FHSMUN 35 GENERAL ASSEMBLY FIRST COMMITTEE COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF PEACEKEEPING IN ALL ITS ASPECTS. Authors: Brian D. Sutliff and Casey Morell

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1 FHSMUN 35 GENERAL ASSEMBLY FIRST COMMITTEE COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF PEACEKEEPING IN ALL ITS ASPECTS Authors: Brian D. Sutliff and Casey Morell "The broad and complex mandates of today's multidimensional peace operations reflect the varied civilian, military and police capabilities required to provide support to political transitions and assisting in the development of political structures, helping to restore State authority and promote public security, strengthening rule of law institutions and supporting judicial and legal system reform, ensuring humanitarian assistance, protecting civilians, supporting disarmament, demobilization and reintegration and security sector reform and the holding of elections, and putting in place the beginnings of economic recovery." 1 Abstract The United Nations (UN) was created to prevent war as well as to assist in rebuilding societies torn apart by violent conflict. This most high-profile of roles for the UN is complicated by the fact that the UN commands no military forces of its own but must rather depend on its member states to supply them for peacekeeping missions. The demands for peacekeeping missions and troops have increased greatly over the 65+-year life span of the UN; in 2013, for example, over 100,000 soldiers and related personnel were deployed all over the world in 15 separate UN peacekeeping missions and in one "special political mission" (the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan, or UNAMA), which falls under the Department of Peacekeeping Operations' auspices. While there have been important successes, as well as several high-profile controversies, casualties on peacekeeping missions have risen and the UN System must do all it can to reduce casualties. As the international community confronts both old and new peacekeeping challenges, the UN and its partners, including national governments and regional organizations, must correct previous mistakes, build upon past successes, and embrace new roles. As the UN System and its international partners seek to improve the logistical and operational aspects of peacekeeping operations, they must ensure that special attention is focused on several key areas. The cumbersome and time-consuming process of authorizing missions, establishing appropriate mandates, appealing for personnel and 1 Ban Ki-moon, "Implementation of the recommendations of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: Report of the Secretary-General" A/62/627 December 28, 2007 p. 19.

2 equipment, and actually deploying personnel and equipment in the field, has consistently hampered UN peacekeeping operations. Once peacekeeping personnel are deployed, the UN must ensure that the mandates are appropriate for the missions and this particular question is increasingly important as several UN peacekeeping missions have had their mandates expanded to include more robust peace enforcement dimensions. The UN System must also devise a more effective system for working together with regional organizations engaged in peacekeeping as this hybridization of missions is likely to become increasingly common and important. More fully engendering peacekeeping missions will be critical as well; to do this properly, however, the UN must prevent and appropriately punish misconduct by peacekeeping personnel, especially acts of sexual exploitation and misconduct. Peacekeeping, then and now UN peacekeeping missions were originally envisioned as being temporary, interpositional missions with mostly unarmed observers patrolling safe areas between parties that had recently stopped fighting and begun negotiating. During the Cold War from , relatively few UN peacekeeping operations were authorized but after the dissolution of the former Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the Security Council authorized a comparatively greater number of missions, often with larger personnel complements. Originally, "the UN's founding fathers envisioned some kind of international army, but all proposals for a standing UN force have foundered partly because of political objections to giving the UN too much power, partly because of the political difficulties of recruiting, training and paying for such a force." 2 Realizing that a permanent UN military force was not likely to gain the necessary support of the Permanent Members of the Security Council, the UN eventually devised the current system of authorizing peacekeeping missions and then requesting that countries volunteer their forces. The Economist argues that "this system has created a two-tier structure: powerful countries decide the missions (and pay for them) while poor countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Jordan supply the soldiers." 