variables as shown in Table. The results show that majority of women in these countries had the number of children in their HH to be between 0 and. The effect of urban-rural status show that women in rural areas lead with number of own children in the HH. Table : Cross Tabulation for Number of Children Own in a Family Tanzania Uganda Rwanda Variable Number of own Children in HH Total Total Total Age, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) = > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 7

14 Pearson Chisquare Urban-Rural Status, Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) =0.000 Urban Rural Pearson Chisquare Conclusion and Recommendations The purpose of this study was to compare empowerment and the development gap of women among Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda. Analysis shows that women in Tanzania were better off in most of the development entities such as water supply and energy than the rest. As for empowerment from education perspective, women in Tanzania were found to be better off than their counterparts. This could be a result of good governance in comparison to the other states. However, data used were from 2002 surveys so these findings are relevant for that particular period. The war in Rwanda is now over and things have changed a lot in Uganda. Perhaps there is a need for the re analysis by using the current information if available. References International Labour Organisation 997. Maternity Protection at Work,, Report V(), No. ILC7. Geneva Kabeer, N Reflections on the Measurement of Women s Empowerment In Discussing Women s Empowerment-Theory and Practice, Sida Studies No.. Novum Grafiska AB: Stockholm United Nations Development Program 99. Human Development Report 99 Gender and Human Development, New York: Oxford University Press United Nations Development Programme 200. Human Development Report 200, Millennium Development Goals: A Compact Among Nations to End Human Poverty, New York: Oxford University Press World Bank, 992. World Development Report 992, Oxford University Press, New York, NY > RJSSM: Volume: 02, Number:, March-20 Page 79