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1 THESES SIS/LIBRARY TELEPHONE: R.G. MENZIES LIBRARY BUILDING NO:2 FACSIMILE: THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY library.theses@anu.edu.au CANBERRA ACT 0200 AUSTRALIA USE OF THESES This copy is supplied for purposes of private study and research only. Passages from the thesis may not be copied or closely paraphrased without the written consent of the author.

2 ARMENIAN MIGRATION, SETTLEMENT AND ADJUSTMENT IN AUSTRALIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE ARMENIANS IN SYDNEY by James Ray Kirkland A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Research School of Social Sciences of the Australian National University March 1980

3 ii This thesis is the original work of the author whilst a Research Scholar in the Department of Demography of the Research School of Social Sciences at the Australian National University from May 1976 to March 1980.

4 iii Dedicated to my wife KATIE and my son HAMISH

5 iv ABSTRACT Immigration to Australia has been very substantial since World War II. Some of the more recent arrivals have come from the Middle East. The Armenians are one such group, nine-tenths of whom have settled in Australia since This thesis has been a study of this Armenian migration and settlement in Australia with particular reference to their residential, occupational, social and psychological adjustment since arrival. Because the Armenians are a rare population on which very little information - including any official statistics - was available, it was necessary to undertake a social survey for the collection of data. The Sydney Armenians, the largest population group in Australia, was selected for this Survey to make it as representative as possible of the overall Australian Armenian population. Data collection was conducted in two stages - a postal questionnaire "census" of all known Sydney Armenian households and a follow-up fieldwork period of six months during which intensive interviews were conducted. In all, a study population of 890 respondents was obtained, of whom 97 were interviewed. The Armenian population of Sydney at the time of the Survey was estimated at no more than 7,000 individuals, while a generous estimate of the Australian Armenian population would have been no more than 10,000. Although quite diverse and having originated in 43 different countries at arrival in Australia they were for the most part urban dwellers of skilled and white-collar occupations and with a fair amount of formal schooling (considering their countries of origin). Moreover, most had acquired some facility with the English language before arrival. These characteristics, combined with the fact that most of the Armenian migration was of the nature of family reunion or chain movement, have resulted in a very rapid adjustment to life in Australia. Becoming satisfactorily adjusted in the various spheres of life, however, does not mean these first generation immigrants

6 v have tended to assimilate into Australian society. In fact, just the opposite appears to have occurred. Rapid and successful adjustment, characterized by the reestablishment to the greatest extent possible of their overseas existence, has tended to serve as a barrier to assimilation by not requiring them to change to become more like Australians. It is unlikely therefore that the Sydney Armenians, as a group, will undergo substantial assimilation until the second or subsequent generations.

7 vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish first to express my gratitude to my supervisors Dr. Charles A. Price and Professor W.D. Borrie for their help and guidance during the research and preparation of this thesis. I am also very grateful to Dr. Lincoln Day of the Demography Department, the Australian National University, for reading a number of my chapters and making many helpful suggestions. Special thanks also go to Pat Mooney for turning my "ugly. duckling" of a first draft into a "swan" - a monumental feat. Thanks also go to Barbara Addison for helping with the first draft. I also owe thanks to Dr. Anny Stuer who kindly helped proofread my drafts and to my two office-mates Mr. J. Richard and Mr. G.L. Dasvarma who managed to endure my presence through many trials and tr~bulations. would also like to thartk Mrs. Daphne Boucher for typing the final draft. I was unending. I owe my greatest debt to my wife Katie whose help and support Lastly, I want to express my gratitude to those Armenians in Sydney who gave of their time and made this study possible.

8 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE AUTHORSHIP STATEMENT DEDICATION ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES, MAPS AND DIAGRAMS i ii iii iv vi vii xiii xviii CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION THE STUDY DESIGN DATA COLLECTION Other Data Collected DATA ANALYSIS ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS CHAPTER II: ARMENIAN HISTORICAL BACKGROUND INTRODUCTION ANCIENT HISTORY: THE PRE-OTTOMAN PERIOD The Moulding of a Distinct Armenian National Identity 23 Religious Nationhood and Linguistic Identity 24 Armenian Movements During the Byzantine Period 26 MODERN HISTORY: THE OTTOMAN PERIOD 27 Historical Development of the Eastern Armenians 28 Historical Development of the Western Armenians 30 The Condition of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire 33 The Armenian "Awakening" 38 The "Armenian Question" and the Armenian Revolutionary Movement 40 Armenian Movements During the Ottoman Period