3 By March 2007, the contributions from the first four countries on the list accounted for approximately 40% of all UN peacekeeping personnel on the ground; 4 by December of 2013, countries like Ethiopia, Ghana and Rwanda a country with heavy modern-day associations with UN peacekeeping itself were amongst the top ten contributors of peacekeepers, along with the aforementioned India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. In contrast, the United States and the United Kingdom, both Permanent Members of the Security Council, combined to supply fewer than 500 total peacekeepers amongst the UN's nearly 100,000 person force. 5 2 The Economist, "Call the blue helmets" January 4, The Economist, "Call the blue helmets" January 4, Patrick Jackson, "The UN's South Asian workhorse" BBC News April 19, "Monthly summary of contributions," December 31, 2013,

3 In 2006, Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations Jean-Marie Guehenno "noted that it was time to acknowledge that peacekeeping was not an exceptional emergency measure, but a flagship of the United Nations Organization, and that it required a sustained and comprehensive approach." 6 Secretary-General Ban Kimoon recently echoed the calls of his predecessors as well as millions of people around the world for greater peacekeeping participation by the wealthier Western countries, including the United States and many of its European NATO allies. The Secretary- General welcomed the crucial 7,000 soldiers that European countries pledged to the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) following the 2006 war between Israel and Hezbollah. 7 The contributions of these European countries must also be counted alongside the critical NATO mission in Afghanistan; the General Assembly must consider, though, the fact that developing countries contribute the overwhelming majority of peacekeeping personnel and that distributing these responsibilities more equitably is critical for increasing political support for these missions. The operational effectiveness may also be impacted; better-financed militaries typically are able to provide better equipment for their soldiers, including more sophisticated communications technologies and vehicles. As UN peacekeeping has become institutionalized, the need for more effective systems of procurement and mobilization has become increasingly apparent. Peacekeeping missions were originally envisioned to last for relatively short periods of time but many peacekeeping missions have lasted for many more years than originally planned. The peacekeeping mission in Cyprus (UNFICYP) is entering its 50th year of operation and is unlikely to be ended soon. The duration of peacekeeping missions is not the only consideration for the UN System; mandates are becoming increasingly assertive as well. Former Secretary-General Kofi Annan noted that "the expansion of peacekeeping mandates has made it more important than ever to clearly define and articulate what peacekeeping can do, and, equally important, what it cannot do." 8 In 2006, the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations stressed "the need to ensure, in the formulation and implementation of mandates, adequate resources, congruity between mandates, resources and realizable objectives." Furthermore, "when changes are made to an existing mandate, commensurate changes should be made to the resources available to a peacekeeping mission to carry out its new mandate." 9 The peacekeeping mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) received a more robust mandate, under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, in response to increasing violence in the eastern provinces of that country, including the targeted killing of UN peacekeepers. 10 Providing 6 A/60/19, "Report of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations and its Working Group at the 2006 substantive session" New York March 22, 2006 p Ban Ki-moon, "Overview: Excerpts from the Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization" A/62/1 September 2007 Paragraph Kofi Annan, "'Peace operations 2010' reform strategy: excerpts from the report of the Secretary-General" A/60/696 February 24, 2006 Paragraph A/60/19, "Report of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations and its Working Group at the 2006 substantive session" New York March 22, 2006 p Patrick Jackson, "When the gloves of peace come off" BBC News April 18, On July 1, 2010, MONUC transitioned to the United Nations Stablization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO).

