In the United States District Court

Transcription

1 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 1 of 57 In the United States District Court for the District of Columbia Washington Alliance of Technology Workers; Bel-Red Rd. #B8 Bellevue, WA v. U.S. Dep t of Homeland Security; Office of General Counsel Washington, DC Plaintiff, Civil Action No. 1:14-cv-529 (ESH) Defendant. Plaintiff s Cross Motion for Summary Judgment or Judgment on the Administrative Record Plaintiff Washington Alliance of Technology Workers ( Washtech ) moves under Fed. R. Civ. P. 56 and Local. R. 7(h) that this court grant summary judgment to Counts IV IX of its First Amended Complaint. Summary Judgment is appropriate because this action is a review of an agency record. Washtech submits the attached memorandum of points and authorities and proposed order in support of this motion.

2 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 2 of 57 Respectfully submitted, Dated: Mar. 6, 2015 John M. Miano D.C. Bar No Attorney of Record (908) miano@colosseumbuilders.com Dale Wilcox IN Bar No (DC Bar pending) Michael Hethmon, D.C. Bar No Immigration Reform Law Institute 25 Massachusetts Ave., N.W. Suite 335 Washington, D.C (202)

3 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 3 of 57 In the United States District Court for the District of Columbia Washington Alliance of Technology Workers; Bel-Red Rd. #B8 Bellevue, WA v. U.S. Dep t of Homeland Security; Office of General Counsel Washington, DC Plaintiff, Civil Action No. 1:14-cv-529 (ESH) Defendant. Memorandum of Points and Authorities in Support of Plaintiff s Cross Motion for Summary Judgment or Judgment on the Administrative Record

4 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 4 of 57 i TABLE OF CONTENTS Questions Presented... iii Table of Authorities...iv Introduction...1 Statutory Framework...1 Historical Background...3 Statement of the Facts...7 Standard of Review...10 Standing...11 Argument...16 I. The 2008 OPT Rule is in excess of DHS authority to admit foreign students (Count IX)...16 A. Aliens working on OPT have student visas but they are not students...17 B. DHS is required to ensure aliens admitted as students leave the country when they are no longer students...19 C. DHS may not use student visa regulations to circumvent statutory restrictions on foreign labor D. DHS has no authority to use student visas to remedy labor shortages II. DHS promulgated the 2008 OPT Rule, 2011 OPT Expansion and 2012 OPT Expansion, without following the procedures required by law A. DHS failed to provide notice and comment for the 2008 OPT Rule without good cause (Count V)...23 B. DHS did not provide notice and comment for the 2011 OPT Expansion and 2012 OPT Expansion (Counts VII & VIII) C. The 2008 OPT Rule does not comply with the procedures required for incorporation-by-reference (Count VI)...29

5 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 5 of 57 ii III. DHS acted arbitrarily and capriciously when it promulgated the 2008 OPT Rule A. The 2008 OPT Rule is highly capricious because DHS s findings rely on misrepresenting the contents of a National Science Foundation study to establish the need for the rule (Count IV)...31 B. DHS acted arbitrarily because it considered no evidence contrary to its desired outcome when it promulgated the 2008 OPT Rule (Count IV) DHS ignored the overwhelming evidence that no STEM worker shortage existed DHS gave no consideration to the effect of adding foreign labor on American workers DHS gave no consideration to education in the 2008 OPT Rule DHS gave no consideration to the appropriate duration of OPT DHS provided no explanation how it determines there is a labor shortage...36 Conclusion... 38

6 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 6 of 57 iii QUESTIONS PRESENTED 1. Is an alien who has graduated, is no longer attending school, and who is working or unemployed and seeking work a student under 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(F)(i)? 2. Is DHS required to ensure aliens admitted on student visas leave the country when they are no longer students? 3. May DHS authorize work on student visas through regulation for the purpose of circumventing statutory limits on foreign labor? 4. May an agency promulgate regulations that rely on incorporation by reference that ignore the incorporation by reference requirements of 1 C.F.R. part 51? 5. May an agency avoid notice and comment under the Administrative Procedure Act by delaying action until a self-imposed deadline and declaring good cause? 6. May an agency avoid publication in the Federal Register by modifying a document incorporated by reference in an earlier regulation? 7. Does an agency act highly capriciously when it uses misrepresentation to establish the need for regulation? 8. Does an agency act arbitrarily and capriciously when it ignores all evidence contrary to its conclusion when promulgating regulations?

7 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 7 of 57 iv Opinions: TABLE OF AUTHORITIES Adarand Constructors v. Pena, 515 U.S. 200 (1995) AFL-CIO v. Brock, 835 F.2d 912 (D.C. Cir. 1987) AFL-CIO v. Chao, 496 F. Supp. 2d 76 (D.D.C. 2007) AFL-CIO v. Dole, 923 F.2d 182 (D.C. Cir. 1991) Am. Fed n of Gov t Employeesv. Block, 655 F.2d 1153 (D.C. Cir. 1981) Appalachian Power Co. v. Train, 566 F.2d 451 (4th Cir. 1977)...29 Ark Initiative v. Tidwell, 749 F.3d 1071 (D.C. Cir. 2014) Autolog v. Reagan, 731 F.2d 25 (D.C. Cir. 1984)...13 Bloch v. Powell, 227 F. Supp. 2d 25 (D.D.C. 2002) Bhd. of Locomotive Eng rs v. United States, 101 F.3d 718 (D.C. Cir. 1996)...13 Bustos v. Mitchell, 481 F.2d 479 (D.C. Cir. 1973) Council of the Southern Mountains v. Donovan, 653 F.2d 573 (D.C. Cir. 1981) Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837 (1984) Christensen v. Harris County, 529 U.S. 576 (2000)...11 Curran v. Laird, 420 F.2d 122 (D.C. Cir. 1969)...13 Daimler Trucks N. Am. LLC v. EPA, 737 F.3d 95 (D.C. Cir. 2013) DeJohn v. Temple Univ., 537 F.3d 301 (3d Cir. 2008)...17 Elkins v. Moreno, 435 U.S. 647 (1978)...3 Fed n for Am. Immigration Reform v. Reno, 93 F.3d 897 (D.C. Cir. 1996)...15 Int l Bhd. of Teamsters v. Pena, 17 F.3d 1478 (D.C. Cir. 1994)...13 Int l Bhd. of Teamsters v. U.S. Dep t of Transp., 724 F.3d 206 (D.C. Cir. 2013)... 12,14 Int l Ladies Garment Workers Union v. Donovan, 722 F.2d 795 (D.C. Cir. 1983) Int l Longshoremen s & Warehousemen s Union v. Meese, 891 F.2d 1374 (9th Cir. 1989)...14,15,20