9 viii RECENT HISTORY: THE POST-OTTOMAN PERIOD 45 The Pre-World War I Period ( ) 45 Deportation and Massacre of the Turkish Armenians 47 The Turkish Armenian Population 50 Armenian Dispersions and Settlement 51 The Armenian Middle Eastern Diaspora and the Rise of Arab Nationalism: An Overview 54 ARMENIAN POPULATION ESTIMATES 57 CHAPTER I II: ARMENIAN MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA 61 INTRODUCTION 61 ORIGINS OF THE ARMENIAN IMMIGRANTS 62 ESTIMATE OF AUSTRALIA'S ARMENIAN POPULATION IN THE FIRST MIGRATION PHASE: MIGRATION PRIOR TO WORLD WAR II 67 "The Pioneers": Migration Prior to World War I 67 The Inter-war Period 69 THE SECOND MIGRATION PHASE: POST-WORLD WAR II MIGRATION 72 General THE EARLY POST-WAR PERIOD: Migration from Southeast Asia: General 74 Migration from Indonesia 74 Migration from Other Southeast Asia Countries Migration from China Migration from the Middle East Migration from Europe POPULATION ESTIMATE OF ARMENIANS IN AUSTRALIA IN THE LATER PERIOD: General 84 Migration from India 84 Migration from the Middle East: The Socio Cultural Context 86 Migration from Egypt 88 Migration from the Levant Countries: General 96

10 ix Migration from Syria Migration from Lebanon Migration from Jordan and Israel Migration from Iraq Migration from Other Arab Countries Migration from the Non-Arab Middle East: General Migration from Iran Migration from Turkey Migration from Soviet Armenia Migration from Other Regions Migration from Europe and North America Migration from Other Countries OVERVIEW OF ARMENIAN MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA Introduction Motivation for Migration to Australia Characteristics of the Migration and the Migrants Migration Finance Structure of the Migrating Unit Permanent Settlement in Australia Education and Occupations of the Migrants Religion Languages THE NATURE OF ARMENIAN MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA: VOLUNTARY MIGRATION OR A REFUGEE MOVEMENT? FUTURE ARMENIAN MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA CHAPTER IV: SETTLEMENT AND RESIDENTIAL ADJUSTMENT IN SYDNEY INTRODUCTION SETTLEMENT IN SYDNEY: GENERAL 148 SETTLEMENT IN SYDNEY PRIOR TO SETTLEMENT IN SYDNEY: ARMENIAN RESIDENTIAL CONCENTRATION AND SEGREGATION 161 RESETTLEMENT IN SYDNEY 170 Why Armenians Have Changed Residences 171

11 The Selection of New Residences FUTURE SETTLEMENT TRENDS AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS CHAPTER V: CHAPTER VI: OCCUPATIONAL ADJUSTMENT INTRODUCTION.AND DEFINITIONS PRE-MIGRATION OCCUPATIONAL SITUATION POST-MIGRATION OCCUPATIONAL SITUATION. Search for and Acquisition of Employment in Australia Factors Affecting Occupations Entered in Australia OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY AND EMPLOYMENT STABILITY IN AUSTRALIA OCCUPATIONAL STATUS CHANGE AND JOB SA!ISFACTION WIVES' WORKFORCE PARTICIPATION OCCUPATIONAL ADJUSTMENT: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Armenian Economic Assimilation in Sydney MAINTENANCt: OF ARMENIAN IDENTITY AND Ji;THNICITY IN AUSTRALIA INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS THE BASIS FOR A UNIQUE ARMENIAN IDENTITY AND ITS PRESERVATION FACTORS RELATING TO DIFFERENCES IN THE ETHNICITY OF SYDNEY ARMENIANS MAINTENANCE OF ARMENIAN IDENTITY AND ETHNICITY IN AUSTRALIA: GENERAL LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE AND LANGUAGE SHIFT AMONG THE SYDNEY ARMENIANS: GENERAL Patterns of Language Use Armenian Language Maintenance and Shift in Australia Armenian Language Maintenance Outside the Family INTERMARRIAGE: GENERAL Background and Trends of Armenian Intermarriage Characteristic of Those Who Intermarried Patterns of Endogamous Marriages Attitudes Towards Intermarriage

12 xi THE MAINTENANCE OF ARMENIAN HISTORICAL AND ETHNIC CONSCIOUSNESS IN SYDNEY: THE POLITICAL CONTROVERSY AND THE STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL RELATIONS 292 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS 303. CHAPTER VII : SOCIAL PARTICIPATION AND SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 306 INTRODUCTION 306 BACKGROUND FACTORS AFFECTING ARMENIAN SOCIAL PARTICIPATION IN AUSTRALIA 308 FRIENDSHIP PATTERNS IN AUSTRALIA 310 Selection of Intimate Friends in Sydney 310 The Nature of Intimate Friendships 312 Factors Affecting the Formation of Friendships with Australians 317 COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION: GENERAL 321 Community Participation of the Sydney Armenians 325 Armenian Membership in Formal Organizations in Sydney 330 Range and Frequency of Armenian Community Participation 336 The Non-Participators 342 CONCLUSIONS 344 CHAPTER VIII: PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT: SATISFACTION, IDENTIFICATION AND ACCULTURATION 346 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS SATISFACTION: GENERAL SATISFACTION OF THE SYDNEY ARMENIANS WITH LIFE IN AUSTRALIA 350 IDENTIFICATION WITH AUSTRALIA 361 ACCULTURATION 373 The Armenian Family in Sydney 375 Measurement of Armenian Acculturation to Australia 384 PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT: CONCLUSIONS 388 CHAPTER IX: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Factors Affecting Armenian Migration, Settlement and Adjustment in Australia