4 peacekeeping soldiers with more assertive mandates may improve their operational effectiveness but the local people may see these mandates as compromising the peacekeepers' impartiality. And in the most tragic irony of all, peacekeepers may accidentally end up harming and even killing the very civilians they were sent to protect. Peacekeeping missions are becoming more complex as the UN's member states demand more of the organization. "Since 1991, peacekeeping operations have had the task of assisting national authorities in establishing new policing institutions or in building the capacity and integrity of existing structures in 25 countries." 11 There are currently at least 11,000 UN peacekeeping personnel deployed in police capacities and the UN is frequently charged with training and reconstituting police forces as well as improving the training of corrections officers in various host countries. In addition to this increased emphasis on assisting in the reconstitution of police and correctional staff, civilian peacekeeping staff is increasingly involved in post-conflict planning and administration of conflict and post-conflict situations as in Namibia and Kosovo. The UN Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) mission in Namibia from April 1989 through March 1990 is frequently considered one of the most important successes in UN history and delegates may wish to examine this particular peacekeeping mission to determine if similar successes may be possible for current and future missions. 12 Improving protection of UN peacekeepers and related staff from harm is an essential component of any comprehensive review of peacekeeping operations. At least 67 peacekeepers and related staff members were killed in 2007 and casualties have escalated in recent years. Protecting peacekeepers and related staff is essential to the success of any UN peacekeeping mission; in 1994, after 10 Belgian peacekeepers were murdered at the beginning of the Rwandan genocide, the Belgian government removed all of its remaining peacekeeping forces, dramatically reducing the size and effectiveness of UNAMIR at the very time that these peacekeepers were most needed. The need for reform? The process for authorizing peacekeeping missions is straightforward: the Security Council authorizes a peacekeeping mission, typically for 6 months at a time, with a projected maximum number of soldiers and related personnel and a mandate for what the peacekeepers are supposed to achieve. The crucial difficulties come in financing and then actually deploying these peacekeeping missions; in fact, the first UN peacekeepers typically do not arrive for at least 6 months after the mission has been authorized. The General Assembly Fifth Committee decides the annual peacekeeping budgets as well as the individual budgets for each peacekeeping mission. The UN's peacekeeping budget for the fiscal year was set at roughly US$7.54 billion, which the UN is careful to note is less than one half of one percent of the world's total military expenditures. The United States contributes just over 28 percent of this budget, 11 Ban Ki-moon, "Securing peace and development: the role of the United Nations in supporting security sector reform: Report of the Secretary-General" A/62/659-S/2008/39 January 23, 2008 p Please see:

5 with Japan, France, Germany and the United Kingdom rounding out the top five donors. 13 UN regulations mandate the Permanent Members of the Security Council contribute larger shares toward the peacekeeping budget due to their "special responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security," but other member-states' contributions are set mathematically by the General Assembly, which accounts for various economic factors when determining the amount needed. 14 Even though the entire annual costs for all of the UN peacekeeping missions represent only a tiny fraction of global military spending, many member states delay sending their peacekeeping contributions for months, thereby hamstringing the UN at crucial junctures. In its 2006 report, the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations reiterated "that all Member States must pay their assessed contributions in full, on time and without conditions." The Special Committee also reaffirmed "the obligation of Member States, under Article 17 of the Charter, to bear the expenses of the Organization as apportioned by the General Assembly, bearing in mind the special responsibility of the permanent members of the Security Council, as indicated in General Assembly resolution 1874 (S-IV) of 27 June 1963." 15 During the 61 st session of the General Assembly, September 2006-August 2007, the delegates of the General Assembly approved the revised structure of assessments for peacekeeping operations by requiring Serbia and Montenegro to pay at the lowest level of current assessments. The General Assembly also approved the Secretary-General's recommendation that the GA update the contributions during the 64 th session, September 2009-August 2010, "in light of the decision of the Assembly to review the structure of levels." 16 Despite this, the UN estimates that, as of the end of 2013, roughly US$2.2 billion in peacekeeping dues was still owed. 17 Staffing peacekeeping missions can also be a logistical nightmare. While there are six official languages for the UN, English and French are the two working languages of the UN, especially in field offices and operations. The Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations recently urged the Secretary-General "to ensure a fair representation of troop-contributing countries when selecting personnel for such staff positions. At the same time, troop-contributing countries need to ensure that prospective staff have the required professional background and experience." 18 Troop-contributing countries need to further ensure that the proposed staff members for any peacekeeping mission have not committed serious crimes or human rights violations. While the UN System is striving to improve its operational capacities to evaluate its employees and related staff, it still primarily depends on its member states to recommend appropriate staff. 13 "Financing peacekeeping," 14 "Role of the General Assembly," 15 A/60/19, "Report of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations and its Working Group at the 2006 substantive session" New York March 22, 2006 p A/RES/61/243 "Scale of Assessments for the apportionment of the expenses of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations" March 7, "Financing peacekeeping." 18 Ban Ki-moon, "Implementation of the recommendations of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: Report of the Secretary-General" A/62/627 December 28, 2007 p. 30.