8 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 8 of 57 v Int l Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen v. Meese, 761 F. 2d 798 (D.C. Cir. 1985)...14,15,20 Int l Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen v. Meese, 616 F. Supp (N.D. Calif. 1985)...21 * Hawaii Helicopter Operators Ass n v. FAA, 51 F.3d 212 (9th Cir. 1995)... 24,26 *Home Box Office v. FCC, 567 F.2d 9 (D.C. Cir. 1977)...31,33 Jifry v. FAA, 370 F.3d 1174 (D.C. Cir. 2004)... 23,25 Kollett v. Harris, 619 F.2d 134 (1st Cir. 1980) Lexmark Int l, Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc., 134 S. Ct (2014)...15 *Mack Trucks, Inc. v. EPA, 682 F.3d 87 (D.C. Cir. 2012) Match-E-Be-Nash-She-Wish Band of Pottawatomi Indians v. Patchak, 132 S. Ct (2012) Mayo Found. for Med. Educ. & Research v. United States, 562 U.S. 44 (2011)...11 Mayo Found. for Med. Educ. & Research v. United States, 503 F. Supp. 2d 1164 (D. Minn. 2007)...17 Mendoza v. Perez, 754 F.3d 1002 (D.C. Cir. 2014) Methodist Hosp. v. Shalala, 38 F.3d 1225 (D.C. Cir. 1994)...24,25 Narenji v. Civiletti, 617 F.2d 745 (D.C. Cir. 1979) Narenji v. Civiletti, 1980 U.S. App. LEXIS (D.C. Cir. Jan. 31, 1980) Nat l Envtl. Dev. Ass ns Clean Air Project v. EPA, 752 F.3d 999 (D.C. Cir. 2014) Nat l Mining Ass n v. McCarthy, 758 F.3d 243 (D.C. Cir. 2014) *Nat l Tank Truck Carriers v. Fed. Highway Admin., 170 F.3d 203 (D.C. Cir. 1999) *New Jersey v. EPA, 626 F.2d 1038 (D.C. Cir. 1980)...24 Permapost Prods. v. McHugh, 2014 U.S. Dist. LEXIS (D.C. Dist. 2014)... 13,15 Reno v. Flores, 507 U.S. 292 (1993)...15 Saxbe v. Bustos, 419 U.S. 65 (1974) *SecurityPoint Holdings, Inc. v. Transp. Sec. Admin., 769 F.3d 1184 (D.C. Cir. 2014) ,38

9 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 9 of 57 vi United States ex rel. Simonian v. Tod, 297 F. 172 (2d Cir. N.Y. 1924)...17 Skidmore v. Swift, 323 U. S. 134 (1944) Sokoli v. AG, 499 Fed. Appx. 214 (3d Cir. 2012) Sorenson Communs. Inc. v. FCC, 755 F.3d 702 (D.C. Cir. 2014) United States v. Meade Corp., 533 U.S. 218 (2001)...11 United States of America v. Billy Joe Reynolds, 710 F.3d 498 (3d Cir. 2013) United Mine Workers of Am. v. Mine Safety & Health Admin., 407 F.3d 1250 (D.C. Cir. 2005) Williams v. Taylor, 529 U.S. 420 (2000)...17 Yadidi v. INS, 1993 U.S. App. LEXIS (9th Cir. Aug. 12, 1993) Statutes and United States Code: Administrative Procedure Act, Pub. L , 60 Stat. 237 (codified at 5 U.S.C. 500 et seq.)... 1 Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, Pub. L , 66 Stat. 163 (codified at 8 U.S.C. ch. 12) Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Pub. L , 79 Stat Immigration Act of 1990, Pub. L , 104 Stat ,22 Homeland Security Act of 2002, Pub. L , 115 Stat Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2005, Pub. L , 118 Stat U.S.C. 552(a) U.S.C U.S.C U.S.C. 706(2)(A)...30,39 5 U.S.C. 706(2)(C)... 16,39 5 U.S.C. 706(2)(D)...22,39 5 U.S.C. 8101(17)... 18

10 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 10 of 57 vii 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15) U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(A)(i)... 1 *8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(F)(i)...passim 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(H)(i)(b)...passim 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(a) U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(L)(i) U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(O) U.S.C U.S.C. 1182(n)...passim 8 U.S.C U.S.C. 1184(a)...1,2,5,7,15,16,19,39 8 U.S.C. 1184(i)(2)... 2,8,21 *8 U.S.C. 1184(g)...passim 8 U.S.C. 1184(h) U.S.C. 1071a-1(c) U.S.C. 1232g(a)(6) U.S.C. 3121(b)(19) U.S.C. 3306(q) U.S.C. 902(g)(2)(C) U.S.C. 902(18) U.S.C. 402(d)(7) U.S.C (46) U.S.C Regulations: 1 C.F.R. part 51 (2007) (2007)... 29, (2007) (2007)... 29,30 8 C.F.R (b) (1948) C.F.R (a)(2) (2014) C.F.R (f)(10) (1981)...4