13 xii Theoretical and Met;hodological Implications of the Study 395 What the Future Holds 397 APPENDICES APPENDIX I: DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS AND RELATED MATERIALS A.l. Letter of Introduction from Demography Department Head to Leaders of Armenian Organizations in Sydney 401 A.2. Letter of Introduction from Academic Registrar, Australian National University, to Members of Sydney Armenian Community 402 B.l. Cover Letter in English for Postal Questionnaires 403 B.2. Cover Letter in Armenian for Postal Questionnaires 404 B.3. Armenian Survey Postal Questionnaire 405 B.4, Follow-up Letter in Both English and Armenian to Postal Questionnaire. 412 C.l. Armenian Survey Interview Schedule 413 D.l. Armenian Associations/Organizations Questionnaire 454 E.l. Random Check on Non-Respondents APPENDIX II: AUSTRALIAN IMMIGRATION: GENERAL 458 APPENDIX III: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ARMENIAN DASHNAK PARTY AND ITS SATELLITE ORGANIZATIONS 462 APPENDIX IV: SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES 465 APPENDIX V: APPENDIX VI: APPENDIX VII: OTHER KINDS OF SOCIAL PARTICIPATION: NEIGHBOURHOOD PARTICIPATION, CHURCH ATTENDANCE AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION THE ACCULTURATION CONCEPT IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT STUDIES SELECTED ASPECTS OF THE OBJECTIVE OR EXTERNAL ACCULTURATION OF THE SYDNEY ARMENIANS APPENDIX VIII: INDICES OF SATISFACTION, IDENTIFICATION AND ACCULTURATION FOR THE SYDNEY ARMENIANS APPENDIX IX: A. B. c. INDEX OF SATISFACTION WITH LIFE IN AUSTRALIA INDEX OF IDENTIFICATION WITH AUSTRALIA INDEX OF ACCULTURATION THE TRADITIONAL ARMENIAN FAMILY BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CITED AND SELECTED REFERENCES 518

14 xiii LIST OFTABLES No. Title a 3.5b Completeness of Sections on Postal Questionnaire Main Reasons Given for Refusing to Answer Postal Questionnaire Chi Square Tests of Significance on the Distribution of the Interviewed Sample Compared in Selected Characteristics with the Distribution of the Overall Respondent Population Armenian Populatton Estimates Origins of the Australian Armenians Causes of Armenian Emigration Knowledge of Australia Before Deciding to Migrate Motivation for Migration: Chain Migration and Family Reunion Chain Migration and Family Reunion Characteristics of the Migrants: Place of Birth Information Flows Prior Mobility by Characteristics of Armenian Migration to Australia Characteristics of the Migrants: Age Structure, Conjugal Status and Life-Cycle Stage on Arrival by Last Country of Residence Characteristics of the Migrants: Socio-Economic Status at Arrival by Country of Last Residence Arrival in Australia Index of Metropolitan Segregation Scores for Period of Residence Groups Settlement Concentration by Country of Last Residence Principal L.G.A. and Suburb of Settlement by Country Groups 4.5 Armenian Residential Mobility by Life-Cycle Stage on Arrival Principal Reasons for Residential Changes in Sydney Relationship of Occupational Mobility to Residential Mdbility Residential Mobility by Length of Residence in Sydney I

15 xiv No Title Mobility in Sydney: Residential Moves Within Different Sized Areas of Sydney Influence of Initial Residence on Range of Future Movements Proportions of Country Groups Which Presently Reside in Major Area of First Residence Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia: Financial Resources Available on Arrival Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia: Region/Country of Origin Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia: Period of Arrival in Australia Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia: Assistance Received in Finding Work Assistance in Finding First Job by Period of Arrival Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching fcir First Job in Australia: Prior Occupational Experience Influence of Pre-Migration Job Experience on Occupation Entered in Australia Factors Affecting Jobs Entered in Australia Factors Affecting Jobs Entered in Australia: of Last Residence Country Occupational Distribution of.the Sydney Armenians: Pre- Migration, First and Most Recent Jobs 214 Factors Related to Duration of First Job in Australia 217 Factors Related to Number of Jobs Held in Australia 219 Occupational Change by Country of Last Residence 220 Occupational Status Change of Armenian Immigrants Occupational Status Change 226 Relationship of Country of Last Residence to Occupational Status Change 228 Occupational Status Change by Duration of Residence in Australia 229 Immigrants' Views of Their Occupational Status Change by Their Duration of Residence in Australia 231 Labour Force Participation of Armenian Wives by Duration of Residence in Australia 233 Armenian Wives Workforce Participation 235 Principal Reasons Wives Have Worked in Australia