6 In 2009, the UN formed the New Horizon Initiative with the hope of developing the future of peacekeeping and peacekeeping operations. Noting the aforementioned issues concerning the over-reliance on the developing world to provide staff and materiel for these missions, the New Horizon Initiative sought to improve dialogue between the UN member-states and the Secretariat in the hopes of streamlining the process by which missions are developed and who ends up contributing what. New Horizon suggested reforms in peacekeepers' strategies in protecting civilian populations, saying that peacekeeping forces too often lacked a universal system to ensure civilian safety when operating. The initiative also suggested redefining the differences between peacekeeping, which is to maintain a sort of status quo in an area, and peacebuilding, which involves assisting in developing an area's institutional capacity to thrive, as well as questioning whether or not the UN should move more toward the latter than maintaining the former. Further aims included more streamlined chains of command for field operations, greater planning and oversight between the UN, the area where the peacekeeping operations are taking place, and increased transparency and accountability to ensure mistakes not only decrease, but are learned from. 19 More on this topic may be found in the Secretary- General's report on a global field support strategy (A/64/633). The Responsibility to Protect In December 2001, the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) released its long-awaited report, The Responsibility to Protect. Scholars and world leaders solemnly asserted that there were both theoretical and practical limits to state sovereignty and that crimes against humanity, including genocide, could never be justified by reasons of state. The Commission articulated its essential position in the core principles at the beginning of their report; indeed, the very first principle neatly summarizes the collective wisdom distilled in the Commission s report: state sovereignty implies responsibility, and the primary responsibility for protection of its people lies with the state itself. Where a population is suffering serious harm, as a result of internal war, insurgency, repression or state failure, and the state in question is unwilling or unable to halt or avert it, the principle of non-intervention yields to the international responsibility to protect. 20 Gareth Evans, one of the co-chairs of the ICISS, has sought to clear up what he considers to be significant misconceptions about the Responsibility to Protect (R2P), noting specifically that the real innovation of R2P is its emphasis on prevention of conflict and that R2P is not just another name for humanitarian intervention. 21 The Commission s Report critically distilled the concept that state sovereignty is in fact earned as a result of the state meeting its responsibilities to 19 "The New Horizon Initiative: Progress Report No. 2," December 2011, 20 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS), The Responsibility to Protect December 2001 p. 13. The report may be found in its entirety at: 21 Gareth Evans, The Responsibility to Protect: An Idea Whose Time Has Come and Gone? International Relations No p. 290.

7 protect and meet the needs of its own population. 22 If humanity could ascend to Heaven based strictly upon the angelic nature of rhetoric, the Commission s report would be a true godsend. The stark truth is, however, that actions do speak far louder than words; in the midst of the worst atrocities in recent memory, the P-5 countries have been far too silent. Furthermore, the clear, and potentially ossifying, dividing line between France, the UK, and the US on one side and Russia and China on the other makes concerted action by the Security Council difficult. With recent and ongoing humanitarian and security crises in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Libya, Mali, and Syria, the justifications for and the substance of R2P are confronting serious challenges. Jennifer Welsh notes that although the humanitarian rationale for the use of force has developed rapidly and gained legitimacy, the consensus around this legitimacy particularly through the rationale s modern incretion, the principle of the responsibility to protect (R2P) has remained both fragile and narrow. 