11 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 11 of 57 viii 8 C.F.R (f)(10) (2007)... 5,8 8 C.F.R (2014)...8, (f)(5)(i) (2014) (f)(10) (2014)...8, (f)(10)(ii) (2014)... 7, (f)(10)(ii)(A) (2014)...1,8, (f)(10)(ii)(A)(3) (2014)...6, (f)(10)(ii)(C)(2) (2014)... 28, (f)(10)(ii)(E) (2014) Federal Register: Part 125 Students, 12 Fed. Reg. 5, (Aug. 7, 1947) (Codified at 8 C.F.R. part 125)...4 Immigration and Nationality Regulations, 17 Fed. Reg. 11,489 (Dec. 19, 1952) (codified at Title 8 C.F.R.)...4 Admission of Nonimmigrant Students for Duration of Status, 43 Fed. Reg. 54,618 (Nov. 22, 1978) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214)...4 Nonimmigrant Classes; Change of Nonimmigrant Classification; Revisions in Regulations Pertaining to Nonimmigrant Students and the Schools Approved for Their Attendance, 48 Fed. Reg. 14,575, (Apr. 5, 1983) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214, 248)... 4 Nonimmigrant Classes; F-1 Academic Students, 52 Fed. Reg. 13,223 (Apr. 22, 1987) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214)...4 Nonimmigrant Classes; Students, F and M Classifications, 56 Fed. Reg. 55,608 (Oct. 29, 1991) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214, 274a)...4 Pre-Completion Interval Training; F-1 Student Work Authorization, 57 Fed. Reg. 31,954 (July 20, 1992) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214, 274a)...4 Extending the Period of Duration of Status for Certain F and J Nonimmigrant Aliens, 64 Fed. Reg. 32,146 (June 15, 1999) (codified at 8 C.F.R )...4 Retention and Reporting of Information for F, J, and M Nonimmigrants; Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS), 67 Fed. Reg. 76,256 (Dec. 11, 2002) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 103, 214, 248, 274a)...4

12 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 12 of 57 ix Extending Period of Optional Practical Training by 17-Months for F-1 nonimmigrant Students with STEM (Science, Technology, Mathematics, and Engineering) Degrees and Expanding Cap-Gap Relief for All F-1 Students with Pending H-1B Petitions, 73 Fed. Reg. 18, (Apr. 8, 2008) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214, 274a) (The 2008 OPT Rule ) (see, A.R. 1 13)...passim 73 Fed. Reg (Apr. 8, 2008) (A.R. 1 13)...passim 73 Fed. Reg. 18,944 (A.R. 1)...25,30 73 Fed. Reg. 18,945 (A.R. 2) Fed. Reg. 18,946 (A.R. 3)... 5,6,7,13,21,35 73 Fed. Reg. 18,947 (A.R. 4)... 5,6,7,9,10,13,21,25,31 33,35,39 73 Fed. Reg. 18,948 (A.R. 5)... 5,6,7,9,10,22,31,35,37,38 73 Fed. Reg. 18,949 (A.R. 6)...9,35 73 Fed. Reg. 18,950 (A.R. 7)... 5,6,7,9,11,24,33,35,38 73 Fed. Reg. 18,951 (A.R. 8)... 7,35 73 Fed. Reg. 18,953 (A.R. 10)...3,6,7,9,13,14,35,36 Administrative Record (Rep. in Joint Appendix): A.R. 1 13, see also, 73 Fed. Reg. 18, A.R (Testimony of Wm. Gates, Mar. 7, 2007)...8,25 A.R (Compete America Letter to Chertoff)... 9,36 A.R (Microsoft Letter to Chertoff)... 9,27,31,36 A.R. 125 (U.S. Chamber of Commerce Letter to Chertoff)... 9,36 A.R (SIFMA Letter to Chertoff)... 27,36 A.R (Letter to Chertoff from Various Companies)... 9,27 A.R (Rising Above the Gathering Storm Cover Page) Books and Reports: Ballentine s Law Dictionary, LexisNexis, William P. Butz, et. al., Will the Scientific and Technology Workforce Meet the Requirements of the Federal Government?, Rand Corporation, MG118, 2004 (Rep. at A-8) ,33,38 *National Science Foundation, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future, 2007 (Rep. at A-1)...10,32 34

13 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 13 of 57 x H.R. Rep. No , 1990 (Rep. at A-38)...16,20 Clair Brown & Craig Linden, Is There a Shortage of Engineering Talent in the U.S.?, Institute for Research on Labor and Employment, U.C. Berkeley, Feb (Rep. at A-22)...34,38 Richard B Freeman, Does Globalization of the Scientific/ Engineering Workforce Threaten U.S. Economic Leadership?, MIT Press, Aug (Rep. at A-20)...34,38 Government Accountability Office, Student and Exchange Visitor Program: DHS Needs to Assess Risks and Strengthen Oversight of Foreign Students with Employment Authorization, GAO , Feb (Rep. at B-163 and A-44) B. Lindsay Lowell & Hal Salzman, Into the Eye of the Storm: Assessing the Evidence on Science and Engineering Education, Quality, and Workforce Demand, Urban Institute, 2007 (Rep. at A-15)...34,38 Michael Teitelbaum, Falling Behind?, Princeton University Press, 2014 (Rep. at A-25)...31,33,38 An Evaluation of the Pilot Program of Off-Campus Work Authorization for Foreign Students, U.S. Dep t of Labor & Immigration and Naturalization Service, Aug. 10, 1994 (Rep. at B-173) Web Sites: Document/2014/stem-list.pdf (last visited Feb. 11, 2015)... 12,37 (last visited Feb. 11, 2015)... 12,37 rule_ pdf (last visited Jan. 7, 2015)... 12,37 (last visited Feb. 11, 2015)... 12,38 (last visited Feb. 11, 2015) Case ID:ICEB Press Releases: Press Release, USCIS Reaches H-1B Cap, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, June 1, 2006 (Rep. at A-27)...26 Press Release, USCIS Reaches FY 2008 H-1B Cap, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Apr. 3, 2007 (Rep. at A-29)...26