16 XV No. Title a 6.7b Husbands' Attitudes Towards Their Wives Working Occupational Distribution of Selected Ethnic Groups (Males) in Sydney, 1976 Occupational Dissimilarity of Selected Ethnic Groups (Males) in Sydney, 1976 Characteristics Associated with Level of Armenian Ethnicity Intermarriage Among Respondents' Parents Intermarriage Trends of Sydney Armenians Intermarriage Trends by Year of Arrival in Australia Intermarriage in Australia with British-Australians or Members of Other Ethnic Groups Intermarriage Rates of Country Groups Tendency to Marry In or Out of Own Birthplace Groups (Males) Tendency to Marry In or Out of Own Birthplace Groups (Females) Attitudes Towards Children Marrying Non-Armenians Reasons Given for Wanting Children to Marry Within the Group- Influence of Country Background on Friendship Patterns in Australia 7.2 Influence of Ethnic Origin on Friendship Patterns in Australia 7.3 Stability of Armenian Friendship Patterns in Australia 7.4 Place Respondent First Encountered Intimate Friends 7.5 Frequency of Contact with Intimate Friends 7.6 Place Respondents and Intimate Friends Usually Meet 7.7 Attitudes Towards Friendships with Australians and Desire for More Personal Contact with Australians 7.8 Organizational Membership and Participation 7.9 Categories of Organizational Membership and Participation 7.10 Organizational Membership by Country of Last Residence 7.11 Organizational Membership by Duration of Residence 7.12 Influence of English Proficiency at Time of Arrival on Membership in Australian Organizations Today 7.13 Participation in Organizations by Region/Country of Last Residence

17 xvi No. Title Page Participation Score by Duration of Residence in Australia Influence of English Proficiency at Time of Arrival on Participation in Australian Organizations Today Relation of Participation in Armenian and Australian Organizations Influence of Regional Background on Patterns of Association in Australian Organizations Satisfaction Level by Migration, Settlement and Life Situation Variables Satisfaction Level by Personal Characteristics Satisfaction Level by Country of Last Residence Relationship of Satisfaction with Life in Australia and Identification with Australia Relation of Personal Characteristics to Level of Identification Other Factors Assumed to Influence Identification Level of Identification by Country of Last Residence Comparison of the Armenian's Self-Identification and His Level of Identification with Australia Reasons for Becoming Naturalized Australians When Respondents Felt Their Children Should be Allowed to Make Their Own Decisions Without First Consulting Them Decision-Making in the Armenian Family Type of Authority Structure in the Armenian Family Relationship of Selected Variables to Level of Acculturation Relationship of Country of Origin to Level of Acculturation 387

18 xvii APPENDIX TABLES No. Title Page V.l VI.l VII.l VII.2 VII. 3 VII.4 VII.5 VII.6 VIII.l VIII.2 VIII. 3 VIII.4 Country of Last Residence by Employment Status Before Migration 466 Means By Which Respondent Found First Job in Australia 467 Reasons for Changing Jobs in Australia 468 Occupational Status Change After Arrival 469 Influence of Duration of Residence in Australia on Political Party Affiliation 476 Attempts to Separate Psychological and Non-Psychological Aspects of the Acculturation Process 480 Factors Related to Level of English Proficiency at Time of Arrival and at Survey Changes in English Proficiency Between Arrival and Time of Armenian Survey 488 Factors Affecting the Degree of Improvement in English Language Proficiency 489 Reasons Given for Adopting English First Names in Australia 493 Reasons for Giving Australian-Born Children English Names 495 Perception of Changes in Leisure-Time Activities in Australia 502 Satisfaction Scores of Sydney Armenians 507 Index of Identification Indicators Identification with Australia Index 511 Distribution of Index of Acculturation Scores 513

19 xviii LIST OF FIGURES, MAPS AND DIAGRAMS LIST OF FIGURES No Title Post-War Armenian Immigration (Continuous Distribution Graph) Arrival of Egyptian Armenians Mode of Migration Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia No. MAPS Armenian Settlement Pattern in Sydney in 1962 Initial Residential Locations of Arrivals Residential Distribution of Armenian Respondents in No. DIAGRAMS 4.1 Sequence of Typical Residential Change of Sydney Armenians 6.1 Political and Social Structure of the Sydney Armenian Community III.! Structure of Armenian Dashnak Party