23 Welsh furthermore emphasizes that the ICISS drew important distinctions between the broad principle of R2P and the narrower and contested practice of humanitarian intervention, 24 with R2P encompassing a much broader range of responsibilities and options than humanitarian intervention. While the generalized principles of R2P have gained at least limited acceptance, one of the most vexing questions is when exactly does the international community assume the responsibility to protect civilian populations in states and/or regions that are manifestly unable and/or unwilling to do so. Responsibility While Protecting The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) has frequently been criticized by many developing countries as well as the BRICs (Brazil, Russia, India, & China) as legitimating military interventions by Western, particularly NATO, countries such as France, the UK, and the US. Considerable anger and mistrust arose after what many countries saw as NATO s exceeding of the mandate of Security Council resolution 1973 in the spring of The emphasis of resolution 1973 (S/RES/1973) for many countries was the need to protect Libyan civilians in the wake of the Libyan government s targeting of civilians in the city of Benghazi. Rather quickly, though, these countries, including all 4 of the BRICs, who were then represented on the Security Council, concluded that NATO countries, including France, the UK, and the US were more focused on regime change and the removal of Qaddafi than on protection of Libyan civilians. Brazil, which has emerged as an actor seeking to institute social change, referred to in political science literature as a norm entrepreneur, in regards to Responsibility While Protecting (RWP) has led the calls for requiring more explicit Security Council authorization regarding the use of military force in situations of humanitarian crisis, particularly to avoid the likelihood of future instances of regime change. 22 Frank Chalk, Roméo Dallaire, Kyle Matthews, Carla Barquiero, & Simon Doyle, Mobilizing the Will to Intervene: Leadership to Prevent Mass Atrocities McGill-Queen s University Press Montreal 2010 p Jennifer Welsh, The Responsibility to Protect: Dilemmas of a New Norm Current History Vol. 111, No. 748 November 2012 p Jennifer Welsh, The Responsibility to Protect Current History November 2012 p. 7.

8 Developing a rapid response capacity One of the most disturbing criticisms of UN peacekeeping missions is that in grave humanitarian crises, peacekeepers only arrive in the crisis zones after many civilians have been killed. In the worst instance, the Rwandan genocide of 1994, the UN had approximately 2,500 peacekeepers in Rwanda when the genocide began but the size of UNAMIR was pared down to less than 300 within 6 weeks of the genocide beginning. Further compounding the disaster was the fact that most analyses of the genocide in Rwanda point out that some 300,000 people were killed in the first weeks. Providing the UN with a rapid response capability, particularly including vehicles and communications technologies, as well as a more robust mandate allowing the peacekeepers to protect Rwandan civilians may have saved several hundred thousand of the more than 800,000 victims of the Rwandan genocide. Ensuring that the UN has the equipment it needs is vital in these situations. General Romeo Dallaire, the Canadian force commander of UNAMIR, noted that rapid response capabilities as well as logistical capacities are necessary for effective crises responses. When discussing the troop-contributing countries for UNAMIR 2, Dallaire argues that their lack of logistical capacity weakened the operational effectiveness and credibility of UNAMIR. "None of the nations that eventually stepped forward had the capacity for the massive reinforcement that might have brought the UN credibility in the eyes of the belligerents." 25 As the UN System explores different options for improving its rapid response capabilities, it must seek to maintain and stockpile appropriate equipment as well as to improve cooperation with troop-contributing countries that are willing to send peacekeepers in with relatively little advance notice. In recent years, the UN, working in close consultation with member states, established the United Nations Standby Arrangements System to improve the UN's rapid response capability. Cooperating member states agree to train and maintain specific military, police, and support units and related equipment, and to lend them to the UN for crisis response missions. These peacekeeping units and their equipment are available to the UN within either 30 or 90 days of the approval of a peacekeeping mission by the Security Council. As of April 2005, 83 UN member states had joined the United Nations Standby Arrangements System (UNSAS). 26 Effective preplanning is absolutely essential for the UN's rapid response capabilities to provide the desired results. Recruitment and retention of personnel The UN has become increasingly concerned with the need to recruit and retain expert personnel to work in the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO). Over the past 60 years, crucial lessons have been learned and it is essential that this knowledge and expertise be institutionalized and effectively implemented. The Department of 25 Romeo Dallaire, Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda Random House Canada Toronto 2003 p Please see:

9 Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) has established a Peacekeeping Best Practices Section to retain and implement the accrued knowledge. This Best Practices Section is funded almost exclusively through voluntary contributions from donor states; encouraging Member States to begin, continue, and/or increase contributing to the Peacekeeping Best Practices Section will be another priority for this Special Session of the General Assembly. An earlier proposal for 2,500 career civilian peacekeepers was not recommended by the Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions because "the streamlining of contractual arrangements would eliminate the missionspecific appointment and allow international staff to become part of the global workforce, with the same mobility requirements and career development prospects as the rest of the Secretariat." 27 Even without these proposed career civilian peacekeepers, it is evident that institutionalizing essential knowledge and best practices gleaned from years of experience is absolutely vital for future peacekeeping successes. Forging partnerships with regional organizations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon noted that "a central dilemma facing the Integrated Training Service is the problem of scale: it cannot provide training for the more than 100,000 personnel in the field. Thus, the Service collaborates closely with Member States and other partners who also engage in United Nations peacekeeping training." 28 The Secretary-General continued by stating that "enhancing strategic partnerships with multilateral and regional organizations has become a high priority for the burden-sharing of peacekeeping." 29 Hybridization of peacekeeping missions in the Darfur region of Western Sudan through the United Nations-African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) and with the European Union (EU) in the new United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad (MINURCAT) call for "intensive collaboration" and will prove "especially challenging", according to Under-Secretary- General for Peacekeeping Operations Jean-Marie Guehenno. 30 The necessity of creating hybrid peacekeeping missions has become clearer the longer that the humanitarian crisis in the Darfur region of Sudan has lasted. The African Union (AU) authorized a peacekeeping mission of almost entirely unarmed observers several years ago and since then has had to rely almost exclusively on Nigeria and Rwanda to supply the 7,000 AU peacekeepers deployed in a region roughly the size of France. On July 31, 2007, the UN Security Council authorized the creation of a hybrid force of up to 26,000 AU and UN peacekeepers but as of January 2008, only 9,000 peacekeepers were deployed in Darfur. 31 The hybrid mission (UNAMID) was authorized, at least in part, because of continuing attacks on the AU peacekeepers by the Sudanese 27 Ban Ki-moon, Implementation of the recommendations of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: Report of the Secretary-General" A/62/627 December 28, 2007 p Ban Ki-moon "Implementation of the recommendations of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: Report of the Secretary-General" A/62/627 December 28, 2007 p Ban Ki-moon A/62/1/ September 2007 Paragraph Department of Public Information (DPI), "Momentous Year for United Nations Peacekeeping as it Mounts Two Unique Operations in Africa, Sustains 18 More, Restructures Department, Fourth Committee Told" GA/SPD/382 New York October 31, 2007 p BBC News, "Peacekeepers attacked in Darfur" January 8, 2008.

10 government, its proxy, the Janjaweed militia, and several of the estimated 13 different rebel groups operating in Darfur. At the end of September 2007, 10 Nigerian peacekeeping soldiers were killed in another large-scale attack and at least another 40 wounded. 32 As a part of this hybrid mission, China, Sudan's most important customer and ally on the Security Council, has sent 135 peacekeepers to assist this mission, although not in any frontline capacities. 33 Given the refugee exoduses into Chad and the Central African Republic (CAR), along with continuing cross-border raids and violence, and the logistical and financial hurdles that the African Union (AU) is facing in Darfur as well as in its prospective peacekeeping mission in Somalia, the UN Security Council has had to seek out other partners for the new peacekeeping mission in Chad and the CAR. This new mission, the UN Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad (MINURCAT), will be comprised primarily of European Union troops, especially French Special Forces and support troops operating from French bases in Chad. Given France's alliance with President Idriss Deby of Chad and its continuing involvement in both the CAR and Chad, "the humanitarian intent and neutrality of the EU force is being queried." 34 Obtaining the financial, logistical, and operational advantages of 3,700 well-equipped EU peacekeepers is vital for the UN but the long-term costs of possibly compromising the impartiality of peacekeeping missions may be incalculable. Engendering peacekeeping As the UN has made gender equality a centerpiece of reform efforts systemwide, it is not surprising that these efforts must include peacekeeping. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon recently asserted that "women peacekeepers also serve as role models and catalysts to increase the participation of local women in post-conflict processes. Moreover, the increased participation of senior women peacekeepers strengthens the credibility of the United Nations to more effectively advocate for democratic and inclusive governance in post-conflict countries, by serving as a standard-setter, including through the composition of its own personnel." 35 As concrete evidence of the implementation of these reforms, the Secretary-General noted that the percentage of women serving in senior civilian positions in peacekeeping operations increased by more than 40% in 2007 and that women were appointed to either lead or serve as deputy heads of mission for peacekeeping missions in Burundi, Liberia, and Sudan. 36 Women peacekeepers are essential to reassuring local civilian populations, especially women and children, that the UN is serious about preventing some of the sexual misconduct recently perpetrated by UN peacekeeping soldiers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The Security Council has taken steps to try and make the peacekeeping process more welcome to women. Resolutions 1820 (2008), 1888, 1889 (both 2009), and The Economist, "The worsening violence in Darfur" October 10, Michael Bristow, "China's dilemma over Darfur" BBC News February 13, The Economist, "A peacekeeping puzzle for Europe" December 13, Ban Ki-moon, "Implementation of the recommendations of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: Report of the Secretary-General" A/62/627 December 28, 2007 p Ban Ki-moon, A/62/627 December 28, 2007 p. 10.

11 (2010) specifically address the issues of integrating women into the discussion of peace and security. S/RES/1889, for example, pushes the UN to include more women in leadership positions in peacekeeping operations as well as amongst support staff on the ground, while S/RES/1820 and S/RES/1888 mandate peacekeepers protect civilians from sexual violence and assault, and request a special representative be appointed to focus solely on what peacekeeping forces can do to help assist victims of sexual violence, which in times of conflict, is a war crime. They also strongly encourage the Secretary General and those running peacekeeping operations to include statistical data concerning rape and sexual assault against the civilians being ostensibly protected and against UN staff themselves, who have also been targeted. 37 Preventing and punishing misconduct by UN peacekeepers The UN's reputation is always damaged when personnel either directly employed by the organization or associated with it are accused of corruption, human rights violations, or sexual exploitation and abuse. In late November 2006, Assistant Secretary- General for Peacekeeping Operations Jane Holl Lute acknowledged to the BBC that "exploitation of vulnerable populations" had been a problem "since the inception of peacekeeping." 38 In 2004, 105 allegations of sexual exploitation, abuse, assault, or rape were leveled against UN peacekeepers and at least 53 peacekeepers were sent home after specific allegations were substantiated. 39 While these types of abuses and misconduct may occur on most or all UN peacekeeping missions, the larger peacekeeping missions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Haiti, and Liberia, where peacekeepers interacted with local populations on a daily basis, generated a comparatively large number of the most serious complaints, including rape of an 11-year old girl in Haiti and routine demands for sexual favors from women and girls in return for protection and/or food. As part of the systemwide reform efforts to reduce and/or eliminate corruption and criminal behavior, the UN has strengthened its internal systems for reviewing allegations, established stronger rules against fraternization by peacekeepers with local populations, and established systems to provide counseling and assistance to the victims of sexual exploitation and abuse by UN peacekeepers and related personnel. 40 In December 2006, many UN entities endorsed the Statement of Commitment on Eliminating Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by United Nations and non-united Nations Personnel, which designates 10 priority actions for the UN System, including using background checks whenever possible and preventing the rehiring and/or redeployment of peacekeepers who have committed acts of sexual exploitation or abuse "Women, peace and security," 38 BBC News, "Press Release: Evidence of sexual abuse by peacekeepers uncovered" November 30, Found at: 39 BBC News, "UN sexual allegations double" May 6, Delegates may wish to review the following resolutions: A/RES/61/267 "Comprehensive Review of a Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in UN Peacekeeping Operations" June 15, 2007; & A/RES/62/214 "United Nations Comprehensive Strategy on Assistance to Victims of Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by United Nations Staff and Related Personnel" December 21, "Statement of Commitment on Eliminating Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by United Nations and non- United Nations Personnel" December 4, 2006.