14 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 14 of 57 xi Press Release, USCIS Announces Interim Rule on H-1B Visas, Mar. 19, 2008 (Rep. at A-31)...26 Press Release, USCIS Reached FY 2009 H-1B Cap, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Apr. 8, 2008 (Rep. at A-32)...26 Press Release, ICE announces expanded list of science, technology, engineering, and math degree programs, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, May 21, 2011 (the 2011 OPT Expansion ) (Rep. at A-33)...6,10,28,37 Press Release, DHS Announces Expanded List of STEM Degree Programs, U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security, May 11, 2012 (the 2012 OPT Expansion ) (Rep. at A-34)...6,10,29,37 Press Release, Fact Sheet: Immigration Accountability Executive Action, The White House, Nov. 20, 2014 (Rep. at A-35)...6

15 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 15 of 57 1 INTRODUCTION The Washington Alliance of Technology Workers, Local of the Communication Workers of America, the AFL-CIO ( Washtech ) brings this action under the Administrative Procedure Act, Pub. L , 60 Stat. 237 (codified at 5 U.S.C. 500 et seq.) (herinafter, APA ). It addresses regulations promulgated by the United States Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) governing its Post Completion Optional Practical Training program ( OPT ). The OPT program authorizes aliens, admitted on F-1 student visas, to remain in the United States and work or be unemployed after graduation. 8 C.F.R (f )(10)(ii)(A) (2014). The First Amended Complaint alleges that the OPT regulations are in excess of DHS authority to admit foreign students because they violate the provisions of 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(H)(1)(B), 1101(a)(15)(F)(i), 1182(n), 1184(a), 1184(g). In addition, the complaint alleges that DHS has promulgated OPT regulations without following the procedures required by the APA and that those regulations are arbitrary and capricious. One of the fundamental questions is whether graduates working on OPT are, in fact, bona fide students, as required for student visa status. 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(F)(i). If they be not students, DHS regulations must ensure these aliens leave the country. 1184(g). STATUTORY FRAMEWORK Aliens are admitted into the United States as immigrants, non-immigrants or refugees. 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15), Section 1101(a)(15) authorizes DHS to admit non-immigrants for various purposes (e.g., diplomats, crewmen, visitors, journalists). The common name associated with a non-immigrant visa category is derived from its subsection within 1101(a)(15). 8 C.F.R (a)(2). For example, the A-1 visa for diplomats is authorized by 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(A)(i). There are a number of visa categories for admitting non-immigrants to perform labor. For example,

16 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 16 of 57 2 the L-1 visa allows companies to transfer foreign managers to the United States, 1101(a)(15)(L)(i); the O visa is for highly skilled workers of extraordinary ability, 1101(a)(15)(O); and the H-2A visa governs the entry of agriculture workers, 1101(a)(15)(H)(2)(a). Two non-immigrant visas are at issue in this action. The first is the F-1 student visa. 1101(a)(15)(F)(i). This authorizes admission to an alien having a residence in a foreign country which he has no intention of abandoning, who is a bona fide student qualified to pursue a full course of study, and who seeks to enter the United States temporarily and solely for the purpose of pursuing such a course of study at an approved academic institution or place of study that has agreed to report the termination of attendance of each nonimmigrant student. Id. The other is the H-1B guest worker visa. 1101(a)(15)(H)(1)(b). This visa is for aliens in specialty occupations to work temporarily in the United States. A specialty occupation is defined as one that generally requires a college degree. 1184(i)(2). As such, the H-1B visa is the statutory path for admitting the same class of college-educated labor that works on OPT (with OPT limited to graduates of United States schools). Many of the provisions governing non-immigrant visas are codified separately from the visa definitions in Some of these provisions apply to visas in general. One such provision at issue here is 1184(a). That provision allows DHS to set the duration of admission through regulation, but requires DHS regulations to ensure the alien leaves the United States when he no longer maintains the status for which he was admitted. Id. Other provisions in apply only to specific visas. Two such provisions governing H-1B visas are at issue here. First, the H-1B visa requires the alien s employer to file a Labor Condition Application ( LCA ) governing labor protections. 1101(a)(15)(H)(i)(B). The LCA requirements are found at 1182(n). Second, there are annual limits on the number of H-1B visas that serve as the pri-

17 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 17 of 57 3 mary protection for domestic labor. 1184(g). Unlike H-1B, OPT allows this same class of college-educated workers to perform labor in the United States with no protections for domestic labor whatsoever. 8 C.F.R. passim. A connection between F-1 and H-1B visas has developed as the result of the underlying structure of the immigration system. An imagined problem that DHS attempts to solve with the regulations at issue is that the system makes it, difficult for foreign students to stay in the United States permanently. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,953. Congress explicitly created that difficulty. See, Elkins v. Moreno, 435 U.S. 647, 665 (1978). F-1 admission requires, having a residence in a foreign country which [the alien] has no intention of abandoning. Id. If an alien on a student visa applies for an immigrant visa, that demonstrates intent to abandon his foreign residence, making him outside of F-1 status and requiring his deportation. See, Elkins, 435 U.S. at 666. As such, the straightforward path for an alien on a student visa to immigrate is to return home and then apply for an immigrant visa. However, there is an indirect path from a student visa to an immigrant visa: H-1B. H-1B visas are one of the few non-immigrant visas that permit dual intent. 1184(h). An alien on a non-immigrant H-1B visa is explicitly permitted to adjust status to an immigrant visa. Id. Aliens on student visas can apply for a non-immigrant H-1B visa under the fiction that, at the time of application, they are doing so without immigrant intent. Once they have changed to H-1B visa status, the aliens can change their mind and apply for immigrant visas. Id. Therefore, H-1B visas can provide a stepping-stone between a non-immigrant student visa and immigration. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Work on student visas provides a classic example of unchecked regulatory incrementalism. There is no statutory authorization for aliens to work on student visas. See, 8 U.S.C. passim. All work authorizations for aliens on student visas are entirely the creation of regulation. Id. When the current student visa was created in 1952,

18 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 18 of 57 4 regulations permitted foreign students to work under these terms: In cases where employment for practical training is required or recommended by the school, the district director may permit the student to engage in such employment for a six-month period subject to extension for not over two additional six-month periods, but any such extensions shall be granted only upon certification by the school and the training agency that the practical training cannot be accomplished in a shorter period of time. Part 125 Students, 17 Fed. Reg. 5, (Aug. 7, 1947) (Codified at 8 C.F.R. part 125). Under the 1947 regulation, work (called practical training ) took place while the alien was attending school; the work was part of a curriculum; it was conducted by a training agency; and the duration was determined by the training requirements. Id. From there, work on student visas expanded incrementally, with continuous changes taking place between 1952 and 2008, 1 to the point where it clearly did not conform to the statutory authorization to admit students. By 1981 regulations allowed aliens to work after graduation if the school certified that such work was not available in the alien s home country. 8 C.F.R (f )(10) (1981). That restriction was removed in 1991 when all graduates were authorized to work. Nonimmigrant Classes; Students, F and M Classifications, 56 Fed. Reg. 55,608 (Oct. 29, 1991) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214, 274a). The term Optional Practical Training first appears in a 1992 Immigration and Naturalization Service ( INS ) interim rule. Pre-Completion Interval Training; F-1 Student Work Authorization, 57 Fed. Reg. 31,954 ( July 20, 1992) 1 E.g., Immigration and Nationality Regulations, 17 Fed. Reg. 11,489 (Dec. 19, 1952) (codified at Title 8 C.F.R.); Nonimmigrant Classes; Change of Nonimmigrant Classification; Revisions in Regulations Pertaining to Nonimmigrant Students and the Schools Approved for Their Attendance, 48 Fed. Reg. 14,575 (Apr. 5, 1983) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214, 248); Admission of Nonimmigrant Students for Duration of Status, 43 Fed. Reg. 54,618 (Nov. 22, 1978) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214); Nonimmigrant Classes; F-1 Academic Students, 52 Fed. Reg. 13,223 (Apr. 22, 1987) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214); Pre- Completion Interval Training; F-1 Student Work Authorization, 57 Fed. Reg. 31,954 ( July 20, 1992) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214, 274a); Nonimmigrant Classes; Students, F and M Classifications, 56 Fed. Reg. 55,608 (Oct. 29, 1991) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214, 274a); Pre-Completion Interval Training; F-1 Student Work Authorization, 57 Fed. Reg. 31,954 ( July 20, 1992) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214, 274a); Extending the Period of Duration of Status for Certain F and J Nonimmigrant Aliens, 64 Fed. Reg. 32,146 ( June 15, 1999) (codified at 8 C.F.R ); Retention and Reporting of Information for F, J, and M Nonimmigrants; Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS), 67 Fed. Reg. 76,256 (Dec. 11, 2002) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 103, 214, 248, 274a)

19 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 19 of 57 5 (codified at 8 C.F.R ). In 2002, DHS removed the requirement that aliens on OPT be enrolled at a school. Retention and Reporting of Information for F, J, and M Nonimmigrants; Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS), 67 Fed. Reg. 76,256 (Dec. 11, 2002) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 103, 214, 248, 274a). It is not clear at what specific point in this evolution that the regulations authorizing work on student visas first exceeded DHS statutory authority. Clearly that had occurred some time before By that year, DHS was simply ignoring its statutory obligation to ensure that aliens admitted on student visas leave the country when they cease to be students, 8 U.S.C. 1184(a), by allowing all graduates to remain in the country to work for up to a year under OPT, 8 C.F.R (f )(10) (2007). But DHS did not stop there. In 2008, DHS transformed OPT into a full-fledged guest worker program designed to supply labor to American industry. Extending Period of Optional Practical Training by 17-Months for F-1 nonimmigrant Students with STEM (Science, Technology, Mathematics, and Engineering) Degrees and Expanding Cap-Gap Relief for All F-1 Students with Pending H-1B Petitions, 73 Fed. Reg. 18, (Apr. 8, 2008) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214, 274a) (The 2008 OPT Rule ). The 2008 OPT Rule was designed specifically to circumvent the statutory limits on H-1B guest workers by allowing aliens, who could not obtain an H-1B visa, to work on a student visa instead. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,946. It does so by authorizing two distinct increases to the previous 12-month duration of OPT. 73 Fed. Reg. 18, Combined, these increases allow graduates to work in the United States on student visas for up to 35 months. 73 Fed. Reg. 18, The 2008 OPT Rule also allows aliens to be unemployed and looking for work while on OPT. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,950. One of the two duration increases in the 2008 OPT Rule is a 17-month extension to the basic 12-month OPT term. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,948. This extension is available only to aliens with degrees in fields DHS designates as STEM (Science/

20 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 20 of 57 6 Technology/Engineering/Mathematics). Id. Under the 2008 OPT Rule, a field is STEM if it is on a list DHS maintains on its web site. Id. In 2011 DHS expanded the number of fields it classifies as STEM by amending the list on its web site. Press Release, ICE announces expanded list of science, technology, engineering, and math degree programs, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, May 21, 2011 (the 2011 OPT Expansion ). DHS did the same in Press Release, DHS Announces Expanded List of STEM Degree Programs, U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security, May 11, 2012 (the 2012 OPT Expansion ). There was no publication in the Federal Register for either of these expansions of the OPT program. The intended effect of the 2008 OPT Rule s changes was to create a significant expansion in the amount of foreign labor available to employers. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,953. DHS justified the foreign labor increase by (1) falsely claiming a National Science Foundation study established critical shortages of science, math, and engineering talent in the United States, 73 Fed. Reg. 18,947, and (2) asserting the imagined labor shortage created a need to supply foreign labor to industry, 73 Fed. Reg. 18,946 48, 18,950, 18,953. On Nov. 20, 2014, the White House announced, DHS will propose changes to expand and extend the use of the existing Optional Practical Training (OPT) program. Press Release, Fact Sheet: Immigration Accountability Executive Action, The White House, Nov. 20, By comparing where student visa work regulations started in 1947 to where they are now, one can see how far the OPT program has gone off the rails. At the time the current student visa was created in 1952, work on a student visa was performed while the alien was enrolled at the school but in 2015, enrollment at a school is not required. Compare 8 C.F.R (b) (1948) with 8 C.F.R (f )(10)(ii)(A)(3) (2014). In 1952, the duration of work was determined by the time needed to complete the training but in 2015, the duration of work is set by whether DHS determines