12 Allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse have fallen since their high of 127 in 2007, with 61 reported in While the declination of these claims is laudable, any allegation of such abuse is a black mark against peacekeeping operations, wherever they may be. The UN notes that its current strategy in mitigating such allegations consists of widescale, mandatory training initiatives to teach peacekeepers and their support staff on cultural norms, issues of sexual assault and battery, and local and international law, as well as local campaigns to encourage civilians to report such crimes if they are committed, and requiring staff to stay in uniform when off-duty so civilians know who works with the UN and who does not. 43 UN peacekeepers have also taken the blame for other issues recently, most notably a cholera outbreak in Haiti in the aftermath of the 2010 earthquake. A classaction suit filed against the UN in a United States federal court alleges peacekeepers knowingly dumped wastewater from their base into a water supply, causing the outbreak. Signs pointing to the UN's responsibility include the lack of a reported case of cholera in Haiti's recorded history, and that bacteria samples taken from the contaminated water match bacteria found in Nepal, where the soldiers from the base in question were from. 44 Regardless of the UN's claim that it has legal immunity in the matter, 45 peacekeepers should take greater care in managing the environmental impact of their missions, not only to prevent the spread of infectious disease, but to help in fostering good will and cooperation between them and the populations they are trying to serve. Integrated planning and anticipating future needs As the demand for peacekeeping continues to escalate, and as the complexities of the missions and their accompanying mandates increase, it becomes ever more important for the UN to plan more effectively for each peacekeeping mission as well as to anticipate future needs. The UN System's emphasis on collaboration is exemplified by the contemporary approach to peacekeeping planning. The Security Council, General Assembly, Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations, Department of Peacekeeping Operations, UN Development Programme (UNDP), UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), national governments, and non-governmental organizations (NGO's) all collaborate in the planning of peacekeeping operations. The UN is now seeking to incorporate the perspectives of international financial institutions (IFI's), including the World Bank Group, in planning peacekeeping operations as well as postconflict transitions. Found at: 42 "Allegations for all categories of personnel per year," rallcategoriesofpersonnelperyearsexualexploitationandabuse.aspx. 43 "UN strategy," 44 "Haitians blame UN soldiers for cholera crisis in wake of earthquake disaster," PBS, January 13, 2014, 45 "UN sued over Haiti cholera epidemic," BBC, October 9, 2013,

13 Conclusion Improving the efficiency and effectiveness of peacekeeping missions is critical to the UN and the international community's obligations to prevent and resolve conflicts as well as to protect civilians from harm. Reforming the UN's processes and procedures for recruiting and retaining qualified personnel, financing and equipping peacekeeping missions, improving the UN's rapid response capabilities, forging lasting partnerships with regional organizations, engendering peacekeeping, and preventing and punishing misconduct by peacekeepers and related personnel are all necessary elements of peacekeeping reform. Improving the image of peacekeeping operations and the UN System in geenral is a further vital step in peacekeeping reform. "Effective public relations and communications is a vital part of supporting operations, protecting the investment of the international community in peacekeeping and ensuring the safety and security of United Nations personnel." 46 Guiding Questions: Does your country contribute to UN peacekeeping missions? If so, in what capacities? If not, why not? Does your government prefer the doctrine of Responsibility to Protect (R2P) or Responsibility While Protecting (RWP)? What actions have your government taken to implement either of these doctrines? Is your country a member of the UN Standby Arrangements System (UNSAS)? If not, why not? How can the UN System more effectively engender peacekeeping missions and postconflict transition planning? What further steps does the UN System need to take to ensure that peacekeepers maintain their impartiality and also do not commit acts of abuse against civilian populations, including sexual exploitation and abuse? UN System Reports: Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support, A New Partnership Agenda: Charting a New Horizon for Peacekeeping July Found at: Ban Ki-moon, Fourth annual progress report on the implementation of the global field support strategy A/68/637 December 4, Ban Ki-moon, A/62/627 December 28, 2007 p. 5.