21 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 21 of 57 7 there is a labor shortage in the alien s field and the status of an H-1B visa application. Compare 8 C.F.R (b) (1948) with 73 Fed. Reg. 18,948. In 1952, work was permitted only when required or recommended by the school but in 2015, anyone can work after graduation on a student visa. Compare 8 C.F.R (b) (1948) with 8 C.F.R (f )(10)(ii) (2014). In 1952, the work was supervised by a training agency but in 2015, aliens can work anywhere in an occupation directly related to their field of study. Compare 8 C.F.R (b) (1948) with 8 C.F.R (f )(10)(ii) (2014). In 1952, the purpose of work on student visas was for education but in 2015, the purpose of work on student visas is to supply labor to industry. Compare 8 C.F.R (b) (1948) with 73 Fed. Reg. 18,946 47, 18,950 51, 18,953. Aliens working on OPT in 2015 are not students by any accepted definition of the term, even though they are in the United States on student visas. By implementing OPT through regulation, DHS has ignored the statutory limits on its authority to admit bona fide students on F-1 visas. 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(f )(i); bypassed the requirements of the appropriate statutory guest worker program, 1101(a)(15)(H)(i)(b), 1182(n), 1184(g); and ignored the requirement that DHS regulations ensure aliens leave the country when they no longer have the status for which they were admitted, 1184(a). Therefore, OPT is in excess of DHS authority to admit bona fide students. By expanding an unlawful program, the 2008 OPT Rule, 2011 OPT Expansion, and 2012 OPT Expansion are in excess of DHS authority as well. Furthermore, these regulations were promulgated without following the procedures required by law and are arbitrary and capricious. STATEMENT OF THE FACTS The admission of foreign students is authorized by 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(f )(i). DHS regulations are required to ensure that aliens leave the country when they no longer maintain the status for which they were admitted (unless they have obtained a new visa). 8 U.S.C. 1184(a).

22 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 22 of 57 8 There is no statutory authorization for aliens to work in the United States on student visas. 8 U.S.C. passim. However, DHS and its predecessors have authorized aliens to work on student visas through regulation. 8 C.F.R (f )(10) (2014). One of those programs is OPT. 8 C.F.R (f )(10)(ii) (2014). OPT authorizes aliens on student visas to remain in the United States and work after graduation. 8 C.F.R (f )(10)(ii) (2014). Aliens do not have to be enrolled at a school to work under OPT. 8 C.F.R (f )(10)(ii)(A) (2014). The H-1B visa program is the statutory mechanism for admitting college-educated labor into the United States. 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(H)(1)(b). The H-1B program grants aliens, with a college degree or equivalent, admission and authorization to work. 8 U.S.C. 1184(i)(2). The H-1B program incorporates protections for labor through the Labor Condition Application process, 1182(n), and limits on the number of visas, 1184(g). In some fiscal years the number of petitions for H-1B visas has exceeded the statutory limits on the number of available visas. Ans. 29. In 2004 Congress created a pool of 20,000 H-1B visas dedicated to graduates of U.S. universities. Consolidated Appropriations Act of Pub. L , 118 Stat. 2809, 425 (codified at 8 U.S.C. 1184(g)(5)(c)). Unlike H-1B, the OPT program contains no protections for domestic labor. 8 C.F.R passim. Workers on OPT do not have to be paid the prevailing wage. Id. There is no limit on the number of graduates allowed to work under OPT. Id. Prior to 2008, regulations authorized graduates to work for up to one year on a student visa under OPT. 8 C.F.R (f )(10) (2007). On Mar. 7, 2007, William H. Gates (then chairman of Microsoft) warned that the number of H-1B visas for F.Y would be exhausted within a month (i.e., before May 1, 2007). Administrative Record ( A.R. ) 106. During 2008, various industry groups called on DHS to respond to the exhaustion of annual H-1B visa quotas by

23 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 23 of 57 9 extending OPT to 29-months. E.g., A.R , , 125. In March 2008, various employers called on DHS to announce an expansion of OPT to 29-months by that Spring. A.R On April 8, 2008, DHS promulgated one of the regulations at issue: Extending Period of Optional Practical Training by 17-Months for F-1 nonimmigrant Students with STEM (Science, Technology, Mathematics, and Engineering) Degrees and Expanding Cap-Gap Relief for All F-1 Students with Pending H-1B Petitions, 73 Fed. Reg. 18, (Apr. 8, 2008) (codified at 8 C.F.R. 214, 274a) (The 2008 OPT Rule ). This rule was promulgated without notice and comment. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,950. The 2008 OPT Rule made several changes to OPT, three of which are most significant in this case. 73 Fed. Reg. 18, First, the 2008 OPT Rule authorizes aliens on OPT to be unemployed to look for work. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,950. Second, for aliens who have filed an H-1B visa petition, it extends the 12-month work period until a final decision is made on that petition. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,947, 18,949. Third, for aliens with majors in degree fields that DHS classifies as STEM, the 2008 OPT Rule authorized an additional 17-month period of work in the United States. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,948. Depending upon when the alien graduates and the alien s degree field, these extensions combine so that the maximum OPT period can range from 12 to 35 months under the 2008 OPT Rule. 2 DHS determined that these changes to OPT would create a significant expansion of the pool of skilled workers available to employers. 73 Fed. Reg. 18, Examples: (1) An English major graduates in May, 2014, receiving 12 months of OPT. The employer applies for an H-1B visa on the alien s behalf in April 2015 and the alien receives the H-1B petition OPT extension. Finally, the alien receives an H-1B visa effective at the start of the fiscal year (Oct. 2015). The alien had a total of 16 months working on OPT. (2) A physics major graduates in Nov. 2014, receiving 12 months of OPT. The alien applies for the STEM OPT extension, giving 29 months of OPT (to April 2017). In April 2017, the employer applies for an H-1B visa and the alien receives the H-1B petition OPT extension. Finally, the alien receives an H-1B visa effective at the start of the fiscal year (Oct. 2017). The alien had a total of 35 months working on OPT.

24 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 24 of DHS also determined that the 17-month OPT expansion must be limited to major areas of study within technology fields where there is a shortage of qualified, highly skilled, U.S. workers. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,948. DHS does this by defining STEM using a list of degree fields maintained on its web site. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,948. DHS cited a National Science Foundation study to establish the shortage of workers the 2008 OPT Rule addresses. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,947 ( The National Science Foundation, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future (2007), pp (describing the critical shortages of science, math, and engineering talent in the United States) ). In 2011 DHS announced in a press release that it had expanded the number of fields eligible for the longer OPT term by amending the STEM field list on its web site. Press Release, ICE announces expanded list of science, technology, engineering, and math degree programs, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, May 21, 2011 (the 2011 OPT Expansion ). DHS did the same in Press Release, DHS Announces Expanded List of STEM Degree Programs, U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security, May 11, 2012 (the 2012 OPT Expansion ). STANDARD OF REVIEW The courts of this circuit have repeatedly held that summary judgment is an appropriate procedure when a court reviews an agency s administrative record. E.g., Bloch v. Powell, 227 F. Supp. 2d 25, (D.D.C. 2002); AFL-CIO v. Chao, 496 F. Supp. 2d 76, (D.D.C. 2007). Under the APA, it is the role of the agency to resolve factual issues to arrive at a decision that is supported by the administrative record, whereas the function of the district court is to determine whether or not, as a matter of law, the evidence in the administrative record permitted the agency to make the decision it did. Chao, 496 F. Supp. 2d at (citing cases). Skidmore v. Swift & Co. provides the standard of review for the actions at issue. 323 U.S. 134, 140 (1944). Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.,

25 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 25 of normally provides the appropriate standard of review for an agency action. 467 U.S. 837, (1984). However, in rulemaking or adjudication, deference under Chevron is limited to []where an agency rule sets forth important individual rights and duties, where the agency focuses fully and directly upon the issue, where the agency uses full notice-and-comment procedures to promulgate a rule, [and] where the resulting rule falls within the statutory grant of authority. Mayo Found. for Med. Educ. & Research v. United States, 562 U.S. 44, 58 (2011) (emphasis added). DHS forfeited deference under Chevron because it failed to provide notice and comment for any of the actions at issue. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,950. When an agency action is not entitled to Chevron deference, the Supreme Court applies the standard under Skidmore. United States v. Meade Corp., 533 U.S. 218 (2001); Christensen v. Harris County, 529 U.S. 576 (2000). The standard of review under Skidmore is: The weight of such a judgment in a particular case will depend upon the thoroughness evident in its consideration, the validity of its reasoning, its consistency with earlier and later pronouncements, and all those factors which give it power to persuade, if lacking power to control. 323 U.S. at 140. STANDING On November 21, 2014 the court held that Washtech s complaint established a legal basis for standing (except for counts I III). The filed affidavits and Appendix B contains the evidence supporting the factual allegations for standing in the complaint and a table mapping the allegations to evidence. The legal basis for and against standing has been argued ad nauseum in previous briefing. Washtech briefly summarizes its past arguments. A party invoking a court s jurisdiction has the burden of demonstrating that it satisfies the irreducible constitutional minimum of standing: (1) an injury in fact that is concrete and particularized as well as actual or imminent; (2) a causal connection between the injury

26 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 26 of and the challenged conduct; and (3) a likelihood, as opposed to mere speculation, that the injury will be redressed by a favorable decision. Ark Initiative v. Tidwell, 749 F.3d 1071, 1075 (D.C. Cir. 2014). Washtech s members suffer at least three injuries in fact caused by DHS OPT Regulations. First, they deprive Washtech and its members of statutory protections from foreign labor (i.e., 8 U.S.C. 1182(n), 1184(g)). Second, they increase the number of economic competitors. Third, they expose Washtech members to unfair competition by allowing aliens to work under rules in which they are inherently less expensive to employ. An association has standing to bring suit on behalf of its members if at least one member would have standing to sue in its own right, the interests the association seeks to protect are germane to its purpose, and neither the claim asserted nor the relief requested requires that an individual member of the association participate in the law suit. Nat l Envtl. Dev. Ass ns Clean Air Project v. EPA, 752 F.3d 999, 1005 (D.C. Cir. 2014). Washtech identifies three members who would have standing to bring this suit on their own. The Affidavit of Rennie Sawade establishes that he is a computer programmer. Sawade Aff. 6. The Affidavit of Douglas Blatt establishes he, too, is a computer programmer. Blatt Aff. 7. The Affidavit of Ceasar Smith establishes he is a computer systems and networking administrator. Smith Aff. 5. Both of these fields appear on all of DHS s STEM field lists. 3 Protecting the economic security and working conditions of its members is one of Washtech s purposes as a labor union. Schendel Aff. at 3; Int l Bhd. of Teamsters v. U.S. Dep t of Transp., 724 F.3d gov/doclib/sevis/pdf/stem-list.pdf; pdf; and (all last visited Feb. 11, 2015). As described, p. 36, infra, there is no STEM field list at the location specified by regulation. There is no way for an outsider to determine which of these lists on its website DHS considers being the official current version.

27 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 27 of , 212 (D.C. Cir. 2013) (Unions exist to protect the economic interests of their members). Relief under the APA does not require an individual member to participate in the suit. 5 U.S.C Therefore, Washtech can represent the interests of its members in this suit. In regard to the first injury, Even where the prospect of job loss is uncertain, [the D.C. Circuit has] repeatedly held that the loss of labor-protective arrangements may by itself afford a basis for standing. Bhd. of Locomotive Eng rs v. United States, 101 F.3d 718, 724 (D.C. Cir. 1996). The OPT program creates a foreign labor pool consisting of workers that should have been required to obtain an H-1B visa. DHS OPT regulations at issue are specifically designed to deprive American workers of their statutory protections limiting the admission of foreign labor under 8 U.S.C. 1184(g). 73 Fed. Reg. 18,946 47, 18,953; see, p. 20, infra. In promulgating the 2008 OPT Rule, DHS stated its concern that employers could not get all the H-1B workers they wanted, 73 Fed. Reg. 18,946, and that DHS would remedy this concern by using F-1 student visas instead, 73 Fed. Reg. 18,947. At the same time, by admitting foreign labor under the OPT program, rather than the statutory H-1B program, DHS circumvents the labor protections of 1182(n) that rightly should be applied to such labor. This injures Washtech by depriving its members of these statutory protections as well. In regard to the second injury, this court recently observed that the D.C. Circuit has long recognized and recently reaffirmed the doctrine of competitor standing, whereby a party suffers a cognizable injury under Article III when an agency lifts regulatory restrictions on their competitors or otherwise allows increased competition against them. Permapost Prods. v. McHugh, 2014 U.S. Dist. LEXIS (D.C. Dist. 2014) (citing cases). American workers routinely have had standing to challenge regulations that increase the number of their competitors. 4 Under the 4 E.g., Curran v. Laird, 420 F.2d 122, (D.C. Cir. 1969); Autolog v. Reagan, 731 F.2d 25, 31 (D.C. Cir. 1984); Int l Bhd. of Teamsters v. Pena, 17 F.3d 1478, 1483 (D.C. Cir. 1994); Int l Ladies Garment

28 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 28 of rules at issue, DHS allows employers to hire foreign workers in the specific fields in which Mr. Sawade, Mr. Blatt, and Mr. Smith work under OPT. See, p. 12, supra. The regulations are designed to create a significant expansion of workers in these specific fields, eliminating any possibility that their injury is speculative. 73 Fed. Reg. 18,953. Furthermore, employers, such as IBM, place recruitment advertisements that make OPT status a job requirement, thereby disqualifying Washtech members from consideration. Appendix B-72 B-77. In regard to the third injury, the inability to compete on equal footing is an injury in fact. Adarand Constructors v. Pena, 515 U.S. 200, 211 (1995); see also, Int l Ladies Garment Workers Union, 722 F.2d at By allowing foreign labor unlawful entry into the United States labor market under student visas, OPT puts Washtech members at a competitive disadvantage because of taxation rules. Employers do not have to pay Medicare and Social Security taxes for aliens on student visas. 26 U.S.C. 3121(b)(19). However, employers do have to pay those taxes when they employ Washtech members, 26 U.S.C. 3121(b), which makes workers under the OPT program 15.3% cheaper to employ than Washtech members. See, App. B-166 B-167. This disparity creates the injury in fact of unfair competition. See, Int l Ladies Garment Workers Union, 722 F.2d at DHS raises the zone of interest test in its answer. Because the parties have extensively briefed this issue as well, Washtech only summarizes. The zone of interests test requires that the plaintiff be arguably within the zone of interests to be protected or regulated by the statute that he says was violated. Match-E-Be-Nash-She- Wish Band of Pottawatomi Indians v. Patchak, 132 S. Ct. 2199, 2210 (2012); Mendoza v. Workers Union v. Donovan, 722 F.2d 795, (D.C. Cir. 1983); Int l Union of Bricklayers v. Meese, 761 F. 2d 798, (D.C. Cir. 1985); Int l Longshoremen s & Warehousemen s Union v. Meese, 891 F.2d 1374, 1379 (9th Cir. 1989); Int l Bhd. of Teamsters v. U.S. Dep t of Transp., 724 F.3d 206, 212 (D.C. Cir. 2013); Mendoza v. Perez, 754 F.3d 1002, 1018 (D.C. Cir. 2014); C.f., Bustos v. Mitchell, 481 F.2d 479, 486 (D.C. Cir. 1973) (standing not an issue); AFL-CIO v. Brock, 835 F.2d 912 (D.C. Cir. 1987) (standing not an issue); AFL-CIO v. Dole, 923 F.2d 182 (D.C. Cir. 1991) (standing not an issue); Saxbe v. Bustos, 419 U.S. 65 (1974) (standing not an issue).

29 Case 1:14-cv ESH Document 25 Filed 03/06/15 Page 29 of Perez, 754 F.3d 1002, (D.C. Cir. 2014). In the context of the APA, the zone of interests test is not especially demanding. Lexmark Int l, Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc., 134 S. Ct. 1377, 1389 (2014). The benefit of any doubt goes to the plaintiff when applying the zone of interest Test. Patchak, 132 S. Ct. at The interests Washtech seeks to protect are the working conditions and job opportunities for its members. Compl. passim. This court recently observed that the zone of interest analysis may consider the overall purpose of the underlying act. Permapost Prods. at n.6 (citing Mendoza and Lexmark, 134 S. Ct. at 1389). Washtech identifies five specific provisions violated by DHS OPT regulations: 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(F)(i), 1101(a)(15)(H)(i)(b), 1182(n), 1184(a), and 1184(g). These provisions are all part of the Immigration and Nationality Act ( INA ), as amended. Pub. L , 66 Stat The Supreme Court has repeatedly held that, [a] primary purpose in restricting immigration is to preserve jobs for American workers. E.g., Reno v. Flores, 507 U.S. 292, 334 (1993) (citation omitted). Following that maxim, courts have held that American workers fall within the zone of interest to be protected by the INA provisions governing the entry of nonimmigrant alien workers. E.g., Int l Union of Bricklayers, 761 F.2d at (holding that several unions comprised of American workers had prudential standing to challenge Immigration and INS practices that allowed foreign workers to come to the U.S. and perform work that U.S. workers could perform); Int l Longshoremen, 891 F.2d at 1379 (holding that the union and its members were, within the zone of interests protected by the INA because a primary purpose of the immigration laws, with their quotas and certification procedures, is to protect American laborers ). In contrast to this court s interpretation of the zone of interest Test in Permapost Prods., a tiny minority of courts have required a provision-by-provision analysis for the zone of interest Test. E.g., Fed n for Am. Immigration Reform v. Reno, 93 F.3d